Article

Art for the Masses? Justification for the Public Support of the Arts in Developing Countries – Two Arts Festivals in South Africa

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the author.

Abstract

In the New South Africa, as in other developing countries, the equitable distribution of public resources is a priority. The case for public support of the arts is thus difficult to make because it has been shown and borne out by South African research, that arts audiences tend to represent the better educated, more prosperous minority of society, not the majority of the very poor, mainly African-origin population. Using data from willingness to pay studies conducted at two South African arts festivals, this paper shows that, when the positive externalities provided by the arts are included in their valuation, it can be shown that both high and low income earners benefit. However, as suggested by Seaman (2003), it is also found that some of what the WTP figure is capturing is current and expected future economic benefit from the event. Copyright Springer Science + Business Media, Inc. 2005

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.

... It uses the contingent valuation method to produce a profile of attendees, showing how much, if anything, they are willing to pay per month over and above their current taxes, and their reasons for being willing or unwilling to pay extra. Apart from Snowball (2005), no studies to date have examined Willingness To Pay to support the arts in a developing country like South Africa. This study of the Aardklop festival shows how Willingness To Pay for the arts appears to have changed in South Africa over the past decade and it appears that arts patrons are less willing to pay than a decade ago. ...
... Many art patrons believe the government ought to provide financial support. However, while the South African government acknowledges the role of the arts in 'enhancing the country's identity and distinctiveness', encouraging 'nation building' and assisting in personal development by increasing self-confidence and promoting self-esteem (RSA, 1996), the primary focus of policy since 1994 has been on job creation and the financial benefits that the arts provide, rather than on their less tangible benefits (Snowball, 2005;Mzansi Golden Economy Strategy, 2011). As a result, the arts in South Africa are becoming increasingly dependent on private sponsors and loyalty clubs. ...
... We assume that art festival attendees might be willing to support the arts and our analysis produces a profile of attendees, showing how much, if anything, they are willing to pay per month over and above their current taxes and their reasons for being willing or unwilling to pay extra. With the exception of Snowball's (2005) study, no other studies to date have investigated Willingness To Pay to support the arts in a developing country like South Africa. Our study is thus opportunely timed to show whether this WTP has changed over the past decade, and if so how and why. ...
Article
Full-text available
This study determines festival attendees’ Willingness To Pay to support an increase, or prevent a decline, in arts performances and exhibitions. It uses the contingent valuation method to produce a profile of attendees, showing how much, if anything, they are willing to pay per month over and above their current taxes, and their reasons for being willing or unwilling to pay extra. Apart from Snowball (2005), no studies to date have examined Willingness To Pay to support the arts in a developing country like South Africa. This study of the Aardklop festival shows how Willingness To Pay for the arts appears to have changed in South Africa over the past decade and it appears that arts patrons are less willing to pay than a decade ago. It suggests strategies for sustaining the arts in South Africa and will help events managers to identify the attendees who are willing to pay more.
... Nevertheless, the number of applications of CVM in the cultural sector remains smaller than in environmental economics, with most studies confined to valuing tangible cultural goods such as historical sites or museums (Cuccia, 2011). Only a small number of studies have attempted to value the performing arts (Bille Hansen, 1997) or the arts more broadly (Throsby & Withers, 1986), although a number of papers have valued cultural festivals (Andersson, Armbrecht, & Lundberg, 2012;Snowball, 2005). ...
... The questionnaire followed the design used by Jen Snowball (2005Snowball ( , 2008 to value two South African music festivals. Snowball's questionnaire is made available as an exemplar of willingness-to-pay survey instruments in her 2008 text Measuring the Value of Culture. ...
Article
The long‐standing contingent valuation method (CVM) is one of the most controversial techniques in economics. But it still remains the main means of assisting policymakers in understanding the preferences of ordinary citizens in valuing a range of non‐market goods believed to have positive external benefits. In the absence of viable alternatives, it is necessary that this method continues to be refined. This is especially important as CVM is increasingly being applied outside the area of environmental economics and outside the Western socio‐political context where theoretical advances have previously been made. This article examines three sources of bias in CVM in the context of valuing cultural goods: information, mixed good, and payment vehicle bias. A small case study of a publicly funded orchestra in an Asian city, the Macau Orchestra, is used to provide a preliminary exploration of the issues discussed.
... Most of the empirical literature on heritage engagement focuses on access to material cultural heritage and on evidence that comes from other cultural contexts, mainly the USA and European countries, with fewer contributions that analyze evidence for other areas, such as Latin American and African countries (Buitrago Restrepo and Duque Márquez 2013;Rey 2009;Gayo 2017;Machado et al. 2017;Snowball 2005). Still, there are some common results for differences in participation rates for different socioeconomic groups. ...
... The intangible dimension of cultural heritage builds both the bonding dimension of social capital [such as participation in clubs or 'cofradías' and 'casetas' in Southern Spain analyzed in Palma et al. (2013) or such as religious celebrations in Northern Spain considered in Lafuente et al. (2016)] and the bridging dimension [as in Snowball (2005), who explores participation in South African festivals]. Bonding networks that connect people who are similar sustain particularized (in-group) reciprocity. ...
Article
Full-text available
In this paper, we consider two ways of getting engaged with cultural heritage: visiting historic sites and monuments, and participating in community celebrations. We consider a sample that covers 18 Latin American countries and use data from the Latinobarómetro 2013 survey. We estimate zero-inflated ordered probit models to relate the intensity of the engagement to each dimension of cultural heritage and variables that characterize personal cultural capital, socioeconomic status, civic participation and community of residence. Our analysis finds three key dimensions to identify participation patterns: formal educational attainment, level of economic deprivation and degree of civic engagement. Higher educational attainment and better economic status are associated with greater probability of participating in both forms of heritage activities, tangible and intangible, and with a more intense participation in the tangible dimension. Individuals are also more likely to participate when they are also community-involved.
... Most cultural economics research on the subject has focused on economic impact studies (Seaman 2003;Herrero et al. 2004;Devesa 2006;Perles-Ribes 2006;González-Neira and Ramírez-Picón 2008) and on economic evaluation studies of cultural festivals using contingent valuation (Snowball 2005;Herrero et al. 2011a, b) as well as choice experiments (Snowball and Willis 2006). Recently a new line of research has developed exploring festivals from the standpoint of demand (Devesa et al. 2009). ...
... To our knowledge, there are no previous studies exploring demand for popular festivals. Literature exploring popular fiestas has focused on their impact on the area: creation of employment, ability to attract tourists, and impact on the image of the cities and on economic evaluation studies of cultural festivals (Snowball 2005(Snowball , 2008Snowball and Willis 2006;Herrero et al. 2011a, b). However, there are no previous instances which analyse participation in goods of this nature which can provide us with a reference point. ...
Article
Full-text available
The Spring Fiestas in Seville (Spain) (SFS) are the most important cultural events in the city each year. The present paper pursues two aims. The first is to characterize the SFS as a new prototype of a complex cultural good that expresses the link between the people and the place in which they live based on material and immaterial cultural heritage represented through popular celebrations. The second goal is to conduct an empirical analysis of the determinants that shape attendance intensity by estimating a zero-truncated count data model using a unique dataset of attendees at the SFS in 2009. Findings indicate that attendance is strongly associated with variables reflecting knowledge, institutional links, past experiences, and the perceived external benefits generated by the existence of the SFS. The article contributes to the literature by exploring participation in popular celebrations, a field of inquiry that to date is extremely limited in cultural economics.
... In a "Willingness to Pay Study" by Snowball (2005), the author listed the reasons for residents in the Grahamstown and Oudsthoorn towns of South Africa not being willing to pay for aspects of the Grahamstown National Arts Festival and the Klein Karoo Nasionale ...
... This larger windfall is due to the fact that it is staged over a longer period of time (Visser, 2007). The KKNK takes place in Oudsthoorn in the Western Cape in early April and showcases the visual and performing arts (Snowball, 2005). It began in 1995 as an Afrikaans alternative to the Grahamstown Festival. ...
Article
Festivals are social gatherings for the purpose of thanksgiving and celebration. They are often ritualistic and convene in the same place each year. They are spaces of ephemeral and liminal 'time out of time', enjoyment and difference, infused with conviviality and cheerfulness (Ruting & Li, 2006; Sharpe, 2008:219). "Observance of and participation in festivals... is an increasingly significant aspect of the contemporary tourist experience" (Picard & Robinson, 2006:1), and has recently become an important and growing niche in the tourism industry (Ruting & Li, 2006:1). This has resulted in the coining of the term "festival tourism" (Picard & Robinson, 2006) which is often placed under the banner of "special interest tourism" (Van Zyl, 2005a; Kakaza, 2000:6). O'Sullivan and Jackson (2002:325, 326) describe festival tourism as a "catch-all term to include special events tourism and festivals of any size or organisational persuasion". This, notes Visser (2007), makes festival tourism a complex area of study.
... Aleksandra Wiesniewska and her co-author found in a recent study that the WTP for a 25% and a 50% increase in theatre offers in Poland were not significantly different (Wisniewska and Zawojsak, 2023). Jen Snowball (2005) reached a similar conclusion in a valuation study of art festivals in South Africa in 2005. In other words, the estimates do not meet the scope property and are difficult to interpret within rational marginal utility theory. ...
Article
Full-text available
Cultural economics has largely looked toward environmental economics and used non-market valuation techniques such as contingent valuation to estimate the total economic value of cultural goods. These methods are well suited to the valuation of cultural heritage goods, where the benefits are mostly related to the level of supply and mainly take the form of existence and bequest values. This stands in contrast to cultural institutions such as theatres, libraries, exhibitions, and concerts, where the value is produced, when the goods are consumed. For this type of cultural goods, I suggest that cultural economics rather turn to find inspiration in the economics of education. The value of schooling can be divided into private returns and social returns (human capital externalities). Likewise, the value of cultural consumption can have a private and a public component, where I suggest labeling the public component cultural capital externalities. The idea is that when private consumption of arts and culture is taking place, the individual will accumulate cultural capital. This accumulated cultural capital can impact other people (e.g., through changed behavior, future decisions or interactions) and create externalities, i.e., the cultural capital externalities. The size of the externalities is expected to increase (or decrease) with the level of consumption. Without the consumption by the users, no externalities are produced. While this is one of the most fundamental arguments for cultural policy, it has not yet been extensively studied within cultural economics.
... The survey was designed in Brazilian Portuguese, following recent research that had used the contingent valuation method (e.g. Snowball, 2005;Esperidiao et al., 2017). Therefore, based on the best practices indicated by Snowball (2008) and previous works, the survey was divided into four parts: (i) respondent's habits and use value; (ii) respondent's opinion and non-use value; (iii) WTP; and (iv) sociodemographic information. ...
Article
Full-text available
The impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on private grassroots music venues (GMVs) increased the difficulties in their business model, showing the vulnerability of their economic sustainability. This paper proposes ways to measure the economic value of GMVs in the city of Rio de Janeiro (RJ), Brazil, seeking to highlight the important role of such venues and of public and private support for their maintenance. To this end, an online survey was applied to 180 GMVs goers and 188 non-goers, based on the contingent valuation method. The data shows GMVs play an important role within the musical ecosystem and generate positive externalities for the city. Both goers and non-goers tend to understand this importance and identify GMVs as businesses that generate cultural and economic value for the city, showing a non-use value of the good.
... In another valuation of ICH, reference [6] estimates the value of customs associated with reindeer husbandry and the way of life in Lapland in Northern Sweden. Reference [7] undertakes CV studies of two art festivals in South Africa and finds that a higher percentage of respondents from low-income areas are willing to pay something to prevent downsizing the festivals although people from these low-income areas are less likely to attend these festivals. The amount that respondents are willing to pay are lower in low-income areas. ...
Article
Full-text available
The disappearance of intangible cultural heritages (ICHs) together with associated symbols and meanings in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) undermines 2003 UN Convention for Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage. To contribute to reversing this trend, the present study estimates the economic value of preserving traditional kente weaving and interpretation of kente symbols by establishing national demonstration centers in Ghana. Contingent valuation (CV) surveys of both the public and kente weavers are used to elicit their preferences for these national centers. As CV surveys of cultural heritage have often been criticized for lacking both policy and payment consequentiality, we have used a specific preservation measure and a non-voluntary payment vehicle to make the decision context realistic and consequential. Households show significant, positive mean willingness-to-pay (WTP) for establishing national centers to preserve both the kente weaving technique and the interpretation of kente symbols. Furthermore, we find no distance decay in WTP for preservation of this ICH; indicating that people have strong preferences for preserving this ICH independent of how far they live from the center of kente weaving activities. This leads to larger aggregated benefits of preservation compared to built cultural heritage and local environmental goods, for example, where strong distance decay occurs in many cases. This makes the net present value of centers for demonstration of kente weaving and interpretation of kente symbols positive and an economically worthwhile investment. The policy implication of these results is that higher investments in preserving ICHs can be justified not only from a cultural heritage perspective, but also from an economic point of view.
... Some of the articles did not include quality of cultural goods and services into the empirical research (e.g. Bedate, Herrero, & Sanz, 2009;Papandrea, 1999;Snowball, 2005); however, some discuss it theoretically (Bille Hansen, 1997;Mazzanti, 2002). Both types were excluded from the review. ...
Article
Full-text available
Evidence-based policies require well-established research and reliable data. One of the major difficulties in delivering such data for cultural policies lies in measuring culture, expressing its ephemeral nature in numbers and indicators, as research used to do in other sectors. Stated-preference based non-market valuation is one of the few tools able to reveal the benefits that cultural goods deliver to the society for cost–benefit analysis. The prevalent problem in this kind of studies is poorly defined, ambiguous goods. When attempting to define them, we cannot forget that the essence of art and culture, which is in itself worth measuring, is quality. The goal of the article was to review previous uses of quality measurements of arts and culture in stated-preference based non-market valuation research, most of which are dedicated to performing arts and cultural heritage.
... For the cultural heritage arena, there is a minimal amount of literature that focuses on the WTP for cultural heritage goods. Most South African studies concentrate on the WTP for cultural events, with specific reference to South African national arts festivals (Saayman & Rossouw, 2011;Snowball, 2005). According to Snowball (2005:111), it was not until 2001 that a study on WTP for arts festivals was conducted in South Africa. ...
Article
Full-text available
It is evident that the current approach followed in accounting education does not provide students with the opportunity to develop pervasive skills before they graduate. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether the current teaching methodologies followed at two South African universities, accredited with the South African Institute of Chartered Accountants (SAICA), enable students to perceive themselves competent in the SAICA-specific pervasive skills competency requirements. The latter objective was met by means of the statistical analysis of data, which was gathered from the undergraduate chartered accountancy students at two South African SAICA-accredited universities. The data was obtained by means of using a questionnaire that was developed to reach the research objective. The findings of this study indicated that, in this modern day, lecturers are not doing enough to ensure the development of these skills, despite having clear guidelines on the required pervasive skills accountancy students are expected to demonstrate after graduation. The article also provides some recommendations to ensure the development of these skills followed by noting the limitations of the study, after which useful areas for further research are provided.
... For the cultural heritage arena, there is a minimal amount of literature that focuses on the WTP for cultural heritage goods. Most South African studies concentrate on the WTP for cultural events, with specific reference to South African national arts festivals (Saayman & Rossouw, 2011;Snowball, 2005). According to Snowball (2005:111), it was not until 2001 that a study on WTP for arts festivals was conducted in South Africa. ...
Article
Cultural heritage forms part of the field of cultural heritage tourism, a strongly emerging sector of global tourism. In South Africa, cultural heritage sites associated with the legacy of Nelson Mandela are receiving increasing interest from local and international visitors. This leads to the question of how such sites may be valued. Using the contingent valuation method (CVM), this paper determines the willingness to pay for visiting the sites. The results revealed that the majority of respondents are willing to pay for an experience in line with their memorable experience preferences, with the average amount that they are willing to pay at US$15.56.
... Keyser (1996) reports a market profile of the attendees at the KKNK held in Oudtshoorn, while Du Plessis, Bouwer & Uken (1990) investigated the marketing potential of special occasions and festivals within a South African context. Although various reports (Snowball 2005;Joseph 2004;Kitshoff 2004aKitshoff , 2004b are documented in the literature on arts festivals held in South Africa, none address the motivational factors present. The current research will fill this gap identified in previous research in South Africa. ...
... The data were captured using Microsoft Excel ® . The literature highlighted ticket prices, willingness to pay and affordability as some of the predominant factors that influence ticket sales or the demand for tickets (Diniz and Machado, 2011;Scheff, 1999;Snowball, 2005). However, the questionnaire limited this study to consider only one input (see Table 1), namely the total expenditure as reported by the Innibos attendees, which entailed entrance fees and costs relating to accommodation, food, drinks, shows, shopping at, for example, Tables A and B, respectively, in the Online Appendix. ...
Article
With more than 600 annual South African festivals to choose from, the ongoing sustainability of established festivals is uncertain. The rationale of sustainability usually rests on what renewable social, economic and cultural benefits the festival offers the community. However, changing visitor characteristics and economic difficulties putting more strain on the disposable income of households compel organizers and marketers to rethink their strategy in order to ensure the sustainability of festivals. This novel and exploratory study utilized a multistage DEA model to identify the presence of tendencies to overspend and budget mismanagement exhibited by visitors at the Innibos National Arts Festival. By identifying the sources of these inefficiencies, this study was able to formulate a framework that can guide organizers and marketers to develop price discounts or package combos that will ensure greater satisfaction which is a vital contributor to sustainability. The results accentuated the need to tailor these package combos to both male and female attendees, with the emphasis on improving satisfaction by limiting the tendencies to overspend that relate to paying for entrance fees, food and drinks.
... Mayfield and Crompton (1995) identified reasons why non-profit and government entities stage festivals, including recreation/socialization, culture/education, tourism, internal revenue generation, natural resources, agriculture, external revenue generation, and community pride/spirit. Other desired outcomes include arts development (Snowball, 2005;Quinn, 2006), creation of cultural capital (Snowball and Willis, 2006), community development (Dwyer et al., 2000), civic pride (Wood, 2006), social capital formation (Yuen and Glover, 2005), and social integration (Schwarz and Tait, 2007). Taken together it becomes clear that assets within event portfolios do not always have to meet tangible criteria for success. ...
Article
Full-text available
Purpose The research question addressed is whether an event portfolio analysis rooted in financial portfolio theory can yield meaningful insights to complement two approaches to event portfolios. The first approach is extrinsic and rooted in economic impact analysis where events need to demonstrate a financial return on investment. In the second approach events are valued ally, with every event having inherent value and the entire portfolio being valued for its synergistic effects and contribution to social and cultural goals. Design/methodology/approach Data from visitors to four events in the Sunshine Coast region of Australia are analysed to illustrate key points, including the notion of 'efficient frontier'. Findings Conceptual development includes an examination of extrinsic and intrinsic perspectives on portfolios, ways to define and measure value, returns, risk, and portfolio management strategies. In the conclusions a number of research questions are raised, and it is argued that the two approaches to value event portfolios can be combined. Research limitations/implications Only four events were studied, in one Australian local authority. The sample of residents who responded to a questionnaire was biased in terms of age, education and gender. Originality/value This analysis and conceptual development advances the discourse on portfolio theory applied to event management and event tourism.
... In contrast, when all moderately certain responses were coded as uncertain (an asymmetric uncertainty model) mean WTP was much lower, estimated at 14EU (18.04 present day GBP) for museum visitors. Snowball (2005) Burton, Louviere, and Young (2009) used choice modelling to value two Australian museums, using an online survey of 82 respondents for the national museum and 89 for the state museum. Eight discrete choice scenarios were developed, framed in terms of logistics (travel), visit duration, and cost. ...
... Keyser (1996) reports a market profile of the attendees at the KKNK held in Oudtshoorn, while Du Plessis, Bouwer & Uken (1990) investigated the marketing potential of special occasions and festivals within a South African context. Although various reports (Snowball 2005;Joseph 2004;Kitshoff 2004aKitshoff , 2004b are documented in the literature on arts festivals held in South Africa, none address the motivational factors present. The current research will fill this gap identified in previous research in South Africa. ...
Article
Full-text available
The retail motor industry in South Africa is characterised by a number of franchise dealership networks representing all brands. These dealerships are responsible for servicing new vehicles while under warrantee or full maintenance agreements. Service quality is an important of the dealership network as it is the basis for their retention of the franchise. The importance is seen in the collection and use of customer satisfaction indices (CSIs). The purpose of this paper is the investigation of the recognised dimensions of service quality within a dealership (or one franchise unit). The study is an exploratory one as no published research has been undertaken in this environment in South Africa. The research made use of a SERVQUAL instrument (in the form of a self-completion questionnaire) and a convenience sample. The finding of the research indicate the identification of four factors that are regarded as important to customers in the vehicle service environment, namely employee/commitment quality, tangible quality, promise/delivery quality and communication/interaction quality. The managerial implications of the findings indicate that the factors identified affect long-term customer satisfaction and hence require the attention of management, especially in the light of record motorcar sales in 2004 and 2005. This involves managing the actual maintenance of the vehicle within the service facility and the management of the service employees. Furthermore, there is the management of the service experience, which is necessary to generate loyalty and satisfaction benefits as well as long-term relationship development. Key words: service quality, motor industry, vehicle servicing, South Africa, SERVQUAL
... Mayfield and Crompton (1995) identified reasons why nonprofit and government entities stage festivals, including recreation/ socialization, culture/education, tourism, internal revenue generation, natural resources, agriculture, external revenue generation, and community pride/ spirit. There is ample documentation of the various cultural and social reasons why governments justify giving money to festivals, including arts development (Quinn, 2006;Snowball, 2005), creation of cultural capital (Snowball & Willis, 2006), community development (Dwyer, Agrusa, & Coats, 2001), civic pride (Wood, 2006), social capital formation (Yuen & Glover, 2007), and social integration (Schwarz & Tait, 2007). ...
Article
This article contributes to event management theory and practice, and more generally to sponsorship research, by examining grant and sponsorship revenue for festivals. In particular, a number of factors that appear to influence the amounts and sources of external revenues are examined for significant differences. Data obtained from 260 festival managers in Australia, Norway, Sweden, and UK are compared with respect to their events' revenue sources, ownership, and other factors thought to influence revenue. Statistical tests reveal that festival size (i.e., attendance), professionalism (as measured by staff members), and the "fit" between event and sponsor (as measured by type of event correlated with different sponsors and grant sources) significantly affect festival revenue. It is argued in the conclusion that by applying certain strategies festival managers can enhance their external revenue generation and support. Future research needs and theory development are discussed in the conclusions, focused on a new set of propositions derived from the analysis.
... To date, studies that have used CV on the arts sector have focused mainly on the developed world -Europe (Bille Hansen 1997, Herrero et al. 2012), the USA (Thompson et al. 2002) and Australia (Thompson 1998, Throsby andWithers 1983). One of the few done on a developing economy is South Africa (Snowball 2005). ...
Article
Full-text available
This paper analyses how much culture is valued in a newly-developed economy with a distinct dichotomy of an arts-appreciating population segment and a less-culturally aware mass. An analytical framework weaving together the intrinsic, business and societal benefits of arts and culture is applied to explore whether arts festivals – a popular tourism event in many countries – are a temporary fad, an expensive governmental fetish or a naturally-evolving fixture. This has implications for government funding and cultural policy. Empirical evidence supports the notion that the long-running performing arts festival is a not a fad but a fixture with some fetish elements while the visual arts festival appears to be a fad but has the potential to be a fixture. Of particular concern, however, is the evidence from both festivals that the perceptions of community benefit, business benefits as well as bequest value from the arts are not significant determinants of willingness to pay for these events.
... The latter is one clear example of a festival or cultural cycle based on a key intangible element such as flamenco, and collective celebrations in southern Spain, with all their rituals and inherited customs, handed down and modified from generation to generation. In a study conducted in a developing country, Snowball (2005) carried out a WTP analysis of two South African arts festivals using telephone interviews of the local populations of the towns in which the festivals are held. In a country with wealth still partly divided along racial lines, a major point of investigation was whether low income African-origin residents perceived the arts festivals as providing as much value as the high income, mostly European origin residents. ...
Article
In recent years, the concept of cultural heritage has undergone a twofold change vis-à-vis adapting content. First, it has broadened the scope and nature of the tangible elements open to inclusion by reaching out beyond isolated examples thereof. Second, it has widened its range to incorporate goods that are also intangible and are able to express the idiosyncrasy of a particular group, reflect the recognition of an identity, or convey the value of a tradition. Cultural festivals thus provide one emblematic example of immaterial cultural heritage, since they are experience goods which expire at the moment they are produced and not only express artistic innovations in the field but also draw on previous cultural background, perceived as accumulated cultural capital. Based on this premise, the present paper seeks to posit a methodological proposal for evaluating cultural festivals, adopting a threefold analytical approach: calculating the value allocated by individuals, estimating economic impact, and gauging the efficiency of the managing institutions. Each analytical profile sets out the main problems and technical challenges, and reviews comparative cases. The conclusions to emerge from the study evidence the existence of increasingly refined and sophisticated techniques for dealing effectively with the hurdles to arise, yet also highlights the thus far scant number of applied case studies addressing cultural festival evaluation, particularly as regards efficiency evaluation and estimating economic value. The most immediate challenge is integrating the findings from the three analytical profiles so as to ensure the social and economic viability of these cultural projects.
... Keyser (1996) reports a market profile of the attendees at the KKNK held in Oudtshoorn, while Du Plessis, Bouwer & Uken (1990) investigated the marketing potential of special occasions and festivals within a South African context. Although various reports (Snowball 2005;Joseph 2004;Kitshoff 2004aKitshoff , 2004b are documented in the literature on arts festivals held in South Africa, none address the motivational factors present. The current research will fill this gap identified in previous research in South Africa. ...
... Other conditions being equal, we would expect a higher awareness about DPA among those living and/or working downtown especially for a long time, those visiting Dallas for cultural purposes, those having completed a higher level of education, and those with a history of arts participation. While it is not straightforward to attribute a type of value on DPA to particular socio-demographic characteristics a priori, one might expect users and potential users to be more (arts) educated than non-users (Borgonovi, 2004;Colbert, 2003;Snowball, 2005;Seaman, 2006). Among users and potential users, those who are wealthier and with higher responsibility and time-consuming jobs can be intuitively expected to be more committed through donations then through volunteering. ...
Article
Full-text available
The Office of Cultural Affairs of the City of Dallas manages the acquisition and conservation of a broad collection of commissioned and donated works of public art, contributing to make Dallas a vibrant place to live and work and a great place to visit. Facing reduced availability of public funds and increased competition with other sources of public expenditure, the Public Art Program seeks to gain higher visibility and awareness among citizens through a series of measures, including better promotion. In order to assess Dallas citizens' and visitors' awareness, meaning and commitment to the City's Public Art, we have designed, distributed and analyzed a public survey. Respondents' contingent valuation of the Collection in terms of meaning of the Public Art is cross-examined with their socio-demographic and economic characteristics. In particular, we control for level of education and arts education, income and wealth, residence and relationship with Dallas.
... In our study, we develop an ex post solution, in 6 Similar studies include Morrison and West (1986) on the valuation of subsidies for performing arts and Thompson et al. (2002) on household expenditure in the arts in general. Snowball (2005) and Snowball and Willis (2006) study specifically valuation of cultural festivals in South Africa. 7 Good reviews of this topic may be found in Berrens et al. (2002); Samnaliev et al. (2006) and in the meta-analyses of hypothetical bias conducted by List and Gallet (2001) and Murphy et al. (2005). ...
Article
Cultural festivals are one of the most common representations of diversification strategies in tourist demand in cities boasting abundant historical heritage. The goal of this work is to estimate the economic value allocated by tourists and local residents to a classical music festival in the emblematic city of Santiago de Compostela (Spain). The contingent valuation method is used to ascertain whether there are any significant differences between the value declared and to study the sensitivity of the findings in a range of socio-economic variables. Finally, the problems of hypothetical bias are explored, as are the possible implications for management of pricing policies. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... However, in comparison to the general South African population, people who can afford to buy show tickets do still represent the higher education and income sectors of society. Nevertheless, the NAF does have a significant economic impact on the town, estimated at about 40 million Rand in 2006 (Snowball and Bragge 2007), and has also been shown to provide significant non-market benefits to the poorer, largely black, local population (Snowball 2005). ...
Article
Contrary to Bourdieu’s theory (Distinction: A social critique of the judgment of taste. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press (1984)) that cultural consumption of so-called “high” versus popular culture is determined by socio-economic class, Peterson (Poetics 21:243–258, 1992; Poetics 33:257–282, 2005) finds that higher income and education groups are more likely to be “cultural omnivores”—consumers of a wide variety of both high and popular cultural goods. Omnivores were also found to be much less likely to exclude other cultures and to be more open to, and tolerant of, the views of others than those with narrower cultural tastes, called “cultural univores”. This article investigates the omnivore/univore hypothesis in a South African context, using survey data collected from 500 attendees of live theatre performances at the National Arts Festival in 2008. Multiple correspondence analysis (also called perceptual mapping) shows an interesting intermediate state between Boudieu-like high culture univores and Peterson omnivores, which could have interesting implications for the development of social tolerance in multi-cultural South Africa. KeywordsArts-Culture consumption-Omnivore-Social tolerance
... In addition, we assume that individuals are driven by a Bayesian updating mechanism and estimate WTP regression models that include variables capturing respondent prior beliefs about 2 See Navrud and Ready, 2002, and the 2003 special issue of the Journal of Cultural Economics on valuing cultural monuments. For example, CV has been used to value heritage improvements at holiday destinations (Signorello and Cuccia, 2002; Whitehead and Finney, 2003), visits and preservation of archaeological sites (Beltrán and Rojas, 1996; EFTEC, 1999; Signorello, 2000, 2002; Riganti and Willis, 2002), congestion and traffic scheme improvements at cultural monuments sites (Brown and Mourato, 2002; Maddison and Mourato, 2002; Scarpa et al, 1997; Willis, 1994), conservation of museums collections (Brown, 2004), preservation of historic buildings (Chambers et al, 1998; Garrod et al, 1996; Del Saz Salazaar and Marques, 2005; Grosclaude and Soguel, 1994; Kling et al, 2004; Pollicino and Maddison, 2004; Powe and Willis, 1996), preservation of religious buildings (Mourato et al, 2002; Pollicino and Maddison, 2002; Navrud and Strand, 2002), arts festivals (Snowball, 2005). Noonan (2003) and EFTEC (2005) summarize the empirical literature on contingent valuation of cultural monuments. ...
Article
The most appropriate way to measure the social benefits of conserving built cultural heritage sites is to ask the beneficiaries of conservation interventions how much they would be willing to pay for them. We use contingent valuation—a survey-based approach that elicits willingness to pay (WTP) directly from individuals—to estimate the benefits of a nationwide conservation of built cultural heritage sites in Armenia. The survey was administered to Armenian nationals living in Armenia, and obtained extensive information about the respondents’ perceptions of the current state of conservation of monuments in Armenia, described the current situation, presented a hypothetical conservation program, elicited WTP for it, and queried individuals about what they thought would happen to monument sites in the absence of the government conservation program. We posit that respondents combined the information about the fate of monuments provided by the questionnaire with their prior beliefs, and that WTP for the good, or program, is likely to be affected by these updated beliefs. We propose a Bayesian updating model of prior beliefs, and empirically implement it with the data from our survey. We found that uncertainty about what would happen to monuments in the absence of the program results in lower WTP amounts.
Article
Full-text available
Cultural events are endorsed in urban cultural policy for their economic role in supporting the tourism industry and their social role in strengthening community cohesion. Nevertheless, conflicts can arise between these two objectives, especially in cities already experiencing massive tourism regardless of the staging of major events. Taking Venice as a case study, we investigate the effects that different types of cultural events have on the relationship between residents and tourists in a crowding-in/temporary crowding-out dynamic. We implement a structural equation model using a unique dataset that records the daily number of residents, tourists, day visitors and commuters in the city. Results show evidence of both a crowding-in and temporary crowding-out effect during major cultural events, whereas such effects are not present for cultural events associated with local traditions. The paper highlights how these dynamics can impact the economy and the management of tourism destinations during cultural events.
Thesis
Full-text available
This project set out to investigate issues of production management in community theatre contexts, with a specific focus on making a case for the adoption and implementation of proper production management techniques and processes among community theatre groups. In terms of methodology, the study adop ted a qualitative with elements of quantitative interviews , , case study approach using direct observation, and questionnaires. The study focused on six community theatre groups that were involved in the HELLO Festiv al Community Arts Development Programme and in August 2018. The groups that formed the basis for the study are all based in the Tshwane metropolitan area of South Africa. The research project aimed at investigat ing including the the production processes, if any , used by community theatre groups, problems that these groups encounter when putting their theatre productions together. The study of ‘ determine d that although these groups operate under the generic moniker community theatres w ’ on account of their social background and the themes in their ork, in practice they aspire to (and should like to be seen by others) as full professionals in terms of their practice and organisational structures. In other words, these groups occupy something of a middle ground between community theatre as ‘process’ a nd professional theatre as ‘product’. The study found that this makes the need for proper production management techniques paramount if the groups are to grow and succeed. The findings from the datagathering process and analysis were designed to assist the community theatre groups at the start to design and implement more viable and effective production management strategies, which the groups can use in the long term if they are to grow and professio nalise their work. iv
Article
Although scholars agree that the festival experience is multidimensional, there is still no consensus in terms of the dimensions of quality and perceived value, being the analysis of the utilitarian and socio-psychological perspectives of value in the musical context insufficient. This study uses a multidimensional analysis to investigate the predictors of attendees’ behavioral intentions at an International Festival which is held annually since the year 2008. To this end, the paper begins with festival quality, using perceived value and satisfaction as intermediate constructs, which are antecedents of behavioral intentions. The results show a positive impact of festival quality on the perceived value and a direct relationship between satisfaction and loyalty. The relationship between value and satisfaction was significant for only two of the dimensions (functional and emotional value). This knowledge is necessary to implement effective strategies to improve festival experiences and satisfy attendees’ musical, artistic, psychological and social needs.
Article
Full-text available
South Africa has experienced significant growth in the number and size of festivals and events. There is a crowded calendar of festivals and events, and new ones keep being added. Little research has been done on what makes a festival successful and sustainable as a tourism attraction in the crowded festival market in South Africa. This article aims to compare three different arts festival scenarios and their attributes with one another to determine the most successful arts festival presentation as a tourism attraction. The three main arts festivals - in Potchefstroom, Grahamstown and Oudtshoorn - were studied. Screening questions, followed by judgemental and quota sampling, were used to select only like-minded respondents from among festival attendees on a scenario basis. Data were collected by means of personal interviews and analysed using conjoint analysis and game theory. Game theory studies decision-making in situations of semi-competition. Five different attributes, namely 'festival brands', 'ticket prices', 'entertainment activities', 'food and beverages' and 'transport to venues', were developed to describe arts festivals. Conjoint analysis was used in a linear regression model with individual ratings for each festival product. The average of the r-squares in this study was 0.83, indicating a good fit between the data and the model developed. These results were used in the game theory, comparing the three arts festival scenarios to identify the most successful tourism attraction. A different combination of attributes gave each of the three festival scenarios an optimum position in its own niche market.
Chapter
A contemporary overview of festival activity from around the world based on over 30 case studies drawn from every continent. Through its case-study focus it examines different types and genres of festival across the world; considers in detail specific festivals in specific contexts; looks at management and organisational issues in festival provision, and illustrates debates and theories pertaining to festivals throughout the world.
Article
Full-text available
ORIENTATION: The escalating number of festivals leads to competition, with festivals finding themselves in the decline phase of their product's lifecycle. In South Africa, many festivals choose to terminate, but in the case of Aardklop, the festivals chose to undergo a rebranding and repositioning process. The question is to what extent did the rebranding process influence visitors' decision to attend the festival? RESEARCH PURPOSE: This research determined the key 'festivalscape' and decision-making factors, including the rebranding and repositioning of the festival, and established the relationship between these factors and visitors' loyalty to Aardklop MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY: Although Aardklop and its offerings are clearly popular among the public, to date, no research attempts have been made to determine which factors influence visitors' loyalty towards the festival. RESEARCH DESIGN, APPROACH AND METHOD: The research was quantitative, and a survey was conducted in 2017 where 498 completed visitor questionnaires were obtained. Factor analyses identified the main 'festivalscape' and decision-making factors, while structural equation modelling was used to test the relationship between the factors and festival loyalty. MAIN FINDINGS: The results showed that a combination of 'festivalscape' and decision-making factors influence loyalty especially the distinct offerings, festival features and experiences PRACTICAL/MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: Managerial and marketing implications are made outlining how the distinct festival offerings need to be emphasised as they have the most significant influence on festival loyalty. CONTRIBUTION/VALUE-ADD: This research contributes to a better understanding of the factors that influence visitor loyalty and how these factors can be managed.
Chapter
The cultural turn in international development can be traced back to the 1980s. Critiques from social scientist and the rise of participatory development practices have now brought culture to the fore of development. This essay analyses two important aspects of the culture and international development: (1) notions of human well-being that are fundamental to both involving people in development efforts and in thinking of how they may participate in improving their lives, (2) cultural expressions require sustainable cultural infrastructures that allow for cultural creation, production, distribution, archiving—the value chain of cultural expressions. The essay is divided into three parts: (1) a survey of the literature on culture and development, (2) human well-being and culture, and (3) a cultural infrastructure and value chain perspective with empirical examples. The review is interdisciplinary drawing from anthropology, cultural studies, economics, post-colonial history and literatures, international relations, political science, and sociology.
Article
We examined expectation conformation and word-of-mouth marketing intention among international tourists (177 white; 138 black; and 98 Asian) who experienced a tourism promotion cultural festival event; taking into account their personal, artistic, and societal cultural values. We applied multiple regression analysis to predict expectation conformation and word-of-mouth marketing intention from the tourists’ personal, artistic, and societal cultural values. For the white and Asian tourists, sociocultural value predicted expectation confirmation the most. For the black tourists, personal value explained their expectation confirmation more than did sociocultural value. Culturally framed perceived values appear to influence the ways tourists respond to tourism festivals.
Article
In this article, I examine a performance project I conducted in 2014 at the ‘Infecting the City’ festival in Cape Town: I performed on a piano, situated outdoors in Cape Town’s inner city; the audience observed from the street and from a nearby rooftop, where the music was relayed and amplified through speaker systems. I conceived this project, ‘Voyeur Piano’, to challenge traditional conceptions of South African concert halls, which I argue are characterised to a large extent by elitism, exclusivity and limitations in terms of access, but also in order to search for ways in which piano music may be used as an aesthetic and interventionist vehicle in site-specific and public art contexts. ‘Voyeur Piano’ is ‘read’ as an experimental system (Schwab 2014), and interrogated by means of a self-reflexive approach (Archer 2010). As both performer of the project and author of this article, I attempt to engage retrospectively with knowledge generated in and through this performance project.
Chapter
In addition to the economic or financial benefits that the arts and heritage provide, they also supply us with non-market goods, like pleasure, national pride, building and expressing community identity, etc. (as discussed in chapter one). Such values relate to the public good nature of the arts and are sometimes referred to as positive externalities because they are external to the market. Expressing these values in monetary terms is not always possible (or desirable, as Klamer argues), but, as in environmental economics, such value estimates can be a useful indication of public (nonexpert) opinions and reveal values not associated with purely financial gains.
Chapter
Now that the theoretical basis for willingness to pay studies and some examples from cultural economics have been discussed, this chapter sets out to examine the more practical issues involved in designing such a study. In particular, how to design a questionnaire that will minimize the various forms of bias that willingness to pay studies are prone to, is explored, like the information bias and starting point bias. Validity tests and detection of problems like “protest zeros” and “warm glow” responses are also included. An example of a willingness to pay questionnaire from a study conducted at the South African National Arts Festival in Grahamstown is examined and can be found in the appendix to this chapter.
Article
This article shows how the social worth of a regional festival can be measured for tourism purposes by including the valuation of the festival's non-attendees, an aspect often ignored in the literature. The finding that the festival's social worth was 1.46 times that of the economic impact provides practitioners with an important tool for consideration. In addition, evidence on the differences between visitors and potential future visitors sheds new light on regional festival marketing. The sense of well-being associated with attending the festival, the acknowledgement of the festival's importance to the local community, and how it nurtures and supports new talent were also found to influence people's valuation. These findings highlight the need for a policy rethink towards increased government funding to sustain regional festivals.
Article
This study examines some challenges and draws lessons for a new cultural city promoting an emerging festival. This was done by considering the valuation of the festival and its determinants by foreign tourists, domestic tourists, and potential attenders (a group often ignored in the literature). For a young festival, it was encouraging to find that the festival's social value to tourists, local attenders, and potential attenders exceeded the entry fee. Overall, the Biennale was more popular with younger people, and local attenders appreciated the educational dimension of the event. This augurs well for the future of this festival. However, for the festival's sustainability, it is important to strike a balance between catering to preferences of international and local attenders as well as avoid trying to achieve multiple objectives that may lead to a dilution in the focus and identity of the new festival.
Article
The Afrikaans film industry is facing a difficult time, as many Afrikaans films are struggling financially. By determining the key factors contributing to the ticket purchases for Afrikaans films, the Afrikaans film industry can be assisted to increase ticket sales. Younger consumers are the future market for most industries, and since films are a leisure activity enjoyed by many young individuals, a better understanding of the needs and preferences of younger cinema attendees will contribute to the sustainability of the future market. The results revealed five key factors contributing to the ticket purchases of younger Afrikaans cinema attendee, namely Marketing, Proudly Afrikaans, Production Credentials, Quality Facilities and Quality Films. ANOVAs and t-tests were conducted to analyze the data further. It was found that all the factors have a stronger influence on the attendees the younger they are; attendees who prefer Afrikaans films over English films are also more influenced by these factors; and attendees who view three or more films in one month are more influenced by the factors Quality Facilities, Proudly Afrikaans and Production Credentials. The managerial implications of this are discussed and recommendations are made for Afrikaans film marketers and producers in order for them to better cater for the needs of this younger cinema attendee, and ultimately contribute to the growth of the Afrikaans film industry.
Article
Many cultural players regularly ask for results from studies of the economic impact of a cultural facility or event for a given area. They do it in particular in order to justify public support However, the definition and validity conditions of the "economicimpact" rationale are little-known among these players. This article offers a reminder of these definition and conditions by using tools from economic analysis and findings from theoretical and empirical research. Breaking down the economic impact of a cultural activity for a given area into its five constituents enables to show that several constituents potentially may provide three distinct economic arguments which can be put forward to justify public support. Each being based on different assumptions, the first argument pursues a stabilization objective, the second and third ones an allocation objective. The principles of estimating the constituents in question are then reminded, in order to provide the information elements allowing to have an idea of the more or less sound nature of impact results used for justification purposes.
Article
Full-text available
With more than 400 annual festivals in South Africa to choose from, arts festival patrons are becoming more selective in their purchase behaviour, resulting in declining festival attendee numbers and tickets sales for some festivals. A better understanding of the influences on ticket purchase behaviour is necessary for the future development of a South African ticket purchase behaviour model. This was accomplished by administering a questionnaire (developed by means of the Delphi technique) among ticket purchasers at two arts festivals. An exploratory factor analysis revealed seven key factors contributing to ticket purchases, and T-tests further revealed findings concerning regular visitors and avid purchasers.
Article
Competition in the South African arts festival market is an evident problem and is associated with changes in ticket purchase behaviour among performing arts patrons and declining ticket sales. This holds a negative implication for arts festivals, since visitors who purchase tickets tend to stay for longer periods and spend more than visitors not interested in ticketed shows/productions. Ticket sales from audiences are also one of festivals' main sources of income. Targeting the visitors who attend these shows/productions is therefore a viable management goal. The focus of this article is to identify and analyse the key factors that contribute to ticket purchases at selected arts festivals in South Africa in order to provide festival organisers with the necessary insight to develop effective marketing strategies that target their ticket-purchasing market. A factor analysis was performed on the dataset of the two festivals and revealed seven factors; all of the Cronbach's Alpha values were valid. Effect sizes were calculated to determine possible differences between categories pertaining to age and number of days the festival was attended. The results revealed no statistically significant differences and therefore suggest that this market is relatively homogenous. Managerial and marketing implications are consequently proposed for the festival organisers.
Article
The nature and scope of festival studies is examined by compiling and analyzing a large-scale literature review of 423 research articles published in the English-language scholarly press. These have been annotated and their themes classified by reference to a pre-determined framework. Identification and discussion of three major discourses was enabled by this method, namely the roles, meanings and impacts of festivals in society and culture, festival tourism, and festival management. Conclusions focus on revealed research gaps and the need for greater interdisciplinarity to advance the field of festival studies. KEYWORDS Festivals, management, event tourism, event research INTRODUCTION By means of a large-scale, systematic review of the pertinent English-language research literature, this paper defines (i.e. delimits the nature and scope) of festival studies. Research trends and themes have been revealed, and three major discourses have been identified and described. Structure for the review was provided by a framework for understanding and creating knowledge about events (Getz, 2007) that places planned festival experiences and meanings as the core phenomenon of festival studies. The other elements in this framework are antecedents to attending festivals, planning and management, outcomes, knowledge creation, policy, and temporal and spatial patterns and processes. Although confined to festivals, this process will also help develop event studies generically, as many of the concepts and research themes are shared. Festivals are an important sub-field within event studies, and of particular interest to scholars in many disciplines because of the universality of festivity and the popularity of festival experiences. Event management has emerged as a quasi-profession and a fast-growing field of studies in universities around the world. Within event studies, festival studies is also emerging as a distinct sub-field, in large part because festivals occupy a special place in almost all cultures and have therefore been well-researched and theorized by scholars in the disciplines of anthropology and sociology.
Article
The Economic Impact of a Cultural Activity as a Public-Support Argument : Definition and Validity Conditions Many cultural players regularly ask for results from studies of the economic impact of a cultural facility or event for a given area. They do it in particular in order to justify public support. However, the definition and validity conditions of the “economic-impact” rationale are little-known among these players. This article offers a reminder of these definition and conditions by using tools from economic analysis and findings from theoretical and empirical research. Breaking down the economic impact of a cultural activity for a given area into its five constituents enables to show that several constituents potentially may provide three distinct economic arguments which can be put forward to justify public support. Each being based on different assumptions, the first argument pursues a stabilization objective, the second and third ones an allocation objective. The principles of estimating the constituents in question are then reminded, in order to provide the information elements allowing to have an idea of the more or less sound nature of impact results used for justification purposes.
Article
Thesis (DPhil (History))—University of Stellenbosch, 2009. The study analyzes the reconfiguration of Afrikaans identities in post-apartheid South Africa as mediated by two prominent Afrikaans-orientated arts festivals, namely the Klein Karoo National Arts Festival and Aardklop. Fieldwork was conducted in the two host towns – Oudtshoorn and Potchefstroom. A variety of research methods such as archival research, participant observation, semi-structured interviews and informal conversations were employed. The arts festivals emerged during a time of perceived crisis for particularly Afrikaans communities in the 1990s, when Afrikaans and the arts were in need of being renewed. The study compares and contrasts the Afrikaans-oriented arts festivals to the former Afrikaner volksfeeste in order to illustrate the marked contrasts between them. Whereas the volksfeeste were designed to advance Afrikaner nationalism in a narrow sense, the newly established Afrikaans-oriented arts festivals were envisioned as inclusive celebrations. Both festivals were established to advance the arts in Afrikaans, to redeem Afrikaans, given its tainted reputation as the language of apartheid, and to help bring about national reconciliation. The study traces the historical development of the two festivals in relation to these aims. The literature indicates that festivals as liminal events facilitate conditions during which festivalgoers are united in celebration and experience a sense of community or social communitas. The study utilizes the notion of liminality – the process by which the ordinary is rendered extraordinary during festivals. Six conditions of liminality are distinguished: extensive planning and preparation, different senses of time, the alteration of everyday routines, re-discovery and reappropriation of private and public spaces, the activation of festival spaces and the reworking of rules. It shows how liminality, rather than being self-evident, was carefully constructed. The study assesses the festivals’ potential ‘to bring people together’ against this background by looking at three possible means of social transformation: through the experience of the arts, through the use of public space and through encountering Afrikaans. The assessment reveals the discrepancy between official festival policy and practice. The tensions that existed – between ‘high culture’ and ‘popular culture’, centre and periphery, and inclusion and exclusion – hindered social transformation. The festivals nevertheless contributed to the establishment of a temporary sense of belonging or communitas amongst some festival-goers. Although Afrikaans was central to most manifestations of social communitas, festival-goers celebrated ‘being Afrikaans’ in diverse ways. The study concludes that these festivals were characterized just as much by the presence as the absence of social communitas.
Chapter
Full-text available
This was first published in 1987 and has been republished in 1997 and in 2000. The 2000 version is attached here. It was first published by the National Conference of State Legislatures.
Article
Full-text available
Many consider salvage value and tourism expenditures as the only economic values of a historic shipwreck. This paper looks at one alternative, the non-market value generated by management of shipwrecks as submerged maritime cultural resources. We consider the question: How much are people willing to pay to maintain shipwrecks in their pristine state? The contingent valuation method was implemented during summer 2001 as part of a telephone survey to households in eastern North Carolina. We find that households are willing to pay about $35 in a one-time increase in state taxes. Willingness to payis internally validated by expected relationships with prices and income but fails to pass the scope test. We speculate that we inadvertently succumbed to the well-known “birds” problem. The double-bounded willingness to pay questions are not incentive compatible and are subject to starting point bias, despite efforts to minimize these effects. Copyright Kluwer Academic Publishers 2003
Article
Full-text available
Contingent valuation methodology (CVM) has been increasingly applied to cultural resources. CVM employs survey methods to gather stated preference information, which can be used to estimate economic values of various cultural resources and projects. Although popular in other fields, the application of CVM in the cultural arena is relatively recent. This article summarizes this growing body of empirical literature and its range of findings. A meta-analysis gives a statistical view of the ``state of the art'' of the literature. This preliminary analysis sheds light on the consistency and validity of the use of this method in cultural applications. Copyright Kluwer Academic Publishers 2003
Article
Full-text available
Government funding of the arts has received considerable attention in the United States in recent years. Efforts to cut funding to the National Endowment for the Arts and declining budgets for state arts agencies have raised questions about how much individuals value the arts. This paper applies the contingent valuation method to assess this value, using surveys of random households and of arts patrons. Our analysis estimated a mean willingness to pay (WTP) among all Kentucky households from $6 to$27, depending on the estimation technique used and on whether the scenario discussed is to increase arts performances by 25 per cent, or to avoid a 25per cent or 50 per cent decrease in the number of performances. Among arts patron households, the mean WTP ranges from $61 to $132.Consumer demand for arts performances in large part follows a predictable pattern. The likelihood of respondents agreeing to make the donation that is requested rises as the size of the donation decreases. The likelihood is higher to avoid a 50 per cent decline in performances than to avoid a 25 percent decline in performances. The mean WTP rises with income, and arts patron households have a much higher WTP than all households. WTP rises with on-site use factors such as frequency of attendance. The WTP also rises for arts patrons households with off-site use such as watching arts events on television or reading about the arts in newspapers and magazines. Copyright Kluwer Academic Publishers 2002
Article
Full-text available
We report on the results of a large-scale contingent valuation (CV) study conducted after the Exxon Valdez oil spill to assess the harm caused by it. Among the issues considered are the design features of the CV survey, its administration to a national sample of U.S. households, estimation of household willingness to pay to prevent another Exxon Valdez type oil spill, and issues related to reliability and validity of the estimates obtained. Events influenced by the study's release are also briefly discussed. Copyright Kluwer Academic Publishers 2003
Article
In an increasingly globalised world, economic and cultural imperatives can be seen as two of the most powerful forces shaping human behaviour. This book considers the relationship between economics and culture both as areas of intellectual discourse, and as systems of societal organisation. Adopting a broad definition of culture, it explores the economic dimensions of culture, and the cultural context of economics. The book is built on a foundation of value theory, developing the twin notions of economic and cultural value as underlying principles for integrating the two fields. Ideas of cultural capital and sustainability are discussed, especially as means of analysing the particular problems of cultural heritage, drawing parallels with the treatment of natural capital in ecological economics. The book goes on to discuss the economics of creativity in the production of cultural goods and services; culture in economic development; the cultural industries; and cultural policy.
Article
Political scientists are making increasing use of the Tobit and Heckit models. This paper addresses some common problems in the application and interpretation of these models. Through numerical experiments and reanalysis of data from a study by Romer and Snyder (1994), we illustrate the consequences of using the standard Tobit model, which assumes a censoring point at zero, when the zeros are not due to censoring mechanisms or when actual censoring is not at zero. In the latter case, we also show that Greene's (1981) well-known results on the direction and size of the bias of the OLS estimator in the standard Tobit model do not necessarily hold. Because the Heckit model is often used as an alternative to Tobit, we examine its assumptions and discuss the proper interpretation of the Heckit/Tobit estimation results using Grier and co-workers' (1994) Heckit model of campaign contribution data. Sensitivity analyses of the Heckit estimation results suggest some conclusions rather different from those reached by Grier et al.
Article
This paper provides new evidence on bias in preference revelation and valuation of public goods. It does so through the systematic definition of free-rider, mixed-good, information and social choice problems and by a survey application to the case of valuing social benefit from the arts. These sources of bias are each found to be significant. It is also found that free-rider behaviour is random with respect to observable socio-demographic characteristics. Allowing for bias, aggregate public good benefit necessary for public support of arts is still established. The study therefore demonstrates not only the significance of free-rider and other biases in eliciting public good demand, but also practicable techniques for allowing for these effects via a survey method.
Article
Ordinary markets allow parties, not the state, to value property and projects. But they do not account for subjective value in such traditional contexts as condemnation. An awareness of these nonmarket values helps overcome any categorical opposition to the use of the contingent valuation method (CVM) to value cultural and environmental resources. But accurate CVM should measure all values, positive or negative, tononowners; it should apply generally to any substitute projects; and it should seek to account for diminishing marginal value of additional resource units. CVM should be used only to aggregate nonmarket preferences, not to skew the political debate to cultural or environmental objectives. Copyright Kluwer Academic Publishers 2003
Article
This paper undertakes a systematiccomparison of the contingent valuation (CV) andchoice experiments (CE) methods, andinvestigates the extent to which either of themare affected by insensitivity to scope. This isachieved by undertaking separate CV estimatesof willingness to pay for two nested publicgoods, both of which are explicitly included ina parallel CE survey. The results indicate thatCE values exhibit greater sensitivity to scopethan CV values. CE gives significantly largerresults than CV for the more inclusive publicgood and significantly smaller results for theless inclusive public good. Copyright Kluwer Academic Publishers 2003
Article
Without market outcomes for comparison, internal consistency tests, particularly adding-up tests, are needed for credibility. When tested, contingent valuation has failed. Proponents find surveys tested poorly done. To the authors' knowledge, no survey has passed these tests. The 'embedding effect' is the similarity of willingness-to-pay responses that theory suggests (and sometimes requires) be different. This problem has long been recognized but not solved. The authors conclude that current methods are not suitable for damage assessment or benefit-cost analysis. They believe the problems come from an absence of preferences, not a flaw in survey methodology, making improvement unlikely. Copyright 1994 by American Economic Association.
Article
This paper considers two tests proposed to judge the internal consistency of contingent valuation estimates. Both tests are quite sensitive to the maintained hypotheses required to derive fairly precise expectations for the properties of WTP functions. This result suggests a different approach may be needed in gauging the reliability of CV. This paper describes an alternative approach that relies on a weight of the evidence criterion and uses meta analysis to develop a systematic appraisal of what are the economic values of changes in amenity resources. The approach is illustrated for the case of estimating people's willingness to pay for improving (or maintaining) visibility at the national parks.
Article
Contingent valuation is now used around the world to value many types of public goods, including transportation, sanitation, health, and education, as well as the environment. The author describes how researchers go about making such surveys reliable, mentioning recent innovations in sampling, questionnaire design, and data analysis, including formulating the valuation as a closed-ended question about voting in a referendum to raise taxes for a particular purpose. He addresses various objections that contingent valuation results are incompatible with economic theory. Even without a market, there still exists a latent demand curve for nonmarket goods; contingent valuation represents a way to tease this out. Copyright 1994 by American Economic Association.
The General Public's Participation in Art Museums: Visitors Differ from Non-Visitors, But Not as Markedly as Case Studies Have Indicated
  • W Hendon
Hendon, W. (1990). "The General Public's Participation in Art Museums: Visitors Differ from Non-Visitors, But Not as Markedly as Case Studies Have Indicated." American Journal of Economics and Sociology 49(4) [On line] Available: http://sjcpl.lib.in.ud/homepage/Ebscohost/ EbscoHostinstruct.html [Accessed: 13/12/99] 1-16.
Contingent Valuation vs. Economic Impact: Substitutes of Complements
  • A Seaman
Seaman, A. (2003) "Contingent Valuation vs. Economic Impact: Substitutes of Complements?" Paper Delivered at the Regional Science Association International Conference, North American Meetings, Philadelphia.
Temporal Reliability of Estimates from Contingent Valuation
  • R Carson
  • M Hanemann
  • R J Kopp
  • J A Krosnick
  • R C Mitcell
  • S Presser
  • P A Ruud
  • V K Smith
Carson, R., Hanemann, M., Kopp, R.J., Krosnick, J.A., Mitcell, R.C., Presser, S., Ruud, P.A. and Smith, V.K. (1995) "Temporal Reliability of Estimates from Contingent Valuation." Resources for the Future: Washington DC Discussion paper 95-37 [On line] Available: http://www.rff.org/methods/non mkt.htm [Accessed 15/3/03].
Measuring Community Benefits from the Arts Research paper # 261 School of Economic and Financial Studies
  • B Thompson
  • D Throsby
  • G Withers
Thompson, B., Throsby, D. and Withers, G. (1983) Measuring Community Benefits from the Arts Research paper # 261 School of Economic and Financial Studies, Macquarie University.
The Economic Impact of the Klein Karoo
  • M Saayman
  • A Saayman
  • M. Saayman
Saayman, M. and Saayman, A. (2003) The Economic Impact of the Klein Karoo Nationale Kunste Fees. Potchefstoom University, South Africa.
Economics and Culture The Regional Economic Impact of the Mildura Arts Cen-tre Research Paper Number: 210 School of Economic and Financial Studies
  • D Throsby
  • D Throsby
  • O Shea
Throsby, D. (2001) Economics and Culture. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Throsby, D. and O'Shea, M. (1980) " The Regional Economic Impact of the Mildura Arts Cen-tre. " Research Paper Number: 210 School of Economic and Financial Studies, Macquarie University.
Measuring the Demand for the Arts as a Public Good: Theory and Empirical Results The Economics of Cultural Decisions Strategic Bias and Demand for Public Goods: Theory and Application to the Arts
  • D Throsby
  • G D Withers
  • G Withers
Throsby, D. and Withers, G. (1983) " Measuring the Demand for the Arts as a Public Good: Theory and Empirical Results " in Hendon W. and Shanahan J. (eds.), The Economics of Cultural Decisions. Abt Books, Cambridge. Throsby, D. and Withers, G. (1986) " Strategic Bias and Demand for Public Goods: Theory and Application to the Arts, " in Towse R. (ed.) 1997, Cultural Economics: The Arts, the Heritage and the Media Industries. Vol. 2 Edward Elgar, Cheltenham.
More Lasting Than Bronze: A Story of the 1820 Settlers National Monument
  • T Neville
Neville, T. (1999) "More Lasting Than Bronze: A Story of the 1820 Settlers National Monument". The Natal Witness Printing and Publishing Company, Pietermarizburg.
White Paper on Arts, Culture and Heritage. Department of Arts, Culture, Sci-ence and Technology, South [On Line
  • White Paper
White Paper. (1996) White Paper on Arts, Culture and Heritage. Department of Arts, Culture, Sci-ence and Technology, South [On Line] Available: http://www.polity.org.za/govdocs/white papers/ arts.html [Accessed: 25/11/99] 1–26.
Social Capital and Household Questionnaire Biases – A Pilot Study " . Unpub-lished research paper
  • C Mbathat
Mbathat, C. (2003) " Social Capital and Household Questionnaire Biases – A Pilot Study ". Unpub-lished research paper, Department of Economics, Rhodes University, Grahamstown.
The Economic Impact of the 1996 Standard Bank National Arts Festival
  • G Antrobus
  • V Williams
  • D Fryer
  • B Khumalo
  • J Streak
  • A Webb
Antrobus, G., Williams, V., Fryer, D., Khumalo, B., Streak, J. and Webb, A. (1997) The Economic Impact of the 1996 Standard Bank National Arts Festival. Department of Economics, Rhodes University, Grahamstown.
Performing Arts Subsidies and Future Generations The Regrettable Necessity of Contingent Valuation
  • L Dobson
  • E West
Dobson, L. and West, E. (1990) " Performing Arts Subsidies and Future Generations. " Journal of Behavioural Economics 19(1) [On line] Available: http://sjcpl.lib.in.us/homepage/Ebscohost/ EbscoHost.instruct.html [Accessed: 13/12/99]. J.D. SNOWBALL Epstein, R. (2003) " The Regrettable Necessity of Contingent Valuation. " Journal of Cultural Eco-nomics 27: 259–274.
Economic Impact, Business and Household Surveys at the 2003 National Arts Festival Unpublished Paper Funded by the South African National Research Council Census in Brief: Census
  • J Snowball
  • G Antrobus
Snowball, J. and Antrobus, G. (2003) " Economic Impact, Business and Household Surveys at the 2003 National Arts Festival. " Unpublished Paper Funded by the South African National Research Council. Produced at Rhodes University, South Africa. Statistics South Africa. (2003) " Census in Brief: Census 2001. " [On line] Available: www.stassa.gov.za [Accessed 15/04/04].
Elicitation Format and Sensitivity to Scope. " ent Valuation
. and Mourato, S. (2003) " Elicitation Format and Sensitivity to Scope. " ent Valuation. " Journal of conomic Perspectives 8(4): 19–43.
Contingent Valuation vs Econom Complements? Paper Delivered at the Regional Science Association International C Sigelman Do Contingent Valuation Estimates P Jo Snowball
  • C Seaman
C Seaman, A. (2003) " Contingent Valuation vs. Econom Complements? " Paper Delivered at the Regional Science Association International C Sigelman, L. and Zeng, L. a Smith, K. (1996) " Do Contingent Valuation Estimates P Jo Snowball, J. and Antrobus, G. (2001) Im Africa Journal of Economics 69: 4.
  • E Thompson
  • M Berger
  • G Blomquist
  • S Allen
Thompson, E., Berger, M., Blomquist, G. and Allen, S. (2003) " V C T Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 46(4): 279–289.
Economic Impa the 2003 National Arts Festival
  • J Snowball
  • G Antrobus
Snowball, J. and Antrobus, G. (2003) " Economic Impa the 2003 National Arts Festival. " Unpublished Paper Funded by the South African National R Statistics li
Strategic Bias and Demand for Public Goods: Theory an Application to d the Arts Cultural Economics: The Arts, the Heritage nd the Media Industries
  • D Throsby
  • G Withers
Throsby, D. and Withers, G. (1986) " Strategic Bias and Demand for Public Goods: Theory an Application to d the Arts, " in Towse R. (ed.) 1997, Cultural Economics: The Arts, the Heritage nd the Media Industries. Vol. 2 Edward Elgar, Cheltenham. ltural 0. p://www.polity.org.za/govdocs/white apers/ arts.html [Accessed: 25/11/99] 1–26.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Panel on Contingent Valuation US Department of CommerceA. ral Reliability of Estimates from Contingent Valuation
  • K Arrow
  • R Solow
  • P Portney
  • E Leamer
  • R Rader
  • H Schumar
  • K Rrow
  • E Learner
  • H Schuman
  • R R Solow
  • M Hanemann
  • R J Kopp
  • J A Krosnick
  • R C Mitcell
  • S Presser
  • P Ruud
Arrow, K., Solow, R., Portney, P., Leamer, E., Rader, R. and Schumar, H. (1993) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Panel on Contingent Valuation US Department of Commerce. rrow, K., Learner, E., Schuman, H. and Solow, R. (1994) Comments on NOAA Proposed ule of Damage Assessment 69. arson, R., Hanemann, M., Kopp, R.J., Krosnick, J.A., Mitcell, R.C., Presser, S., Ruud, P.A. ral Reliability of Estimates from Contingent Valuation. " Discussion paper 95–37 [On line] Available: methods/non mkt.htm [Accessed 15/3/03].
Tempo esources for the Future
  • A Smith
A R C and Smith, V.K. (1995) " Tempo esources for the Future: Washington DC R http://www.rff.org/
Social Capital and Household Questionnaire Biases -A Pilot Study
  • C Mbathat
Mbathat, C. (2003) "Social Capital and Household Questionnaire Biases -A Pilot Study". Unpublished research paper, Department of Economics, Rhodes University, Grahamstown.
The General Public's Participation in Art Museums: Visitors Differ from s, But Not as Markedly as Case Studies Have Indicated
  • W Endon
endon, W. (1990). " The General Public's Participation in Art Museums: Visitors Differ from s, But Not as Markedly as Case Studies Have Indicated. " American Journal of conomics and Sociology 49(4) [On line] Available: 1–16.
Census in Brief: Census
Statistics South Africa. (2003) "Census in Brief: Census 2001." [On line] Available: www.stassa.gov.za [Accessed 15/04/04].
Economic Impact, Business and Household Surveys at the 2003 National Arts Festival.” Unpublished Paper Funded by the South African National Research Council
  • J. Snowball
Do Contingent Valuation Estimates Pass a Scope Test? A Meta-Analysis
  • K Smith
  • K. Smith
Economic Impact, Business and Household Surveys at the 2003 National Arts Festival.” Unpublished Paper Funded by the South African National Research Council
  • J Snowball
  • G Antrobus
  • J. Snowball
Comments on NOAA Proposed Rule of Damage Assessment 69
  • K Arrow
  • E Learner
  • H Schuman
  • R Solow
Arrow, K., Learner, E., Schuman, H. and Solow, R. (1994) Comments on NOAA Proposed Rule of Damage Assessment 69.
More Lasting Than Bronze: A Story of the 1820 Settlers National Monument”. The Natal Witness Printing and Publishing Company
  • T Neville
  • T. Neville
Contingent Valuation vs
  • A Seaman
  • A. Seaman