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Abstract

Fetuses and children are more susceptible to the effects of environmental toxins. The objective of this article is to determine the levels of organochlorine pesticides (HCB, ss-HCH, pp'DDT, op'DDT and pp'DDE) in the serum lipids of mothers of newborns with cryptorchidism and compare the levels to a control group of mothers of newborns with descended testicles. The cases were composed of newborns with cryptorchidism (n=41), and the controls (n=41) newborns with descended testicles. Blood samples from both groups of mothers were used to determine the organochlorine pesticide levels. Cryptorchidism was diagnosed at birth by a neonatologist. The results showed that the organochlorine pesticide residues were found in the serum lipids of both groups of mothers. The median serum lipid levels (mgkg-1 lipid-based) were statistically higher for the metabolites pp'DDT (0.464 vs. 0.269) and ss-HCH (0.263 vs. 0.192) in the cryptorchidism group compared to the control group (p<0.01). It could be concluded that the levels of the metabolites pp'DDT and ss-HCH are higher among mothers of newborns with cryptorchidism. It is possible that substances with anti-androgenic effects could produce endocrine disruption, such as cryptorchidism, during fetal development.
ARTIGO ARTICLE
1169
Exposición prenatal
a los plaguicidas organoclorados y criptorquidia
Prenatal exposure to organochlorine pesticides and cryptorchidism
Resumen Los productos en desarrollo y los niños
son particularmente vulnerables a los tóxicos am-
bientales. Nuestro objetivo es determinar los nive-
les de plaguicidas organoclorados (HCB, ß-HCH,
pp’DDT, op’DDT y pp’DDE) en lípidos séricos de
madres de niños con criptorquidia y comparar los
niveles con un grupo control de madres de niños
con testículos descendidos. El grupo de los casos fue
constituido por recién nacidos con diagnóstico de
criptorquidia (n=41). El grupo control (n=41) se
conformó por niños con testículos descendidos. A
las madres de ambos grupos se les determinaron los
niveles de plaguicidas organoclorados. La criptor-
quidia fue diagnosticada al nacimiento por neo-
natólogo. Residuos de plaguicidas organoclorados
fueron encontrados en lípidos séricos de ambos gru-
pos. Los niveles de la mediana (mgkg-1 en base
lipídica) fueron mayores para los metabolitos
pp’DDT (0.464 vs. 0.269) y ß-HCH (0.263 vs. 0.192)
en el grupo con criptorquidia comparado con el
grupo control. (p<0.01). Los niveles de los meta-
bolitos pp’DDT y ß-HCH son mayores entre las
madres de los recién nacidos con criptorquidia. Es
posible que sustancias con efectos antiandrogéni-
cos puedan producir disrupción endocrina y crip-
torquidia durante el desarrollo fetal.
Palabras clave Disruptores endocrinos, Exposi-
ción prenatal, Criptorquidia y Plaguicidas orga-
noclorados
Abstract Fetuses and children are more suscepti-
ble to the effects of environmental toxins. The ob-
jective of this article is to determine the levels of
organochlorine pesticides (HCB, ß-HCH, pp’DDT,
op’DDT and pp’DDE) in the serum lipids of moth-
ers of newborns with cryptorchidism and com-
pare the levels to a control group of mothers of
newborns with descended testicles. The cases were
composed of newborns with cryptorchidism
(n=41), and the controls (n=41) newborns with
descended testicles. Blood samples from both groups
of mothers were used to determine the organochlo-
rine pesticide levels. Cryptorchidism was diagnosed
at birth by a neonatologist. The results showed
that the organochlorine pesticide residues were
found in the serum lipids of both groups of moth-
ers. The median serum lipid levels (mgkg-1 lipid-
based) were statistically higher for the metabolites
pp’DDT (0.464 vs. 0.269) and ß-HCH (0.263 vs.
0.192) in the cryptorchidism group compared to
the control group (p<0.01). It could be concluded
that the levels of the metabolites pp´DDT and ß-
HCH are higher among mothers of newborns with
cryptorchidism. It is possible that substances with
anti-androgenic effects could produce endocrine
disruption, such as cryptorchidism, during fetal
development.
Key words Endocrine disrupters, Pre-natal ex-
posure, Cryptorchidism, Organochlorine pesticides
Lília Patrícia Bustamante Montes 1
Stefan Waliszewski 2
María Hernández-Valero 3
Luz Sanín-Aguirre 4
Rosa Maria Infanzón-Ruiz 2
Arlette García Jañas 2
1 Facultad de Medicina,
Universidad Autónoma del
Estado de México. Paseo
Tollocan esquina Jesus
Carranza s/n. 50180 Toluca
Estado de México.
patriciiab@yahoo.com.mx
2 Universidad Veracruzana.
3 The University of Texas M.
D. Anderson Cancer Center.
4 Universidad Autónoma de
Chihuahua.
1170
Montes LPB et al.
Introducción
Los estudios epidemiológicos de los últimos años
revelan que los casos de desórdenes reproducti-
vos en el hombre se han incrementado, lo que se
expresa como disminución del número de esper-
matozoides, cáncer testicular y defectos congéni-
tos como la criptorquidia e hipospadias1. Las
anomalías pueden relacionarse entre sí y tener su
origen común durante el desarrollo.
La hipótesis más fuerte relacionada con el
decremento en la salud reproductiva masculina
tiene que ver con la exposición a químicos am-
bientales con actividad estrogénica y/o antian-
drogénica, estas sustancias llegan al hombre a
través de vapores, alimentos, agua2. Entre los
contaminantes se enlistan los plaguicidas orga-
noclorados, bifenilos policlorados (PCBs), dioxi-
nas, detergentes y plastificantes3-6. Los mecanis-
mos de su acción farmacológica no están bien
definidos, pero por su actividad hormonal o an-
tihormonal consiste en: modular los efectos de
las enzimas que controlan el metabolismo de las
hormonas sexuales, influir directamente en las
glándulas productoras de hormonas o formar
mecanismos de retroalimentación indirecta que
afectan a los niveles de estrógenos7,8.
Las primeras doce semanas de gestación son
críticas en la diferenciación sexual de los genitales
externos del hombre y corresponde además al
período de mayor susceptibilidad a los efectos de
compuestos que influyen en el balance hormo-
nal. El metabolito de la testosterona, la dihidro-
testosterona induce el desarrollo de la próstata y
los genitales externos masculinos. Durante la di-
ferenciación sexual, la exposición del feto a nive-
les residuales de xenoestrógenos puede inducir a
anomalías irreversibles. Durante el segundo y ter-
cer trimestre, continúa el crecimiento de estruc-
turas dependientes de los andrógenos. Los com-
puestos químicos que imitan o actúan como hor-
monas esteroides pueden interferir en grados di-
ferentes a la organogénesis, cuya acción depende
de su concentración, tiempo de exposición y gra-
do de eficiencia farmacológica9,10.
La criptorquidia, es la ausencia de uno o am-
bos testículos en las bolsas escrotales e indica,
que el testículo queda detenido durante su des-
censo desde el retroperitoneo hasta la raíz del
escroto en algún punto de su trayecto antes de
alcanzar su ubicación definitiva en la bolsa es-
crotal. El descenso de los testículos es determina-
do por los andrógenos11. La importancia de la
criptorquidia para la salud pública radica en que
es uno de los pocos factores de riesgo bien esta-
blecidos en la etiología del cáncer testicular, tu-
mor más común en los hombres jóvenes12.
Algunos compuestos químicos sintéticos con
estructura molecular diferente a las hormonas
esteroides, pueden interferir una vez incorpora-
dos al organismo en el mensaje transmitido por
las hormonas endógenas13. Los plaguicidas or-
ganoclorados más comunes incluyen: DDT, Me-
toxicloro, Clordano, Heptacloro, Aldrin, Dieldrin,
Hexaclorobenceno, Lindano. El uso propagado
del DDT originó sus residuos en el ambiente y su
propagación alrededor del mundo. En México
hasta el año 1999 fue utilizado en gran escala
durante las acciones de salud pública en el com-
bate del paludismo. El plaguicida pp’DDT, espe-
cialmente su isómero op´DDT revela actividad
estrogénica, mientras que su metabolito mas per-
sistente el pp’DDE posee actividad antiandrogé-
nica14,15. Aunque estos compuestos no presentan
similitudes en la estructura química con las hor-
monas esteroídes naturales, son capaces de reac-
cionar con los receptores hormonales o bloquear
los receptores androgénicos16. Se ha logrado un
consenso relacionado con la capacidad estrogé-
nica o antiandrogénica de los plaguicidas orga-
noclorados, mientras que todavía existe discu-
sión sobre su capacidad de influir en el desarro-
llo del cáncer mamario y en las alteraciones re-
productoras masculinas.
El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar los
niveles de plaguicidas organoclorados persisten-
tes (el Hexaclorobenceno (HCB) el isómero beta
de hexaclorociclohexano (β-HCH), el para, para
diclorodifenildicloroeteno (pp’DDE), el isómero
orto, para’ diclorodifeniltricloroetano (op’DDT),
el isómero para, para’ diclorodifeniltricloroeta-
no (pp’DDT) en lípidos séricos de madres de ni-
ños con testículos no descendidos (criptorqui-
dia) y comparar los niveles con un grupo control
de madres de niños con testículos descendidos.
Material y métodos
Diseño
Para lograr el objetivo planteado se estudia-
ron binomios de madres-hijos varones y se for-
maron dos grupos, que fue conformándose el
mismo día en que ocurrían los nacimientos. El
grupo de los casos fue constituido por recién na-
cidos con diagnóstico de criptorquidia (n=41). El
grupo control (n=41) se conformó por niños con
testículos descendidos. A las madres de ambos
grupos de niños se invitó a participar en el estu-
1171
Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 15(Supl. 1):1169-1174, 2010
dio. Una vez que aceptaron mediante la firma de
la carta de consentimiento informado les fueron
tomadas una muestra de sangre para determinar
los niveles de plaguicidas organoclorados. Como
se mencionó previamente, los controles fueron
seleccionados en la misma fecha en que los casos
nacieron. Para determinar si el niño presentaba o
no criptorquidia, al nacimiento todos los recién
nacidos fueron explorados por pediatra neona-
tólogo participante del proyecto. Todos los niños
nacieron a término 40 ± 2 semanas de gestación,
sin malformaciones congénitas o complicaciones
que requirieran tratamiento en terapia interme-
dia intensiva. Todos los niños procedías de un
Hospital General que da atención a la población
del Puerto de Veracruz y áreas circunvecinas. De-
bido a que los plaguicidas organoclorados per-
manecen estables a través del tiempo, la toma de
la muestra después del nacimiento del niño no
modifica su concentración y puede considerarse
que fue la exposición durante el embarazo.
Análisis de las muestras
Se obtuvieron aproximadamente 10 ml de
sangre venosa mediante tubo vacutainer, las
muestras fueron centrifugadas para obtener el
suero a 2000 revoluciones por minuto y guarda-
das en refrigeración hasta su procesamiento. Se
identificaron y cuantificaron 5 sustancias o me-
tabolitos: (HCB),(ß-HCH), (pp’DDE), (op’DDT)
y (pp’DDT). Las muestras se analizaron por cro-
matografía de gases con detección por captura
de electrones en un cromatógrafo de gases Va-
rian modelo 3400 CX, mediante método analíti-
co descrito por Waliszewski et al.17. Los límites
de detección fueron para HCB 0.004 mgkg-1, b-
HCH 0.020 mgkg-1, pp’DDE 0.002 mgkg-1,
op’DDT y pp’DDT 0.003 mgkg-1 La cantidad de
lípidos séricos se determinó colorimétricamente.
Análisis estadísticos
Los valores de plaguicida organoclorados en
las muestras del grupo control y en el grupo con
criptorquidias, se calcularon utilizando estadís-
tica básica como: medias y desviación estándar
(x ± DE), medianas y los rangos. Para calcular la
variabilidad entre el grupo control y el grupo con
criptorquidias y debido a que las concentracio-
nes determinadas no poseen distribución nor-
mal, se aplicó la prueba Mann-Whitney para com-
parar la diferencia entre las medianas. Además,
se calcularon las razones de momios (OR) para
determinar la asociación entre los niveles de pla-
guicidas organoclorados en lípidos séricos y la
criptorquidia. Los cálculos estadísticos se reali-
zaron utilizando el programa estadístico Mini-
tab versión 12.
Resultados
Un total de 82 binomios madres-hijos fueron
estudiados, 41 pares del grupo de los casos y 41
pares del grupo de los controles. Los niveles de
plaguicidas organoclorados determinados en 41
muestras séricas de las madres de niños sin
criptorquidia control y 41 muestras séricas de
madres cuyos hijos presentaron criptorquidias
se presentan en la Tabla 1. Se observa que existe
tanto diferencia estadísticamente significativa en
las medianas del para β-HCH y del pp’DDT. La
fuente de exposición a los plaguicidas
organoclorados, se identifica por el cociente de
las concentraciones entre el plaguicida pp’DDT y
su metabolito pp’DDE (DDT/DDE). Para el grupo
control el valor calculado fue promedio de 0.148
± 0.050, mediana 0.121, 95%IC 0.096, 0.188 y el
rango interquartil 0.092. Para el grupo con
estudiado con testículos no descendidos, los
Tabla 1. Mediana y rangos de las concentraciones de plaguicidas organoclorados en lípidos séricos (mg/kg)
de muestras de sangre de madres de niños.
Plaguicidas
HCB
β-HCH
pp’DDE
op’DDT
pp’DDT
Σ-DDT
Casos de criptorquidia
Mediana
0.174
0.192
2.597
0.099
0.464
3.193
Mínimo
0.026
0.025
1.274
0.020
0.186
1.622
Máximo
0.640
0.536
6.139
0.318
1.277
7.262
Mediana
0.134
0.263
2.219
0.088
0.269
2.840
Mínimo
0.031
0.094
0.888
0.005
0.057
1.221
Máximo
0.383
0.889
4.608
0.181
0.838
5.392
Controles
*Prueba Mann Whitney; **Estadisticamente significativa.
1172
Montes LPB et al.
valores fueron siguientes: promedio 0.189 ± 0.029,
mediana 0.186, 95%IC 0.170, 0.230, rango
interquartil 0.033. Calculando la diferencia entre
ambos grupos, al aplicar la prueba t-Student se
encontró las diferencias significativas (p<0.01)
entre los valores promedios y aplicando la prueba
Mann-Whitney, se encontró las diferencias
significativas entre las medianas (p=0.056), (datos
no mostrados en las tablas).
Para evaluar el riesgo de criptorquidias, se
calculó la razón de momios para la relación de
concentraciones pp’DDE/pp’DDT. Los momios
en esta relación revelaron el valor promedio de
1.44 y IC95% (1.12, 1.75). Estos valores muestran
una posible relación positiva entre las
concentraciones del pp’DDE y el plaguicida
pp’DDT en suero materno y presencia de
criptorquidias en varones recién nacidos (Datos
no mostrados en las tablas). La asociación cruda
entre los niveles de pp´DDT y criptorquidia
muestra en la Tabla 2 valores estadísticamente
significativos con una OR de 1.79 e IC al 95%
1.34, 2.24.
Discusión
La criptorquidia consiste en la falta de descenso
de uno o ambos testículos hacia el escroto. Se
reserva para aquellos testículos que están locali-
zados en cualquier lugar del trayecto normal y
que no es posible hacerlos descender.
Se sugiere que la exposición materna a los
xenoestrógenos ambientales como los plaguici-
das organoclorados influye el desarrollo de los
genitales masculinos en el útero. Estudios reali-
zados en animales indican la posibilidad de ac-
ción de los xenoestrógenos en las malformacio-
nes del tracto urogenital. Por otra parte, en estu-
dios clínicos se ha visto que algunos niños con
malformaciones del tracto urogenital presentan
defectos en el metabolismo de la testosterona o
en los receptores de la testosterona.
Los plaguicidas organoclorados permanecen
por mucho tiempo en el ambiente o en los depó-
sitos lipídicos de los organismos. Por su propie-
dad lipofílica, se acumulan en la grasa y biomag-
nifican en la cadena alimenticia. De tal forma,
que la exposición a estas sustancias a lo largo de
la vida de una mujer determina el nivel acumula-
do en el cuerpo y, por su paso a través de la pla-
centa, la exposición del feto desde el momento de
su concepción17-19. Esto es importante para los
estudios epidemiológicos ya que permite tomar
muestras únicas durante el embarazo o poste-
rior a él sin modificación importante para medir
la potencial exposición durante el embarazo.
En los últimos 40 años, varios estudios indi-
can el aumento de incidencia de anomalías geni-
tourinarias en el hombre, tales como criptorqui-
dias. Estas anomalías genitourinarias pueden re-
lacionarse y tener un origen común en la em-
briogénesis. Ya que se ha dado el deterioro en un
periodo relativamente corto, se sospecha como
promotores de estas patologías a los agentes am-
bientales. Esta posibilidad se ve apoyada por el
hecho de que algunos contaminantes ambienta-
les poseen actividad estrogénica o antiandrogé-
nica. Entre los contaminantes, los plaguicidas
organoclorados pudieran causar este deterioro
reproductivo. Los mecanismos de acción de es-
tos compuestos no se conocen completamente,
pero pueden tener una actividad antiandrogéni-
ca, modular los efectos de las enzimas que con-
trolan el metabolismo de las hormonas sexuales,
influir directamente en las glándulas producto-
ras de hormonas o producir mecanismos de re-
troalimentación indirecta que afecta a los niveles
de estrógenos. La mayor parte de exposición en
la población general se da por inhalar sus vapo-
res y por medio de la dieta, al consumir alimen-
tos contaminados.
Los resultados del estudio indican la presen-
cia de los residuos de plaguicidas organoclora-
dos en lípidos séricos en las madres de ambos
grupos. Debido a que la procedencia de las mues-
tras fue aleatoria y que la distribución de los re-
sultados del análisis no posee carácter normal,
en la Tabla 1 se enlistaron los resultados de las
medianas para compararlos entre el grupo con-
trol y el grupo con criptorquidias. Los valores
(mgkg-1 en base lipídica) indican concentracio-
nes superiores de HCB (0.174 vs. 0.134), pp’DDE
(2.597 vs. 2.219), op’DDT (0.099 vs. 0.088) y
Plaguicidas
HCB
β-HCH
pp’DDE
op’DDT
pp’DDT
Σ-DDT
OR
1.17*
0.93
1.10*
1.28*
1.79*
1.14*
(95% IC)
(1.08, 1.27)
(0.69, 1.16)
(1.05, 1.16)
(1.14, 1.43)
(1.34, 2.24)
(1.09, 1.19)
*Estadisticamente significativos.
Tabla 2. Razón de momios (OR) de exposición a los
metabolitos de plaguicidas organoclorados y
posibilidad de presentar criptorquidia.
1173
Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 15(Supl. 1):1169-1174, 2010
pp’DDT (0.464 vs. 0.269) en el grupo de criptor-
quidias y del β-HCH (0.263 vs. 0.192) en el gru-
po control. En la Tabla 1 se muestran los resulta-
dos que se obtuvieron al probar si había diferen-
cia en las concentraciones entre ambos grupos,
al aplicar la prueba de comparación entre las me-
dianas (Mann Whitney) el resultado reveló dife-
rencias significativas (p<0.05) entre las concen-
traciones de β-HCH y el plaguicida pp’DDT de-
terminadas en ambos grupos.
La asociación entre una exposición y un daño
y su magnitud, se estipula calculando la razón de
momios, cuyos resultados se muestran en la Ta-
bla 2. Los momios de exposición para el plagui-
cida pp´DDT son mayores entre las madres de
niños que padecen criptorquidia que entre las
madres de niños con descenso testicular, esta aso-
ciación es estadísticamente significativa OR= 1.79
IC 95% (1.34, 2.24). Estos resultados soportan la
hipótesis planteada, en el sentido de que sustan-
cias con efectos antiandrogénicos pueden pro-
ducir disrupción endocrina durante el desarrollo
manifestado en este caso como criptorquidias
como ya ha sido demostrado en animales y em-
pieza a confirmarse en humanos19-21.
Variables como la edad y la escolaridad se
probaron en modelos multivariados los cuales
no mostraron ninguna asociación ni modifica-
ción de la medida de asociación probablemente
por la poca variabilidad mostrada. Sin embargo
consideramos que para futuros estudios debe-
rán recopilarse mayor información sobre carac-
terísticas sociodemográficas.
Considerando los riesgos a los que puede ex-
ponerse un niño con criptorquidia, incluyendo
infertilidad, riesgo de exposición a agentes físicos
(calor) y riesgo aumentado para cáncer ya que
ha sido una de las patologías incluidas en el lla-
mado síndrome de disgenesia testicular (SDT)
vale la pena la profundización en este aspecto a
través de programas de investigación acción que
incluyan la vigilancia epidemiológica en pobla-
ciones de riesgo y/o con antecedentes epidemio-
lógicos de exposición.
Colaboradores
LPB Montes, S Waliszewski, M Hernández-
Valero, L Sanín-Aguirre, RM Infanzón-Ruiz e AG
Jañas participarán igualemente de todas las etapas
del documento.
Agradecimientos
Este trabajo se desarrolló gracias a la contribu-
ción económica y de colaboración de los inte-
grantes de la Red de Cuerpos Académicos Salud,
Trabajo y Ambiente pertenecientes a la Universi-
dad Veracruzana, Autónomas de los Estados de
México y de Chihuahua y con la colaboración de
la Universidad de Texas M. D. Anderson Cáncer
Center.
1174
Montes LPB et al.
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Artigo apresentado em 29/01/2008
Aprovado em 07/04/2008
Versão final apresentada em 29/10/2008
Referencias
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... A case-control study conducted in Mexico reported that children whose mothers had higher serum hexachlorobenzene (HCB), b-HCH, DDT, or DDE concentrations at delivery had increased odds of cryptorchidism. 161 Similarly, publications from studies conducted in Brazil [162][163][164] and Mexico 165 reported associations of parental occupational pesticide use or environmental pesticide exposure (e.g., being born in a floricultural community) before or during pregnancy-ascertained via questionnaire-with increased odds of congenital malformations, including male external genital malformations. In contrast, publications from case-control studies in Brazil 166 and Guadeloupe 167 found null associations between pesticide exposure and malformations in general. ...
... Waliszewski et al. measured the concentration of organochlorine pesticides in serum and adipose tissue of exposed Mexican women, and in the serum of the umbilical cord of their children, which showed that these substances cross the placental barrier and tend to reach a balance in the concentrations between mother and fetus 15 . Additional studies carried out in Mexico have shown an association between levels of the metabolites pp'DDT and β-HCH, both in mothers and in NBs diagnosed with cryptorchidism, as part of an endocrine disruption process produced by these pesticides 16 . ...
Article
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Background: The period between conception and the first two postnatal years is critical and marks the individual, largely determining their health and disease patterns. Objective: To review the effect of pesticide exposure in utero and in the 1st years of life. Materials and methods: The scientific literature in relation to the subject was reviewed, both in animal models and in humans. Results: The presence of various types of pesticides in umbilical cord blood and in meconium is well documented in newborns worldwide, including Mexico. Pesticides have been associated with low birth weight, and various birth defects at the heart, gastrointestinal tract, genitourinary system, musculoskeletal system, and neurodevelopmental disorders. These substances may play a role in the increase in cases of autistic disorder. Conclusions: Despite the evidence, there are no public policies in many countries, including Mexico, to control the sale and use of pesticides. It is required to prevent exposure to these substances in the population and to do follow-up studies in mother-child pairs where exposure is suspected.
... However, there is a recent study which has reported local and regional sources of organochlorine pesticides (OCP) in a rural zone in central Chile, and concluded that soil volatilization is the major OCP source [53]. This family of pesticides has also been associated with cytogenetic damages [54], cryptorchidism [55], fertility [56], and reproductive hormone disruptions [57,58]. In our study, the infertility has not been medically diagnosed, it was only assessed by each woman participating in the study as the years she had been trying to get pregnant. ...
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Significant risks to human health have been associated with chronic exposure to low doses of pesticides, a situation which may be frequent among agricultural workers. In this context, and regarding the agricultural-based economy of central Chile, we aimed to explore the genotoxic damage in agricultural workers and reproductive risk among women in rural and urban areas of Curicó, a traditional agricultural district in Chile. Hence, we sampled a group of rural agricultural workers associated with pesticide management (n = 30) and an urban unexposed group (n = 30). Our results showed that the agricultural workers had higher micronuclei frequencies (MN: β = 13.27; 95% CI low = 11.08, CI high = 15.47) and women had a 40-fold higher risk of reproductive problems (OR = 40.32; 95% CI low = 2.60, CI high = 624.31) than the unexposed group. The factor analysis of mixed data (FAMD) showed that neither the sex nor smoking habits appear to define the ordination of the data. Nevertheless, the exposure level did segregate them in the multidimensional space (explained variance: 35.38% dim-1; 18.63% dim-2). This pilot study highlights the higher risks of biological conditions negatively associated with the health of agricultural workers.
... A case-control study conducted in Mexico reported that children whose mothers had higher serum hexachlorobenzene (HCB), b-HCH, DDT, or DDE concentrations at delivery had increased odds of cryptorchidism. 161 Similarly, publications from studies conducted in Brazil [162][163][164] and Mexico 165 reported associations of parental occupational pesticide use or environmental pesticide exposure (e.g., being born in a floricultural community) before or during pregnancy-ascertained via questionnaire-with increased odds of congenital malformations, including male external genital malformations. In contrast, publications from case-control studies in Brazil 166 and Guadeloupe 167 found null associations between pesticide exposure and malformations in general. ...
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Background: Multiple epidemiological studies have shown that exposure to pesticides is associated with adverse health outcomes. However, the literature on pesticide-related health effects in the Latin American and the Caribbean (LAC) region, an area of intensive agricultural and residential pesticide use, is sparse. We conducted a scoping review to describe the current state of research on the health effects of pesticide exposure in LAC populations with the goal of identifying knowledge gaps and research capacity building needs. Methods: We searched PubMed and SciELO for epidemiological studies on pesticide exposure and human health in LAC populations published between January 2007 and December 2021. We identified 233 publications from 16 countries that met our inclusion criteria and grouped them by health outcome (genotoxicity, neurobehavioral outcomes, placental outcomes and teratogenicity, cancer, thyroid function, reproductive outcomes, birth outcomes and child growth, and others). Results: Most published studies were conducted in Brazil (37%, n=88) and Mexico (20%, n=46), were cross-sectional in design (72%, n=167), and focused on farmworkers (45%, n=105) or children (21%, n=48). The most frequently studied health effects included genotoxicity (24%, n=62) and neurobehavioral outcomes (21%, n=54), and organophosphate (OP) pesticides were the most frequently examined (26%, n=81). Forty-seven percent (n=112) of the studies relied only on indirect pesticide exposure assessment methods. Exposure to OP pesticides, carbamates, or to multiple pesticide classes was consistently associated with markers of genotoxicity and adverse neurobehavioral outcomes, particularly among children and farmworkers. Discussion: Our scoping review provides some evidence that exposure to pesticides may adversely impact the health of LAC populations, but methodological limitations and inconsistencies undermine the strength of the conclusions. It is critical to increase capacity building, integrate research initiatives, and conduct more rigorous epidemiological studies in the region to address these limitations, better inform public health surveillance systems, and maximize the impact of research on public policies. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP9934.
... The presence of pesticides in the environment has also been associated with other adverse health outcomes, including congenital disabilities (Ueker et al., 2016), cryptorchidism (Bustamante et al., 2010), endocrine modulation (Hernández-Mariano et al., 2017), leukemia (Ferreira et al., 2013;Chun-Mei, 2018), brain tumors (Roberts and Karr, 2012), asthma (Raanan et al., 2016;Benka-Coker et al., 2019), and autistic-like traits and autism spectrum disorder (Sagiv et al., 2018;von Ehrenstein et al., 2019). ...
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Exposure to pesticides during infancy is associated with numerous adverse health outcomes. The assessment of knowledge and perception of pesticides exposure and risk among children has not been thoroughly studied. The aim of the study was to evaluate the reliability and validity of a questionnaire that measures the knowledge and perception of exposure to organophosphate pesticides among rural schoolchildren. The questionnaire was administered to 151 schoolchildren between 9 and 13years from four Chilean rural schools. An internal consistency analysis of the ordinal alpha coefficient and a polychoric factor analysis for categorical data were used. The results show that the ordinal alpha was 0.95. Polychoric matrices of rotated components show the 17 questions summarized pesticide knowledge in five factors extracted after promax rotation. This factorial model explains 56.3% of the variance. The questions were grouped as follows: knowledge about pesticides (Factor 1); knowledge of health effects related to pesticides exposure (Factor 2); pesticide exposure through the growing of fruits and vegetables (Factor 3); perception and action against pesticides exposure at school (Factor 4); and perception and action against pesticides exposure at home (Factor 5). The questionnaire provides a useful tool for examining pesticide exposure in agricultural regions, allowing younger community members to participate.
... The presence of pesticides in the environment has also been associated with other adverse health outcomes, including congenital disabilities (Ueker et al., 2016), cryptorchidism (Bustamante et al., 2010), endocrine modulation (Hernández-Mariano et al., 2017), leukemia (Ferreira et al., 2013;Chun-Mei, 2018), brain tumors (Roberts and Karr, 2012), asthma (Raanan et al., 2016;Benka-Coker et al., 2019), and autistic-like traits and autism spectrum disorder (Sagiv et al., 2018;von Ehrenstein et al., 2019). ...
... They suggested that, in fertile men, exposure to low environmental levels of BPA may be associated with a modest decrease in markers of free testosterone, but effects on reproductive function are expected to be small. Further, Bustamante et al. (2010) concluded that the levels of the metabolites pp'DDT and β-HCH are higher among mothers of newborns with cryptorchidism. They mentioned that exposure to substances during fetal development with anti-androgenic effects could produce endocrine disruption, such as cryptorchidism. ...
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Human and all the living beings are exposed to certain chemical, physical, biological, environmental as well as occupational factors during their day to day activities. Some of them may have adverse impact upon health including reproduction. There are reports which suggest that deterioration of reproductive health occurs in industrialized countries in recent decades. Thus, exposure to certain synthetic chemicals and changing life styles might be one of the cause behind the deterioration of reproductive health in recent decades. The available data indicated that occupational/environmental exposure especially to some of the organic solvents, pesticides, metals, plasticizers such as phthalates; ionizing and nonionizing radiations, extreme heat, stress might have adverse effects on male reproduction and associated function which depends upon the dose, duration of exposure, age, time of exposure, and health status of exposed person, nutrition etc. Some of the life styles factors such as tobacco smoking and chewing, excessive use of alcohol, certain illicit drugs and sedentary life style, working in hot environment etc. may also have some impact upon male reproduction in addition to host factors. Human are exposed to some of them simultaneously so that there may be of synergistic effects of these factors behind the cause of deterioration of reproductive health. Hence it is difficult to pinpoint a single compound or factor responsible for the cause of declining semen quality. There is a need for awareness among the society about the adverse effects of these factors behind the cause for the deterioration in semen quality and associated reproductive health impairments observed in recent decades so that preventive measure can be adopted to safeguard reproductive health.
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Mato Grosso is the largest agricultural producer and the largest national consumer of pesticides in Brazil. Maternal exposure to pesticides in the periconceptional period has been associated with increased risk of congenital malformations. This article aims to analyze the association between the use of pesticides and congenital malformations in cities with highest exposure to pesticides in Mato Grosso. It was a case-control study conducted with 219 live births with congenital malformations and 862 live births. The average use of pesticides was estimated in the prior and subsequent trimester to the date of fertilization and throughout the periconceptional period per city, month and year of use. Subsequently, these measures were quartilized and transformed into indicator-type (dummy) variables, attributing an exposure level for each interquartile interval. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis was conducted. Significant associations were observed (p < 0.05) in the third (OR = 1.66, 95% CI 0.98 to 2.79) and fourth quartile (OR = 1.88, 95% CI 1.09 to 3.24) of the post-fertilization period and the fourth quartile (OR = 2.04, 95% CI 1.17 to 3.56) throughout the periconceptional period. Maternal exposure to pesticides was associated with higher incidence of congenital malformations. © 2014, Associacao Brasileira de Pos - Graduacao em Saude Coletiva. All rights Reserved.
Article
Exposure to organochlorine pesticides was studied in a group of mother-infant pairs living in a rural area where agriculture is the main economic activity. Fumigation in this zone is performed with airplanes, thus affecting the inhabited areas around them, including schools. Heparinized venous blood of mothers and umbilical cords was used to evaluate the olive tail moment in the comet assay, and micronuclei, chromatin buds, and nucleoplasmic bridges in peripheral blood lymphocytes. Cord blood samples were taken at the moment of birth only from natural and normal parturitions. Determinations of hexachlorobenzene, aldrin, heptachlor epoxide, oxichlordane, t and c-chlordane, cis-nonachlor, mirex, alpha and beta-endosulfan, alpha, beta and gamma hexachlorocyclohexane, and p'p'-DDT, p'p'-DDE were conducted to establish the differential distribution of the toxicants between compartments, i.e., mother and umbilical cord. Significantly higher pesticide levels were found in umbilical cord plasma than in mothers' plasma for almost all compounds tested, except DDE and oxychlordane. Significantly higher olive tail moments were found in umbilical cords than in mothers, whereas micronuclei frequencies were higher in mothers than in umbilical cords. However, neither the levels of micronuclei nor the olive tail moment were correlated with pesticide levels. Given that no other exposure to toxic compounds has been identified in this region, the lack of correlation between genotoxicity biomarkers and pesticide levels may be due to the variability of the exposure and to endogenous processes related to lipid mobility during pregnancy, the metabolism of the compounds, and individual susceptibilities. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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This review addresses whether there is a secular increasing trend in male repro-ductive developmental disorders (cryptorchidism, hypospadias, testis cancer, low sperm counts), and highlights the limitations of available data and how these issues are being ad-dressed. These disorders are considered to represent a syndrome of disorders [testicular dys-genesis syndrome (TDS)] with a common origin in fetal life, and in which "endocrine dis-ruption" plays a central role. The potential involvement of environmental estrogens in the etiology of these disorders is reviewed in light of new understanding about the pathways and dose–effect relationships of estrogen action on male reproductive development. Several new pathways of estrogen action have been identified, including suppression of the production of testosterone and insulin-like factor-3 by fetal/neonatal Leydig cells and suppression of an-drogen receptor expression in androgen target tissues. It is tentatively concluded that identi-fied environmental chemicals are unlikely to activate these pathways because of their intrin-sically weak estrogenicity. However, chemicals that may alter endogenous estrogen production, bioavailability, or inactivation represent a new focus of concern. Additionally, environmental chemicals that alter endogenous levels of androgens in the rat fetus (certain phthalates) induce a similar collection of disorders to TDS. Whether human exposure to such compounds might contribute to TDS remains to be shown, but studies in animals should help to define susceptible pathways for induction of TDS.
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Sewage, a complex mixture of organic and inorganic chemicals, is considered to be a major source of environmental pollution. A random screen of 20 organic man-made chemicals present in liquid effluents revealed that half appeared able to interact with the estradiol receptor. This was demonstrated by their ability to inhibit binding of 17 beta-estradiol to the fish estrogen receptor. Further studies, using mammalian estrogen screens in vitro, revealed that the two phthalate esters butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP) and di-n-butylphthalate (DBP) and a food antioxidant, butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) were estrogenic; however, they were all less estrogenic than the environmental estrogen octylphenol. Phthalate esters, used in the production of various plastics (including PVC), are among the most common industrial chemicals. Their ubiquity in the environment and tendency to bioconcentrate in animal fat are well known. Neither BBP nor DBP were able to act as antagonists, indicating that, in the presence of endogenous estrogens, their overall effect would be cumulative. Recently, it has been suggested that environmental estrogens may be etiological agents in several human diseases, including disorders of the male reproductive tract and breast and testicular cancers. The current finding that some phthalate compounds and some food additives are weakly estrogenic in vitro, needs to be supported by further studies on their effects in vivo before any conclusions can be made regarding their possible role in the development of these conditions. Images Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4.
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The increase in the number of reports of abnormalities in male sex development in wildlife and humans coincided with the introduction of 'oestrogenic' chemicals such as DDT (1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane) into the environment. Although these phenotypic alterations are thought to be mediated by the oestrogen receptor, they are also consistent with inhibition of androgen receptor-mediated events. Here we report that the major and persistent DDT metabolite, p,p'-DDE (1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene), has little ability to bind the oestrogen receptor, but inhibits androgen binding to the androgen receptor, androgen-induced transcriptional activity, and androgen action in developing, pubertal and adult male rats. The results suggest that abnormalities in male sex development induced by p,p'-DDE and related environmental chemicals may be mediated at the level of the androgen receptor.
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Recent reports have suggested that the incidence of genitourinary abnormalities in human males has increased during the past 50 years, including congenital abnormalities such as cryptorchidism and hypospadia, which seem to be occurring more commonly. Also, the incidence of testicular cancer has increased 3- to 4-fold since the 1940s. This increase seems to be worldwide including countries with a very high frequency of testicular neoplasia as well as those in which this cancer is rather uncommon. It has also been postulated that semen quality has been decreasing for the last half century. A recent study showed that the average sperm density has decreased significantly from 113 million/mL in 1940 to 66 million/mL in 1990. The mean seminal volume has also declined, indicating that the decrease in the total sperm count is even more pronounced than the fall in sperm density would indicate. The remarkable increase in frequency of testicular abnormalities over a relatively short period of time may be due to environmental rather than genetic factors. There is an epidemiological link between the occurrence of different testicular abnormalities. Therefore, common prenatally acting etiological factors with adverse effects on the fetal male gonad might be suspected. However, postnatal influences may also have a deleterious effect on male fertility. From the reproductive point of view, an increased impact on the human male gonad is of concern.
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Found internally, certain compounds are important biological signals; found in the environment, they can become just so much noise.
Article
Several epidemiologic studies have demonstrated during the last 50 years an increased incidence in testis cancer, male genital tract malformations (cryptorchidism and hypospadias) and a decrease in sperm quality in men. These three pathologies seem to be linked and to belong to the testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS). It was suggested that TDS is a consequence of intra-uterine exposure to environmental compounds that disrupt the metabolism of native hormones. Such substances are so called endocrine disruptors (EDs). EDs are present in our daily environment such as food and water (through the use of pesticides), cosmetics, house-care products etc. Experimental models have been carried out to (i) establish a link between EDs exposure and SDT and (ii) identify the mechanisms that are involved in. After a brief definition of EDs and having underlined the importance of the window of exposure to EDs, several mechanisms will be described such as (i) intergenerational transmission (epigenetic), (ii) programmed cell death of testicular cells, (iii) modification of the androgenic signal and (iv) role of the germ cells-nourishing cells. To conclude, we will try to propose some biomarkers that would be useful to identify the potential link between fetal exposure to anti-androgenic EDs and male testicular pathology.
Article
This review addresses whether there is a secular increasing trend in mate reproductive developmental disorders (cryptorchidism, hypospadias, testis cancer, low sperm counts), and highlights the limitations of available data and how these issues are being addressed. These disorders are considered to represent a syndrome of disorders [testicular dysgenesis syndrome (TDS)] with a common origin in fetal life, and in which "endocrine disruption" plays a central role. The potential involvement of environmental estrogens in the etiology of these disorders is reviewed in light of new understanding about the pathways and dose-effect relationships of estrogen action on male reproductive development. Several new pathways of estrogen action have been identified, including suppression of the production of testosterone and insulin-like factor-3 by fetal/neonatal Leydig cells and suppression of androgen receptor expression in androgen target tissues. It is tentatively concluded that identified environmental chemicals are unlikely to activate these pathways because of their intrinsically weak estrogenicity. However, chemicals that may alter endogenous estrogen production, bioavailability, or inactivation represent a new focus of concern. Additionally, environmental chemicals that alter endogenous levels of androgens in the rat fetus (certain phthalates) induce a similar collection of disorders to TDS. Whether human exposure to such compounds might contribute to TDS remains to be shown, but studies in animals should help to define susceptible pathways for induction of TDS.
Article
To date, there is no conclusive evidence that ERs are present in preimplantation embryos. There are reports that estrogen is made by the rabbit blastocyst (61), and estrogens have been used to induce implantation in mice (62), but whether estrogens act through ERs in the embryo or in the maternal uterus is not known. ERs may be present in early embryos, but if so, levels are below the methods of detection used thus far. Perhaps with more sensitive immunodetection methods, it may be possible to detect ERs in embryos if they are present. Using PCR, messenger RNA for ER has been detected as early as the oocyte stage in mouse embryos (Q. Hou and J. Gorski, unpublished results). This was confirmed recently by Wu et al. (83a). Figure 7 shows a model for the pattern of ER expression in the developing mouse fetus based on the various reports discussed in this review. ERs are present in the 10-day mouse fetus, possibly in the developing ambisexual reproductive tract. Analysis of seven individual 10-day-old fetuses taken from the same litter showed similar levels of an immunostained protein the size of the ER in each fetus (57). The pattern of expression of ER between implantation and the development of the reproductive tract may be the same in male and female mice. Estrogen, acting through ERs, may be one factor (of many) that determines which cells are destined to be part of the indifferent reproductive tract. We were not able to isolate fetal mouse reproductive tracts at an indifferent stage (day 10) due to their very small size. One way to study ER in the indifferent reproductive tract would be to examine these tissues in a larger animal, such as the bovine, using similar immunodetection methods.