ArticlePDF AvailableLiterature Review

Impact of Resistance Training on Endurance Performance

Authors:

Abstract

In accordance with the principles of training specificity, resistance and endurance training induce distinct muscular adaptations. Endurance training, for example, decreases the activity of the glycolytic enzymes, but increases intramuscular substrate stores, oxidative enzyme activities, and capillary, as well as mitochondrial, density. In contrast, resistance or strength training reduces mitochondrial density, while marginally impacting capillary density, metabolic enzyme activities and intramuscular substrate stores (except muscle glycogen). The training modalities do induce one common muscular adaptation: they transform type IIb myofibres into IIa myofibres. This transformation is coupled with opposite changes in fibre size (resistance training increases, and endurance training decreases, fibre size), and, in general, myofibre contractile properties. As a result of these distinct muscular adaptations, endurance training facilitates aerobic processes, whereas resistance training increases muscular strength and anaerobic power. Exercise performance data do not fit this paradigm, however, as they indicate that resistance training or the addition of resistance training to an ongoing endurance exercise regimen, including running or cycling, increases both short and long term endurance capacity in sedentary and trained individuals. Resistance training also appears to improve lactate threshold in untrained individuals during cycling. These improvements may be linked to the capacity of resistance training to alter myofibre size and contractile properties, adaptations that may increase muscular force production. In contrast to running and cycling, traditional dry land resistance training or combined swim and resistance training does not appear to enhance swimming performance in untrained individuals or competitive swimmers, despite substantially increasing upper body strength. Combined swim and swim-specific 'in-water' resistance training programmes, however, increase a competitive swimmer's velocity over distances up to 200 m. Traditional resistance training may be a valuable adjunct to the exercise programmes followed by endurance runners or cyclists, but not swimmers; these latter athletes need more specific forms of resistance training to realise performance improvement.
The effect of strength training on endurance performance: a new form of cross training?
Hirofumi Tanaka and Thomas Swensen
Department of Exercise and Sport Sciences
Ithaca College
Ithaca NY 14850
and
Department of Kinesiology
University of Colorado
Boulder CO 80309-0354
Winter 1997
2
Summary
In accordance with the principals of training specificity, strength and endurance exercise induce distinct
muscular adaptations. Endurance training, for example, decreases the activity of the glycolytic enzymes, but
increases intramuscular substrate stores, the activity of the oxidative enzymes, and capillary and mitochondrial
density. In contrast, weight training reduces mitochondria density, while marginally impacting capillary density, the
activity of the metabolic enzymes, and intramuscular substrate stores other than glycogen, which increases
significantly. The training modalities do induce one common muscular adaptation: they transform type IIb
myofibers into IIa myofibers. This transformation is coupled with opposite changes in fiber size, and in general,
contractile properties. As a result of these distinct muscular adaptations, endurance training facilitates aerobic
processes, whereas weight training increases strength and anaerobic power. Some performance data do not fit this
paradigm, however, as they indicate that strength training or the addition of strength training to an endurance
exercise regimen, which includes running or cycling, increases short- or long-term work capacity in sedentary or
well-trained individuals during treadmill exercise or cycle ergometry. Additional data show that strength training
also improves the lactate threshold in untrained subjects during cycling. These improvements may be linked to
strength training’s ability to alter myofiber size and contractile properties, adaptations that may increase muscle
force production. In contrast, traditional dry-land weight training or combined swim and weight training does not
enhance performance in competitive swimmers, despite substantially increasing upper body strength. Combined
swim and swim specific in-water resistance training programs, however, increase a competitive swimmer’s velocity
in distances up to 200 m. This change is more closely associated with improved stroke mechanics than increased
strength, which suggests that stroke mechanics are a more crucial determinate for swim success. In all, traditional
weight training may be a valuable adjunct to the exercise programs followed by endurance runners or cyclists, but
not swimmers; these latter athletes need more specific forms of resistance training to realize performance gains.
3
Introduction
Traditional endurance training increases an athlete’s ability to perform low-resistance, high-repetition
exercise, but marginally impacts strength and anaerobic power. In contrast, weight training improves an athlete’s
ability to perform high-resistance, low-repetition exercise, but marginally affects endurance. It is inconsistent,
therefore, to prescribe strength training to an athlete who only wants to improve endurance, as such a prescription
violates the principles of training specificity, i.e., training programs should simulate the athlete’s mode of exercise
(McCafferty and Horvath 1977).
To perform well in most endurance sports, however, athletes need more than an enhanced long-term work
capacity; they also require strength and anaerobic power, abilities needed for climbing short steep hills, attacking,
and sprinting (Burke 1983, Bulbulian et al. 1986). To obtain proficiency at these skills, athletes typically perform
intense short intervals (Daniels and Scardina 1984), but many coaches and trainers have recently started to prescribe
strength training in conjunction with or in lieu of intervals, particularly in the off-season. This prescription is based
on weight training’s ability to improve strength and anaerobic power, and as result, possibly endurance
performance. In this capacity, weight training may be viewed as a form of cross-training, albeit a non-traditional
application of the concept. Traditionally, cross-training involves activities that produce a common goal, such as
improving V
.
O
2
max (Tanaka 94). Weight training fits this paradigm, but from a different perspective: as with short
intervals, it enhances anaerobic power. The body of scientific literature, however, is equivocal on strength
training’s impact on endurance performance.
Our purpose, therefore, is to examine the research on weight, endurance, and combined weight and
endurance training to understand the physiological basis for adding strength exercises to an endurance athlete’s
training regimen. To tighten our focus, we will concentrate only on the muscular adaptations induced by these
aforementioned training modalities. In the remaining sections of this review, we will examine strength training’s
impact on endurance run, cycle, and swim performance, the three forms of exercise traditionally integrated into a
cross-training regimen (Tanaka 1994)
4
Physiological Adaptations to Strength and Endurance Training
Strength training involves high load, low velocity muscular contractions, whereas endurance training
involves low load, high velocity muscular contractions. As a result of these differences, each training mode
produces distinct physiological adaptations in the trained musculature. Strength training, for example, induces
muscle hypertrophy as measured by increased cross-sectional area in all fiber types or just the fast twitch fibers
(Hather et al. 1991, Houston et al. 1983, Kraemer et al. 1995, MacDougall et al. 1979, MacDougall et al. 1980,
Ploutz et al. 1994, Staron et al. 1989, Staron et al. 1991, Tesch et al. 1987). This hypertrophy reflects an increase in
muscle protein content, resulting in increased fiber size and possibly number (Goldberg et al. 1975, Gonyea 1981,
Kraemer et al. 1996, MacDougall 1992). Strength training also alters the ratio of the fast twitch fibers, as IIa fiber
percentage increases and IIb fiber percentage decreases, a concomitant change reflecting a IIb to IIa fiber
transformation at a histochemical and myosin isoform level (Abernathy et al. 1994, Adams et al. 1993, Fitts and
Widrick 1996, Hather et al. 1991, Klitgaard et al. 1990, Kraemer et al. 1995, Kraemer et al. 1996, MacDougall et al.
1980, Ploutz et al. 1994, Staron et al. 1989, Staron et al. 1991, Staron et al. 1994).
In contrast to these structural changes, strength training has only a modest impact on the activity of the
metabolic enzymes. Short-term training programs (< 24 wk), for example, induce little to no change in the activity
of the phosphagen, glycolytic, or oxidative enzymes, including myokinase (MK), myosin ATPase, creatine kinase
(CK), hexokinase, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), phosphofructokinase, succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), citrate
synthase, and 3-OH-acyl-co-A-dehydrogenase (Hickson et al. 1988, Houston et al. 1983, Nelson et al. 1990, Ploutz
et al. 1994, Tesch et al. 1987, Tesch et al. 1990, Thorstensson et al. 1976). Longer-term weight training programs
affect most of the aforementioned enzymes similarly, although the activity of LDH and MK in the fast twitch fibers
of highly trained athletes is higher when compared to sedentary controls (Tesch et al. 1989).
Similar to strength training’s impact on enzyme activity, its affect on muscle capillarization is also modest.
The data from most studies indicated that strength training induces capillary neoformation, or implied that
neoformation occurs because capillary density does not change despite muscle hypertrophy (Hather et al. 1991,
Lüthi et al. 1986, Schantz 1982). The data from another study, however, showed that strength training does not
induce capillary neoformation, as capillary density but not number decreases (Tesch et al. 1984). Note that even if
5
strength training induces capillary neoformation, it does not increase capillary density. At best, strength training
maintains capillary density, which suggests that the O
2
diffusion distance, and hence O
2
delivery, will remain at pre-
training levels.
Compared to strength training’s affect on capillarization, its impact on mitochondrial density is
pronounced, as the density of this key metabolic organelle decreases, primarily via hypertrophy induced dilution
(MacDougall et al. 1979, MacDougall et al. 1986, Lüthi et al. 1986). In contrast, strength training equivocally
impacts the levels of intramuscular phosphagen and ATP, as data from one study indicated that strength training
increases these variables, whereas data from another study showed that they did not change (MacDougall et al.
1977, Tesch et al. 1990). Strength training does, however, increase the glycogen content of the trained musculature
(MacDougall et al. 1977 and Tesch et al. 1986).
In all, the most germane adaptive response to strength training may be the increase in myofiber size, which
is linked to altered contractile properties (Fitts and Widrick 1996, Widrick et al. 1996 a and b). Collectively, these
adaptations may increase muscle force production, and hence, constitute the musculature’s contribution to the
changes associated with weight training, such as increased strength, Wingate performance, short-term power output,
and time to exhaustion at heavy submaximal workloads (Bryant et al. 1988, Duchateau and Hinuat 1995, Fitts and
Widrick 1996, Hickson et al. 1980, Hickson et al. 1988, Kraemer et al. 1995). Note that the increases in short-term
power output and time to exhaustion at heavy submaximal work loads were not associated with significant changes
in V
.
O
2
max. Indeed, when all forms of weight training are considered together, this training modality increases
V
.
O
2
max by less than 3%, and then only in untrained or moderately active individuals (Allen et al. 1976, Gettman et
al. 1978, Gettman et al. 1979, Gettman and Pollock 1981, Gettman et al. 1982, Hickson 1980, Hickson et al. 1980,
Hickson et al. 1988, Hunter et al. 1987, Hurley et al. 1984, Kraemer et al. 1995, Nelson et al. 1990, Wilmore et al.
1978).
In contrast to strength training, endurance exercise unequivocally increases capillary density, mitochondrial
density, the activity of the oxidative enzymes, and intramuscular substrate stores, while also reducing the activity of
the glycolytic enzymes (Dudley and Djamil 1985, Hickson et al. 1980, Hollozsy and Booth 1976, Hollozsy and
Coyle 1984, Klausen et al. 1981, Sale et al. 1990, Saltin and Gollnick 1983). As with strength training, endurance
exercise also alters the size and ratio of the fast twitch fibers, as it decreases their cross-sectional area, while
6
increasing IIa and decreasing IIb fiber percentages, a concomitant change reflecting a fiber transformation at a
histochemical and myosin isoform level (Fitts et al. 1989, Fitts and Widrick 1996, Jansson and Kaijser 1977,
Kraemer et al. 1995, Simoneau et al. 1985, Staron and Johnson 1993, Tesch and Karlsson 1985).
Endurance training’s impact on type I fiber percentage and size, however, is minimal when compared to
the type II fibers, as most data indicate that this training modality does not alter type I fiber percentage and reduces
or does not change type I fiber size (Widrick et al. 1996 a and b, Kraemer et al. 1995, Howald et al. 1985, Fitts et al.
1989, Gollnick et al. 1973). The fiber size data, moreover, are supported by cross-sectional studies and research on
rodents (Baldwin et al. 1972, Fitts and Widrick 96, Jansson and Kaijser 1977, Tesch et al. 1985). The data from
several other papers, in contrast, showed that endurance training induces type I fiber hypertrophy (Simoneau et al.
1985, Gollnick et al. 1973). A possible source for some of the discrepancy in the type I fiber size data may be the
pre-training fitness level of the subjects, as fiber size increased in untrained individuals and decreased or did not
change in moderately to highly trained athletes. Alternatively, these data suggest that the acute response to
endurance training is type I fiber hypertrophy, whereas the chronic response is atrophy.
Aside from altering fiber size and percentage, endurance training also affects the contractile properties of
the myofibers, as it lowers the maximum shortening velocity (V
.
max
)
of the type II fibers and slightly reduces peak
tension development in all fiber types (Fitts and Widrick 1996, Fitts et al. 1985, Fitts et al. 1977, Fitts et al. 1982,
Schluter and Fitts 1994). Collectively, the changes in myofiber size and contractile properties lower the maximum
force generating capability of the type I and IIa fibers (Fitts and Widrick, Widrick et al. 1996a and b). The decrease
in force production, especially in the IIa fibers, is not necessarily deleterious to endurance performance, as it may be
linked to increased fiber efficiency (Fitzsimons et al. 1990, Fitts and Widrick 1996). A smaller, more efficient IIa
fiber may be advantageous for endurance exercise, as increased fiber efficiency would reduce the rate of ATP
utilization, and decreased fiber diameter would enhance O
2
delivery by shortening the O
2
diffusion distance. Both
changes could increase long-term work capacity.
Endurance training also increases the expression of fast myosin light chains in the type I fibers, which
increases their V
.
max
, shifting it towards a velocity more characteristic of the type IIa fibers (Fitts and Widrick 1996,
Schluter and Fitts 1994, Widrick et al. 1996 a). This adaptation does not, however, indicate a type I—type II fiber
transformation; such a change requires altered myosin heavy chain expression, which has not been reported (Fitts
7
and Widrick 1996, Staron and Johnson 1993). An increased V
.
max
in the type I fibers may enhance muscle speed,
and hence body speed, without affecting fiber efficiency (Fitts and Widrick 1996, Widrick et al 1996 a). These
changes may allow endurance athletes to reduce their use of the less efficient type II fibers at a given absolute
submaximal work load, which could account for the improved running economy induced by endurance exercise
(Morgan et al. 1995).
Collectively, the aforementioned muscular adaptations induced by endurance training facilitate aerobic
processes, as this training modality increases V
.
O
2
max, lactate threshold, and long-term work capacity. In contrast,
these muscular adaptations, especially the changes in myofiber size, percentage, and contractile properties, may
compromise anaerobic power and strength, as endurance training reduces Wingate anaerobic power, vertical leap,
and leg strength (Costill et al. 1967, Fitts and Widrick 1996, Jones and McCartney 1986, Kraemer et al. 1995, Ono
et al. 1976).
Resistance and endurance training, therefore, induce one common muscular adaptation: they transform IIb
fibers into IIa fibers. This transformation is coupled with opposite changes in fiber size, and in general, contractile
properties, which may explain why weight but not long distance exercise improves anaerobic power and strength.
From the perspective of affecting those variables traditional associated with enhanced endurance, such as capillary
density, mitochondrial density, or the activity of the oxidative enzymes, strength and endurance training are not
synergistic.
Simultaneous Training for Strength and Endurance
The interaction between resistance and endurance training in untrained subjects was first studied by
Hickson (1980). He reported that concurrent resistance and endurance exercise induces a similar increase in V
.
O
2
max as endurance training, but attenuates strength gains when compared to weight training. Hickson speculated
that the training load may have caused the attenuated strength gain, as the concurrently trained group performed
both exercise modalities each week day and completed additional endurance training on the weekend, whereas the
resistance trained group performed only strength exercises five days a week. The data from subsequent studies in
which the training load was reduced, however, confirm that concurrent training in sedentary individuals attenuates
gains in strength when compared to resistance training (Hunter et al 1987, Dudley and Djamil 1985). Although the
8
mechanism for this antagonism is unresolved, the data from a recent concurrent training study in which active
soldiers served as subjects (Kraemer et al. 1995) suggest that differential changes in fiber size might contribute to
the attenuation of strength induced by this training modality.
In this study, resistance training increased the size of all fiber types, while increasing IIa and decreasing IIb
fiber percentages, reflective of a IIb to IIa fiber transformation. Concurrent training, in contrast, marginally reduced
the size of the type I, IIc, and IIb fibers. Additionally, it may have also decreased the size of the type IIa fibers
despite a measured increase in their cross-sectional area; this change probably indicates a IIb to IIa fiber
transformation rather than IIa fiber hypertrophy, as this training modality increased IIa and decreased IIb fiber
percentages. Collectively these data show that endurance training in active soldiers, even with strength training
superimposed, tends to promote smaller muscle fibers than only strength training. As discussed earlier, smaller
muscle fibers and the associated changes in fiber contractile properties induced by endurance training (decreased V
.
max
in the type II fibers, increased V
.
max
in the type I fibers, and reduced peak tension development in all fibers) may
facilitate aerobic processes, while compromising anaerobic power and strength. Indeed, the concurrently trained
group in this study had a statistically similar increase in V
.
O
2
max as the endurance trained group, but an attenuated
gain in leg strength and Wingate anaerobic power when compared to the resistance trained group. The data from
the endurance trained group further support our argument, as this group experienced the largest percentage increase
in
V
.
O
2
max and the largest percentage decrease in fiber size; the latter change, moreover, was associated with 1.2%
reductions in leg strength and Wingate anaerobic power.
The attenuation of strength gains in sedentary or moderately active individuals after concurrent training
may also be due to a time course interaction, i.e., the body cannot adapt maximally to both training stimuli if they
are initiated simultaneously. This line of reasoning is supported by data that show well-trained endurance athletes
do not experience attenuated strength gains when they add resistance exercises to their endurance training regimen
(Hunter et al. 1987). Additional support for this hypothesis is provided by data collected from research on rodents,
which indicate that hypertrophying muscle experiences attenuated gains in endurance, whereas previously
hypertrophied muscle responds similarly to endurance training as untrained muscle (Stone et al. 1996, Riedy et al.
1985).
9
Effects of Strength Training on Endurance
a) Effects of strength training on endurance run performance:
Few studies have examined resistance training’s impact on endurance run performance. Improvements in
strength and anaerobic power acquired through weight training could, however, help runners sustain attacks, climb
hills, or sprint, which should enhance performance. Indeed, data show that anaerobic power is a critical determinate
for race success in aerobically homogeneous cross-country runners and that the fastest 10 km runners possess the
most powerful muscles (Bulbulian et al. 1986, Noakes 1988).
The first studies to examine weight training’s affects on run performance used untrained subjects, which
limits our ability to extend the findings to highly trained athletes. Nevertheless, these studies showed that weight
training improves short-term treadmill performance by 10% and leg strength by 27% (Gettman et al. 1978, Gettman
et al. 1979, Gettman et al. 1982, Hickson et al. 1980, Wilmore et al. 1978). The change in V
.
O
2
max in these studies
depended on the strength training stimulus, as heavy resistance weight training did not affect this variable, whereas
circuit weight training improved it by 6%. Recall, however, that when all forms of weight training are considered
together, this training modality increases V
.
O
2
max by less than 3%, and then only in sedentary or moderately active
individuals.
As with untrained subjects, weight training also improves short-term treadmill performance, leg strength,
and anaerobic power in moderately trained endurance athletes. Data from one study, for example, indicated that the
addition of strength exercises to an endurance training regimen improves short-term treadmill performance by 13%
and leg strength by 30% (Hickson et al. 1988). Similarly, data from another study showed that weight training
increases leg strength by 40% and vertical leap by 15% in previously trained runners, indicating enhanced anaerobic
power, and hence, possibly run performance (Hunter et al. 1987). Neither study found that strength training altered
V
.
O
2
max in endurance trained individuals.
The underlying muscular adaptations responsible for the improved short-term run performance in either
sedentary or trained individuals are unknown. Since weight lifting decreases mitochondrial density and minimally
impactsV
.
O
2
max, capillary density, substrate stores, and the activity of the metabolic enzymes, the keys may be the
increase in myofiber size and the associated changes in contractile properties induced by this training modality.
10
Although the effect of weight training on myofiber size in highly trained runners has not been studied, concurrent
training in active soldiers produces larger myofibers and greater gains in strength and Wingate performance then
endurance exercise (Kraemer et al. 1995). In short, if weight training can induce fiber hypertrophy in a fit runner,
then it may alter some of the muscular changes produced by endurance exercise. For example, increased fiber size
may further improve slow twitch fiber V
.
max
while attenuating or reversing the reduction in the V
.
max
of the fast twitch
fibers and peak tension development in all fibers (Fitts and Widrick 1996, Fitts et al. 1977, Fitts et al. 1982, Fitts et
al. 1989, Schluter and Fitts 1994, Widrick et al. 1996a and b). Since faster, larger, and stronger fibers generate
more force, weight trained runners may be able to exercise longer at each absolute submaximal work load by
reducing the force contribution from each active myofiber or by using fewer of them. In conjunction, a stronger
type I fiber may allow weight trained runners to delay the recruitment of the less efficient type II fibers, as
previously suggested (Hickson et al. 1988, 1980).
Our hypothesis is indirectly supported by data that show weight training reduces the integrated
EMG/muscle tension ratio at absolute submaximal work loads in untrained subjects (Komi et al. 1978, Moritani and
deVries 1979, Moritani and deVries 1980). These data can be interpreted in at least two ways: they may indicate
that the degree of activation per motor unit/muscle fiber is lower or that fewer motor units/muscle fibers are active
(Basmajian and De Luca 1985). Based on the motor unit size principle, moreover, this latter alternative implies that
large motor unit activity is reduced, i.e., fewer, less efficient fast twitch fibers are active. Additional support for our
hypothesis is provided by data that show weight training improves running economy in fit runners (Johnston et al.
1995). Running economy is partially related to type I fiber percentage or V
.
max
or both factors (Coyle (1995). Since
weight training does not increase type I fiber percentage, it may improve running economy by augmenting the
increased V
.
max
seen in these fibers after endurance training.
b) Effects of strength training on endurance cycling performance
As with running, weight training may also improve endurance cycling performance, as dynamic strength is
an essential component of those facets of competitive road cycling requiring anaerobic and short-term power, such
as attacking, responding to an attack, climbing a short steep hill, or sprinting (Burke 1983). Indeed, the more highly
rated cyclists within the United States Cycling Federation, the governing body for amateur cycling in America, had
11
significantly higher anaerobic power outputs than the lower rated cyclists (Tanka et al. 1993). None of the work
that has examined weight training’s impact on cycling, however, has used highly trained cyclists as subjects, so it is
uncertain if the results apply to this population. Nonetheless, the data indicate strength training may improve
certain aspects of cycling performance.
Data from the studies that examined strength training’s impact on cycling specific anaerobic power, for
instance, showed that this training modality increases Wingate performance (range: 6% to 17%) and leg strength
(range: 3% to 30%) in sedentary individuals, active soldiers, and elite swimmers (Inbar et al. 1981, Kraemer et al.
1995, Petersen et al. 1984). Additional data showed that weight training improves short-term cycling performance
by 29% and leg strength by 35% in untrained subjects (Bryant et al. 1988, Hickson et al. 1980). Data from a
subsequent study indicated that the addition of weight training to a well trained endurance athlete’s exercise
program also improves short-term cycling performance by 11% and leg strength by 30% (Hickson et al. 1988).
Note that this training program also increased long-term cycling capacity by 20%, as measured by time to
exhaustion at 80% of V
.
O
2
peak. This finding is supported by data that shows weight training increases time to
exhaustion at 75% of
V
.
O
2
peak by 33% in untrained subjects (Marcinik et al. 1991). The mean change in absolute V
.
O
2
peak in the
aforementioned studies reporting data on this variable was 2% (Hickson et al. 1980, Hickson et al. 1988, Kraemer et
al. 1995, Marcinik et al. 1991).
The muscular adaptations responsible for the increases in anaerobic power and short- or long-term work
capacity are unknown. From a gross perspective, the gains in anaerobic power correlate well to the increases in leg
strength (Inbar et al. 1981, Rutherford 1986, Smith 1987). From a cellular perspective, we refer you to the
hypothesis elucidated in the previous section on running: namely, the changes in fiber size, percentage, and
contractile properties induced by weight training may allow the subjects to exercise longer at a given absolute
submaximal work load by reducing the force contribution from each active myofiber or by using fewer of them. In
conjunction, the myofiber changes may also allow the subjects to delay the recruitment of the less efficient type II
fibers.
Additional support for our hypothesis is found in the study by Marcinik et al. (1991), whose data indicated
that the 33% increase in long-term cycling capacity induced by weight training was associated with a 12% increase
12
in the lactate threshold. Indeed, their subjects’ mean blood lactate was 30% lower at the same absolute submaximal
work load after training. These data reflect a lower overall activation of the working musculature, and hence, its
mitochondria. As a result, disturbance of cellular homeostasis would be reduced, as would glycogenolysis and
lactate production (Coyle 1995). Additional research is needed to determine if weight training can alter cycling
economy or glycogen depletion in the various types of myofibers, as such data would allow us to discern if fiber
recruitment patterns change.
c) Effects of strength training on endurance swim performance:
As with run and cycle endurance performance, dynamic strength is also an important determinate of swim
performance. Many studies have reported that upper-body strength and power correlate highly with swim times
over distances ranging from 23 m to 400 m, with an average r value of .87 for the shorter distance and .63 for the
longer distance (Costill et al. 1980, Davis 1959, Hawley and Williams 1990, Miyashita and Kanehisa 1979, and
Sharp et al. 1982, Toussaint and Vervoorn 1990). Even though the relationship between strength/power and swim
performance weakens as distance increases, it remains significant, which implies that weight training, through its
ability to increase strength and anaerobic power, may improve endurance swim performance.
Similar to running and cycling, the early studies that examined weight training’s impact on swim
performance used untrained subjects, which limits our ability to apply these results to highly trained individuals.
Nonetheless, data from these studies indicated that traditional weight training (e.g., barbells, universal machines,
etc.) or combined swim and weight training improves swim performance over a range of distances from 23 m to the
number of laps covered in 15 min (Davis 1955, Jensen 1963, Nunney 1960, Thompson and Stull 1959). The
improvements, however, were less than the gains induced by standard swim training with one exception, as data
from two of the studies showed that combined training produced marginally faster swim times over 30 m than swim
training (Jensen 1963, Nunney 1960). Collectively, these data suggest that combined swim and traditional weight
training may improve sprint but not endurance swim performance.
Tanaka et al. (1993) recently examined the effects of combined swim and traditional weight training on
sprint velocity in competitive college swimmers. Their data showed that combined training did not produce faster
sprint times than swim training, despite increasing upper-body strength by 31%. The authors speculated that the
13
strength gain induced by the weight training program did not translate into better performance because the swim
stoke is highly technical, i.e., traditional weight training is not specific enough to improve swim performance. This
hypothesis is supported by data that show combined swim and swim specific resistance training improves
performance more than swim or combined swim and traditional weight training in competitive swimmers (Kiselev
1991, Toussaint and Vervoorn 1990). In these studies, swim specific resistance exercise included: swim-bench
training, a form of dry-land specific weight training; reverse current hydrochannel swimming; and in-water devices
that the athletes push-off from while swimming. Additional data showed that in-water resistance training or swim
training in well conditioned children and recreational swimmers is more beneficial than dry-land specific weight
training (Bulgakova et al. 1990, Gergley et al. 1984).
The data from the aforementioned studies indicate that traditional weight training or combined swim and
weight training does not improve endurance performance in competitive swimmers. In contrast, combined swim
and swim specific resistance training, particularly if executed in-water, improves a competitive swimmer’s velocity
in distances up to 200 m (Toussaint and Vervoorn 1990). The effects of combined swim and in-water resistance
training on performance over longer distances is unknown. We cautiously advance our interpretation of the data,
however, as several of the studies did not include a swim only control group (Bulgakova et al. 1990, Kiselev 1991).
Note that traditional and swim specific dry-land weight training induced greater gains in upper-strength than in-
water resistance training, whereas the latter training modality more favorably impacted those factors associated with
improved stroke mechanics, such as stroke force, number, and time (Bulgakova et al. 1990, Tanaka et al. 1993,
Toussaint and Vervoorn 1990). These data support the contention that stoke mechanics are an important
determinate for swim success, and imply that they are more crucial than upper body strength (Bulgakova et al. 1990,
Craig et al. 1979, Craig et al. 1985, Costill et al. 1985, Tanaka et al. 1993, Toussaint and Vervoorn 1990).
Conclusion:
Traditional weight training may be a valuable adjunct to the exercise programs followed by runners and cyclists, as
it improves anaerobic power, and short- and long-term work capacity in sedentary or well trained athletes during
treadmill exercise or cycle ergometry. Whether strength training improves performance in elite cyclists or runners
is unknown. Nonetheless, the data suggest that strength training may be useful as a form of cross training for these
14
athletes, particularly in the off-season when they require a respite from their normal exercise modality, while also
needing to maintain as much strength, power, and work capacity as possible. The benefit of year round weight
exercises is an unresolved issue that cannot be addressed until we compare strength training to sport specific
interval training. In contrast, traditional weight training or combined swim and weight training does not improve
endurance performance in untrained or competitive swimmers, perhaps because it does not induce sufficient
improvement in stoke mechanics to increase swim velocity. Combined swim and in-water resistance training,
however, increases a competitive swimmer’s velocity over various distances during the season, which implies that
this type of resistance training is a valuable form of cross-training year round.
Acknowledgments
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... The RFD is influenced by maximal strength, but also other physiological factors (e.g., muscle mass, fiber type composition, motor unit discharge rate, muscle-tendon stiffness) [168][169][170][171][172][173][174]. For maximum physical power, which also depends on maximum force generating capacity [166,173,[175][176][177][178][179][180][181][182][183][184][185][186][187][188][189][190][191][192][193], high correlation coefficients (r = 0.63 and r = 0.9) are reported for distances between 22 m and 400 m [33,148,149,158,[194][195][196]. The extent of the relationship between the ability to express high power outputs and swim performance appears reliant on the distance swum [149,196,197]. ...
... For maximum physical power, which also depends on maximum force generating capacity [166,173,[175][176][177][178][179][180][181][182][183][184][185][186][187][188][189][190][191][192][193], high correlation coefficients (r = 0.63 and r = 0.9) are reported for distances between 22 m and 400 m [33,148,149,158,[194][195][196]. The extent of the relationship between the ability to express high power outputs and swim performance appears reliant on the distance swum [149,196,197]. While strength is generally associated with distances < 400 m, several authors have suggested that there is a positive relationship between strength and performance during distances >400 m [141]. ...
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This narrative review deals with the topic of strength training in swimming, which has been a controversial issue for decades. It is not only about the importance for the performance at start, turn and swim speed, but also about the question of how to design a strength training program. Different approaches are discussed in the literature, with two aspects in the foreground. On the one hand is the discussion about the optimal intensity in strength training and, on the other hand, is the question of how specific strength training should be designed. In addition to a summary of the current state of research regarding the importance of strength training for swimming, the article shows which physiological adaptations should be achieved in order to be able to increase performance in the long term. Furthermore, an attempt is made to explain why some training contents seem to be rather unsuitable when it comes to increasing strength as a basis for higher performance in the start, turn and clean swimming. Practical training consequences are then derived from this. Regardless of the athlete’s performance development, preventive aspects should also be onsidered in the discussion. The article provides a critical overview of the abovementioned key issues. The most important points when designing a strength training program for swimming are a sufficiently high-load intensity to increase maximum strength, which in turn is the basis for power, year-round trength training, parallel to swim training and working on the transfer of acquired strength skills in swim training, and not through supposedly specific strength training exercises on land or in the water.
... Furthermore, resistance training has been found to increase the maximum muscle strength, thereby increasing the speed of strength development (10). It is generally believed that swimming performance is highly dependent on the muscle strength (11)(12)(13)(14)(15). The purpose of resistance training is to overload the muscles used in swimming and increase the maximum strength output. ...
... Some studies confirmed that underwater resistance training can improve swimming performance (42,43,(48)(49)(50)(51)(52)(53)55). "Underwater" Resistant Sprint Swimming Training (RST) was developed to increase the possibility of effective transfer of mature swimmers (14,28,63). Generally, water resistance training included the usage of a variety of equipment to increase the swimming resistance of athletes, namely (1) power frame, (2) rubber tension, (3) Increase water resistance, elastic rope, and (4) parachutes, gloves and resistance clothes (49,51,55). ...
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Background Resistance training has been widely used in various sports and improves competition performance, especially in swimming. Swimming performance is highly dependent on muscle strength, especially short distances. For adolescent athletes, the existing literature has bound to prove that resistance training is undoubtedly bound to improve swimmers' performance. Objectives This study adopts a systematic literature review to (1) examine the effects of resistance training on the performance of adolescent swimmers, and (2) summarize their training methods and intensity. Methods The literature search was undertaken in five international databases: the SCOUPS, PubMed, EBSCOhost (SPORTDiscus), CNKL, Web of Science. The searches covered documents in English and Chinese published until 30th December 2020. Electronic databases using various keywords related to “strength training” and “adolescent swimmers” were searched. Sixteen studies met the inclusion and exclusion criteria where the data was then systematically reviewed using the PRISMA guideline. Furthermore, the physical therapy evidence database (PEDro) scale was used to measure each study's scientific rigor. Results This review found that to improve the swimming performance of adolescents, two types of resistance training were used, specifically in water and on land, where both types of training can improve swimming performance. In addition, training with two types of resistance machines were better in the water than with one equipment. Resistance training can improve the swimming performance of adolescent swimmers at 50 m, 100 m, 200 m and 400 m distances. However, most studies only focused on the swimming performance at 50 m and 100 m lengths. A low-intensity, high-speed resistance training programme is recommended for adolescent swimmers to obtain the best training results. Conclusion Water or land resistance training can improve the swimming performance. Given that both types of exercises have their strengths and weaknesses, combining these methods may enhance the swimmers' performance. In addition, despite the starting and turning phases consuming up to one-third of the total swimming time for short distances, literature in this area is limited. Systematic Review Registration https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero , identifier: CRD42021231510.
... In contrast, endurance-training programs utilize low-resistance, high-repetition exercises such as running or cycling to increase maximum O 2 uptake (VO 2 max). Accordingly, the adaptive responses in skeletal muscle to strength and endurance training are different and sometimes opposite (Tanaka and Swensen 1998) [35] . Strength training has been reported to cause muscle fibre hypertrophy, associated with an increase in contractile protein, which contributes to an increase in maximal contractile force (Sale et al. 1990) [30] . ...
... In contrast, endurance-training programs utilize low-resistance, high-repetition exercises such as running or cycling to increase maximum O 2 uptake (VO 2 max). Accordingly, the adaptive responses in skeletal muscle to strength and endurance training are different and sometimes opposite (Tanaka and Swensen 1998) [35] . Strength training has been reported to cause muscle fibre hypertrophy, associated with an increase in contractile protein, which contributes to an increase in maximal contractile force (Sale et al. 1990) [30] . ...
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The purpose of the present study was to know the effects of concurrent strength and endurance training on power of junior athletes. Thirty school junior athletes from Alagappa Model Higher Secondary School, Karaikudi were randomly selected as subjects. The age of the subjects ranged between 15 to 17 years. The thirty subject were divided into three equal groups. The experimental group-1 (n=10, STb ET) underwent strength training before endurance training, the experimental group-2 (n=10, STa ET) underwent strength training after endurance training and group 3 served as control group (n=10, CG).The power was chosen as criterion variables and tested by stnding broad jump. The selected two treatment group's were performed three days in a week for the period of nine weeks, as per the stipulated training program. The power was tested before and after the training period. The collected pre and post data was critically analyzed with apt statistical tool of oneway analysis of co-variance. The ability of power have show better in both treatment groups than the control group.
... Many studies have examined the effects of strength and conditioning training on swimming performance, but the evidence that this form of training is beneficial for performance enhancement is not yet clarified in the literature. Some literature demonstrates a correlation between upper body strength and swimming performance [9,[15][16][17][18]. Others have found a weak-moderate or nonsignificant correlation between strength and swimming performance [8,19,20]. ...
... In maximal strength training, the athletes train with > 80% of 1RM with 1-6 repetitions for 3-5 sets, and the goal is to increase strength. Swimming is dependent on power and muscle strength [15][16][17]47], with the latter identified as a major component for success in swimming [8]. Strass [43] found that maximal strength training can change the rate of force development and maximal force. ...
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Full-text available
Background Strength training is widely used in swimming for improvement in performance. There are several ways to embark on strength training, which to different degrees follows the principle of specificity. There are disagreements in the literature on which training methods lead to the greatest performance improvements and to what degree resistance training must be specific to swimming to transfer to swimming performance. Objective The study was undertaken to examine (1) how different approaches to strength training for competitive swimmers can improve swimming performance and (2) which form of strength training resulted in the largest improvement in swimming performance. Methods A systematic review of the literature was undertaken using the following databases: PubMed, SPORTDiscus and Scopus. Studies were eligible if they met the following criteria: (1) a training intervention lasting longer than 3 weeks that investigates the effects strength training has on swimming performance, (2) involves youth or older experienced swimmers, (3) involves in-water specific resistance training, dry-land swim-like resistance training or non-specific dry-land strength training and (4) interventions with clear pre- and posttest results stated. Non-English language articles were excluded. Percent change and between-group effect size (ES) were calculated to compare the effects of different training interventions. Results A range of studies investigating different strength training methods were examined. The percent change in performance and between-group ES were calculated; 27 studies met the inclusion criteria. The review revealed no clear consensus on which method of strength training was the most beneficial to swimming performance. All methods had intervention groups that increased their swimming performance. Conclusions This review shows that swimming differs from other sports as it is performed in water, and this demands a specific way of training. The results show that a combined swimming and strength training regimen seemed to have a better effect on swimming performance than a swim-only approach to training. Based on the principle of specificity and gains in swimming performance, there is not a clear conclusion, as the three main methods of strength training revealed similar gains in swimming performance of 2–2.5%.
... Resistance training may be a valuable form of training, as it improves anaerobic power and short-and long-term endurance capacity in elite athletes (Tanaka & Swensen, 1998). Nevertheless, a trivial ES was observed forthe YYIET2, withstatistical nonsignificance. ...
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Volleyball is a sport that requires high levels of maximal strength, reactive strength, and power at the elite level. Various training methods exist to maximize these physical qualities. The purpose of the triphasic training method is to maximize sport performance by enhancing all three muscle actions to create a strong link between eccentric, isometric, and concentric phases. The purpose of this study is to assess the impact of a 6-week (three times per week) triphasic resistance training program during the preseason period in professional male volleyball athletes. Fourteen male elite volleyball players (mean [± standard deviation] age: 28.88 ± 5.59 years; height: 192 ± 10 cm; body mass: 88.00 ± 14.54 kg) completed several body composition assessments and physical tests. Squat jump performance (p = 0.02, d = 0.27, 3.16%) and both lower (p < 0.001, d = 0.71, 16.56%) and upper body (p = 0.002, d = 0.45, 7.98%) maximal strength significantly increased from pre to post intervention. Strength and conditioning professionals should consider this type of training if they seek to improve maximal strength and concentric power. However, if the goals are to improve reactive strength and change-of-direction speed, then coaches must shift towards a power-type training to improve these stretch-shortening cycle activities.
... Numerous investigations have studied maximum strength assessment, strength related training (Girold et al., 2006;Girold et al., 2007;Tanaka et al., 1993) and aerobic endurance training (Faude etr al., 2008). However, only few studies have interested to the concurrent endurance-strength training program in basketball players (Balabinis et al., 2009), marathon (Jones & Carter., 2000) and cyclists (Tanaka & Swensen., 1998). Literature studies demonstrated that strength training leads neural adaptation improvement and muscular hypertrophy (Girold et al., 2007). ...
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The aim of the present study was to monitor the pre-season preparatory training effectiveness by both the mood profile and physical performance. 15 male soccer players mean age 25±2.21 yr, height 180.27±2.58 cm, weight 81.13±5.49 kg and 5 years playing experience voluntary participated in this study. The program combined strength and endurance training, 4 weeks progressive training and t h e 5 th week declining activity (taper period). Assessments of mood and physical performances at first week, end of 4 th a n d 5 th weeks were performed. Variance of analysis with repeated measurements showed that the aerobic and anaerobic capacity did not change significantly after progressive training. But after taper period (the decline of training load) both indices increased significantly (p<0.05). However, the maximum strength, had significant increase during both the progressive training load and Beykzade, P () Beykzade@yahoo.com taper periods (p<0.05and p=0 .05 respectively). Four weeks progressive training load period; had insignificant effect on mood profile except for fatigue. After the taper period, fatigue and mood depression showed significant reduction compared to the beginning of the training period (p<0.05, p< 0.05 respectively). The o v e r a l l r e s u l t s s h o w t h a t a e r o b i c a n d anaerobic capacity compared to the reduction of training load is more sensitive than the time of progressive training load (p<0.05 for taper period and p>0.05 for time of progressive training load). Among the 6 mood factors, only fatigue and depression have been shown to be more sensitive to the change of training load.
... Exercise training is an intervention used by athletes to enhance their performance [1][2][3]. In addition, coaches also frequently plan different types of energy system development training (ESD training) according to the athletes' competition demands, including special training modes for enhancing specific energy systems, such as the ATP-PCr system, the anaerobic glycolytic system, and the aerobic glycolytic system [4][5][6][7]. ...
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High-intensity interval training (HIIT) and low-oxygen exposure may inhibit the secretion of appetite-stimulating hormones, suppress appetite, and inhibit dietary intake. Physiological changes affecting appetite are frequent and include appetite hormone (ghrelin, leptin, PYY, and GLP-1) effects and the subjective loss of appetite, resulting in nutritional deficiencies. This paper is a narrative review of the literature to verify the HIIT effect on appetite regulation mechanisms and discusses the possible relationship between appetite effects and the need for high-intensity exercise training in a hypoxic environment. We searched MEDLINE/PubMed and the Web of Science databases, as well as English articles (gray literature by Google Scholar for English articles) through Google Scholar, and the searched studies primarily focused on the acute effects of exercise and hypoxic environmental factors on appetite, related hormones, and energy intake. In a general normoxic environment, regular exercise habits may have accustomed the athlete to intense training and, therefore, no changes occurred in their subjective appetite, but there is a significant effect on the appetite hormones. The higher the exercise intensity and the longer the duration, the more likely exercise is to cause exercise-induced appetite loss and changes in appetite hormones. It has not been clear whether performing HIIT in a hypoxic environment may interfere with the exerciser’s diet or the nutritional supplement intake as it suppresses appetite, which, in turn, affects and interferes with the recovery efficiency after exercise. Although appetite-regulatory hormones, the subjective appetite, and energy intake may be affected by exercise, such as hypoxia or hypoxic exercise, we believe that energy intake should be the main observable indicator in future studies on environmental and exercise interventions.
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Original Article Abstract Purpose: today, the record is one of the major concerns of coaches in competitive swimming. Therefore, finding the proportional type of resistance training as an essential factor affecting physical fitness and performance , is highly important. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of four weeks total body resistance training on muscular function and performance of young female swimmers. Methods: Twelve college-level female swimmers were divided into Control and TRX group. The control group performed swimming protocol while the experimental group carried out eight swim like TRX addition to swimming program. Muscular function was measured using isokinetic device and swimming performances was measured by the record they reached and the number of hands and feet strokes during 25 and 50 m breaststroke swimming. Independent T-test was used to analyze the research data after subtracting the pretest from the post-test. Results: Both groups have shown significance improvement in 25 m swimming record but there wasn't significant difference between groups (P = 0.289). Moreover, Number of strokes decreased significantly in TRX group (P = 0.31). Muscular function factors in 25 m and total work in 50 m has shown improvement in TRX group (P ≤ 0.05). Conclusion: In general, combination of TRX with swimming training is most effective than swimming alone to improve swimmers performances. Conclusion: In general, the results of this study indicate that the combination of TRX with swimming training is more suitable for improving swimmers' performance. It is also recommended that swimmers take advantage of this training method due to the principle of Specificity training and easy use. How to cite this article: al-Fassih R, Fashi M, Ahmadizad S, Abuzari N. The effect of four weeks of total body resistance training (TRX) on muscular function and performance of young female swimmers.
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The primary purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between circuit training and the improvement of endurance, speed, weight, and strength of swimmers during a six-week training period. Two groups of 12 college men were equated on the basis of distance swum in a 15-minute endurance test using the front crawl only. Both groups were also tested for swimming speed over 33 1/3 yd., height, weight, and ability to perform dips, chins, vertical jump, and push-ups. The experimental group combined circuit training and swimming in the program, but the control group had swimming only. It was found in the re-test at the end of six weeks, that the experimental group had made significant gains in swimming endurance and speed, weight, and ability to perform chins and push-ups. The control group made significant gains in swimming endurance and weight. It was also noted that the control group had a marked tendency to lose strength as measured by ability to perform chins, vertical jump, and push-ups. The experimental group made significantly greater gains than the control group in weight and chins. The increase in swimming speed by the experimental group was significantly greater than the control group at the 5.26 level of confidence. There was no significant evidence to show that the circuit training, which included weight training exercises, was in any way detrimental to swimming performance.
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The specificity of aerobic training for upper-body exercise requiring differing amounts of muscle mass was evaluated in 25 college-aged male recreational swimmers who were randomly assigned to either a non-training control group (N = 9), a 10-wk swim(S)-training group (N = 9), or a group that trained with a standard swim-bench pulley system (SB; N = 7). For all subjects prior to training, tethered-swimming peak VO2 averaged 19% below treadmill values (P less than 0.01), while SB-ergometry peak VO2 was 50% and 39% below running and swimming values, respectively (P less than 0.01). Significant (P less than 0.01) increases of peak VO2 in tethered swimming (11%) and SB (21%) were observed for the SB-trained group, while the S-trained group improved (P less than 0.01) 18% and 19% on the tethered swimming and SB tests, respectively. No changes were observed during treadmill running, and the control subjects remained unchanged on all measures. Comparisons between training groups indicated that although both groups improved to a similar extent when measured on the swim bench, the 0.53 l X min-1 improvement in tethered-swimming peak VO2 for the S-trained group was greater (P less than 0.05) than the 0.32 l X min-1 increase noted for the SB-trained group. The comparisons between SB and S exercise vs treadmill exercise support the specificity of aerobic improvement with training and suggest that local adaptations contribute significantly to improvements in peak VO2. Furthermore, the present data indicate that SB exercise activates a considerable portion of the musculature involved in swimming, and that aerobic improvements with SB training are directly transferred to swimming.
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Circuit weight training (CWT) can improve cardiorespiratory endurance, body composition, and strength, and sessions only take 25 to 30 minutes. Studies reviewed in this article showed that CWT increased aerobic capacity about 5%, compared with 15% to 25% in other aerobic exercise programs. Lean body mass increased 1 to 3.2 kg and fat decreased 0.8% to 2.9%. Strength improved 7% to 32%. Energy costs of CWT were similar to jogging at 5 mph. The authors conclude that improvements in strength and V̇O2 max depend on work performed, not the equipment used. Although CWT does not develop high levels of aerobic fitness, it can help maintain fitness.
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Mechanical properties were measured in single skinned fibers from rat hindlimb muscle to test the hypothesis that the fast type IIb fiber exhibits a higher maximal shortening velocity (V-o) than the fast type IIa fiber and that the difference is directly attributable to a higher myofibrillar adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) activity in the type IIb, fiber. Additional measurements were made to test the hypotheses that regular endurance exercise increases and decreases the V-o of the type I and IIa fiber, respectively, and that the altered V-o is associated with a corresponding change in the fiber ATPase activity. Rats were exercised by 8-12 wk of treadmill running for 2 h/day, 5 day/wk, up a 15% grade at a speed of 27 m/min. Fiber V-o was determined by the slack test, and the ATPase was measured fluorometrically in the same fiber. The myosin isozyme profile of each fiber was subsequently determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The mean +/- SE V-o (7.9 +/- 0.22 fiber lengths/s) of the type IIb fiber was significantly greater than the type IIa fiber (4.4 +/- 0.21 fiber lengths/s), and the higher V-o was associated with a higher ATPase activity (927 +/- 70 vs. 760 +/- 60 mu M.min(-1).mm(-3)). The exercise program induced cardiac hypertrophy and an approximately twofold increase in the mitochondrial marker enzyme citrate synthase. Exercise had no effect on fiber diameter or peak tension per cross-sectional area in any fiber type, but, importantly, it significantly increased (23%) both the V-o and the ATPase activity of the slow type I fiber of the soleus. The increased V-o was highly correlated with (r = 0.76) and probably caused by the elevated fiber ATPase. Possible causes of the increased fiber V-o and ATPase include an exercise-induced increase in the number of slow fibers expressing fast myosin light chains (from 39 to 83%) and a small increase in the number of hybrid fibers containing both slow and fast myosin heavy chains. The contractile properties of the fast type IIa and IIb fibers of the gastrocnemius muscle were not significantly altered by the exercise program.
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Six groups of subjects were tested to determine if various training programs affected performance in speed in swimming 30 yards. No evidence of improvement was found after one group of subjects had been exposed to absolutely no exercise for six weeks and, also, after a group of subjects had participated in various exercises with weights three times weekly for six weeks. Two groups of swimmers who participated in practicing starts, kicking, arm stroking, and sprinting 30 and 60 yards significantly improved their performances in speed in swimming; one group of subjects followed the preceding program three times weekly and another group used the same routine six times a week. Two other groups, one of which was exposed to weight training and swimming, and one of which was exposed only to 30-yard sprints and practicing starts, both showed statistically significant differences in performance.
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Cross-training is a widely used approach for structuring a training programme to improve competitive performance in a specific sport by training in a variety of sports. Despite numerous anecdotal reports claiming benefits for cross-training, very few scientific studies have investigated this particular type of training. It appears that some transfer of training effects on maximum oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) exists from one mode to another. The nonspecific training effects seem to be more noticeable when running is performed as a cross-training mode. Swim training, however, may result in minimum transfer of training effects on V̇O2max. Cross-training effects never exceed those induced by the sport-specific training mode. The principles of specificity of training tend to have greater significance, especially for highly trained athletes. For the general population, cross-training may be highly beneficial in terms of overall fitness. Similarly, cross-training may be an appropriate supplement during rehabilitation periods from physical injury and during periods of overtraining or psychological fatigue.
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The mean velocity of 9 out of 10 women's events during the U.S. Olympic Swimming Trials was greater in 1984 as compared to 1976. Three of the 10 men's events showed improvement. In 9 out of these 12 events, the increased velocity was accounted for by increased distance per stroke (range, 4 to 16%), and in 8 there was also a decrease in stroke rate (range, - 3 to -13%). In the women's 100-m butterfly and 100-m backstroke, increased velocity was due solely to faster stroke rates. The finalists in each event were compared to those whose velocities were 3-7% slower. In almost all events and stroke styles, the finalists achieved greater distances per stroke than did the slower group. In the men's events increased distance per stroke was associated with decreased stroke rate, except in the backstroke, in which both were increased for the finalists. Although the faster women swimmers generally had greater distances per stroke,they were more dependent than men on faster stroke rates to achieve superiority. The profile of velocity for races of 200 m and longer indicated that as fatigue developed the distance per stroke decreased. The faster swimmers compensated for this change by maintaining or increasing stroke rate more than did their slower competitors. This study indicates that improvements and superiority in stroke mechanics are reflected in the stroke rate and distance per stroke used to swim a race. (C)1985The American College of Sports Medicine