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External Costs of Agricultural Production in the United States
Abstract
Agricultural production affects environmental and human health. Many consequences are borne involuntarily rather than chosen because no formal market trading takes place for ecosystem functions or health attributes. These impacts, or externalities, may be quantified indirectly by assigning dollar values through a process called valuation, which informs agricultural production and policy decisions. This study estimates external costs of agricultural production in the United States in the areas of natural resources, wildlife and ecosystem biodiversity and human health. Valuation studies are reviewed and revised to compile aggregate figures. External costs are estimated at $5.7 to $16.9 billion (ﾣ3.3 to ﾣ9.7 billion) annually. Impacts due to crop production are figured to be $4969 to $16,151 million per year. Livestock production contributes $714 to $739 million to external costs. Using 168.8 million hectares of cropland in the United States, external cost per cropland hectare is calculated at $29.44 to $95.68 (ﾣ16.87 to ﾣ54.82). Further research is needed to refine these estimates and include categories not covered in this study. The societal burden of these costs calls for a restructuring of agricultural policy that shifts production towards methods that lessen external impacts.
... Tegtmeier and Duffy [13] similarly compile detailed financial costs for partial prevention (including monitoring), restoration, and treatment costs. However, unlike Pretty et al. [10] they dismiss the survey-based valuations of damage due to greenhouse gases and ammonia emissions. ...
... Like Pretty et al. [10] (p. 118), however, the authors note that the numbers may substantially underestimate the total external costs [13] (p. 16). ...
... The authors follow Pretty et al. [10] in drawing on selected survey-based valuations-for ammonia and nitrate emissions. For greenhouse gases, they follow Tegtmeier and Duffy [13] by relying on prices from a market for emission permits. ...
The costs of unintended side effects of agriculture such as water pollution cannot be directly observed in markets. However, the values society places on healthy agricultural environments are increasingly reflected in payments to farmers for measures to avoid or reduce environmental damage. This paper presents a framework for estimating external costs of agriculture from payment rates of agri-environment measures addressing specific externality issues. The framework is applied to the broad range of agri-environment measures implemented in Swiss agricultural policy. Estimates of external costs are derived for emissions of greenhouse gases, ammonia, nitrate and pesticides, soil erosion, habitat deficits, and animal suffering. The total external costs of Swiss agriculture are estimated at CHF 3.651 billion (CHF 3494 per hectare) when the calculations are based on the agri-environment measures’ average avoidance costs and of CHF 5.560 billion (CHF 5321 per hectare) when the calculations are based on highest observed avoidance costs. Potential applications include internalization policies, evaluations of agri-environment support, and integrated environmental and economic accounting.
... Nevertheless, substantial negative impacts remain unaddressed, causing significant costs to society through water and air pollution, for instance, or through losses of biodiversity or impacts on animal welfare (e.g. Tegtmeier 2004, FAO, 2015. In economic terminology, these impacts of agriculture are 'external costs', or 'negative externalities' of production (Buchanan 1962); they are costs affecting third parties who did not choose to incur those costs and who are not compensated for these costs. ...
... The two older studies, by Pretty et al. (2000) and Tegtmeier & Duffy (2004), compile detailed costs for partial prevention (including monitoring), restoration and treatment costs. In several impact categories, however, substantial remaining damages, after avoidance and restoration, remain unexamined. ...
... In several impact categories, however, substantial remaining damages, after avoidance and restoration, remain unexamined. Tegtmeier & Duffy (2004) also use extremely low estimates of costs of carbon (of less than $1 per ton of CO2) from a voluntary emission-trading scheme. ...
The costs of environmental impacts of agriculture cannot be directly observed in markets. However, the values society places on the quality of agricultural environments are reflected in payments to farmers for voluntary measures to reduce environmental damage. In this paper, payment rates for agri-environment measures in Switzerland are used to infer estimates of the external costs of greenhouse gases, ammonia emissions, nitrate and pesticide emissions, soil erosion, habitat deficits, and animal suffering. This approach yields per-unit costs of the examined externalities, and total external costs of Swiss agriculture of about CHF 3000 to CHF 5000 per hectare of agricultural land. Potential applications include internalization policies, evaluation of cost-effectiveness of agri-environmental measures, augmented agricultural accounts, and evaluations of cross-compliance requirements.
... We then cross-referenced the environmental externalities listed in this report with scholarly literature evaluating environmental externalities from Canada and from other countries (e.g. Jongeneel, Polman, and Van Kooten, 2016;Pretty et al., 2000;Tegtmeier and Duffy, 2004). Given the limited availability of studies evaluating externalities, we only make international comparisons with the U.K., the U.S. and the EU. ...
... Using the SCC reflects the cost of GHG emissions on society, and hence is an accurate reflection of the impact, assuming emissions are accurately captured. In contrast, Tegtmeier and Duffy (2004) used the market price of GHG credits traded by the Chicago Climate Exchange, at $0.98/tonne in 2003, to estimate the external cost of GHG emissions from U.S. agriculture. This price only represents what companies are willing to pay to reduce GHG emissions but does not take health and environmental impacts into consideration. ...
... Pretty et al. (2000) used capital expenditures by water companies to remove nitrate from water and agriculture's share to estimate the negative impact of N pollution in the UK. Similarly, Tegtmeier and Duffy (2004) used the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) estimate of expected investment in infrastructure to meet the standards for surface water, coliform and nitrate pollution to estimate the total damages of nitrate water pollution in the U.S. ...
In light of recent discussion and studies around agriculture’s role in climate change, the environment and natural capital, CAPI commissioned a study by a team of academics from the University of Saskatchewan and Guelph to develop a methodology and estimates of the impact agriculture is having on air and water quality, soil health, climate change and wildlife habitat and biodiversity, referred to as externalities.
This report, in a preliminary manner, measures both positive and negative externalities resulting from Canadian agricultural production by making use of data, information and a methodology from various Canadian and international studies on agriculture’s impact on the environment. By placing a dollar value on agricultural externalities like GHG emissions, soil erosion, water and air pollution, biodiversity and landscape esthetics, the report details how negative externalities have declined significantly since 1981
... It does not imply the decrease or reduction in the use of resources (more land is needed to produce the same quantities of food). Some shreds of evidence indicate that sustainable agriculture initiatives and projects arise from modifications in some factors like use of fertilizers in several crops, pesticides and biological control, and so on (Buttel 2003;Tegtmeier and Duffy 2004). Agriculture has great importance in sustainable development, and hunger and poverty eradication. ...
... Lupinus synthesizes quinolizidine alkaloids (AQ) as part of a defense strategy against herbivores. Currently, Lupinus species find numerous applications, as a source of protein in food (Tapia and Fries 2007) and secondary metabolites with various biological activities (Fornasini et al. 2012), also improving the soil in crop rotation (Stepkowski et al. 2011). Another potential use of the species of the genus Lupinus is as green manure or in ecological restoration and reforestation programs (Ramírez-Contreras and Rodríguez-Trejo 2009). ...
Plant biotechnology is an essential tool that allows agriculture improvement by
increasing food production through tissue culture, molecular biology, and crop
improvement. At present, agriculture is facing many problems that affect food
production seriously; some of these problems are degradation of soils, salinity,
contamination with heavy metals and hydrocarbons, drought, desertification,
deforestation, and one of the solutions is biotechnology. This chapter will discuss
aspects related to sustainable agriculture and food challenge, plant biotechnology,
and plant biotechnology and sustainability. First, the incidence of agriculture is
analyzed, on the one hand, in the reduction of hunger, and on the other, in the
degradation of the environment, which can only be resolved through a sustainable
model. Secondly, the most relevant applications of modern biotechnology in the
accelerated propagation of plants, germplasm conservation, and genetic improvement are described. Next, both elements are linked, and it is analyzed how
biotechnology can contribute to sustainability through modern technologies.
The contribution of modern biotechnologies to sustainability in agriculture is
illustrated through the presentation of examples of work done with the genus
Lupinus. This genus comprises species useful for sustainable agriculture, which
serve as a source of proteins and secondary metabolites, as well as in crop
rotation. This chapter shows some of the results achieved in the multiplication
and in vitro conservation of species from Lupinus, as examples of the application
of biotechnology with an environment friendly approach.
... The disturbing realisation is that the food system we inherit from the Green Revolution creates value only when a great number of costs (physical, biological, human, moral) are allowed to be overlooked (Tegtmeier and Duffy, 2004). A growing number of voices remind us that costs of production go beyond the environment into matters such as the exclusion of deprived farmers, the promotion of destructive diets (Pelletier and Tyedmers, 2010), and more generally the evacuation of social justice and political stability from matters of food provision (Power, 1999). ...
... Although the translation of such "externalities" into the register of accumulation is imprecise, their scale is impressive, totalling nearly $17 billion in unpaid costs for American agriculture in the early twenty-first century." On externalities see: Tegtmeier and Duffy (2004). ...
Reinventing a life of dignity for all humans in a finite and disrupted Earth has become the master issue of our time, the Anthropocene (Hamilton et al., 2015a), a ‘bipolar’ moment (Haraway et al., 2016), where the hope of scientific renewal through multidisciplinary collaboration glints on the doom laden horizon of deepening ecological catastrophe. Against this backdrop, this thesis asks what the Anthropocene means for science and the scholarship of science, through the exploration of ‘Aquaponics’. A food-system innovation that seeks to combine aquaculture and hydroponics in novel ecosystems, ‘Aquaponics’ is thought to hold potential for responding to the impending risks that mark late-industrial food systems in the Anthropocene. The thesis presents material from various ethnographic movements inside the field of Aquaponics, documenting what matters and what comes to matter for researchers and practitioners of this emergent field. The first movement is an engagement in the scientific labs of an agricultural research facility in the south of Belgium. Eschewing the usual terms of interdisciplinary activity, particularly the critical security of distanced observation, the researcher takes up a key role within an aquaponic experiment that seeks to test the possibilities of novel aquaponic ecologies for the agri-food sector. Experiencing the multispecies experiment as a space of both uncertainty and responsibility, political possibility becomes entangled within the aesthetic-material conditions and practices of science (Stengers, 2000). This ethnography discusses the potential and risks of affirming ontological proximity, more-than-human sensitivity, and a politics of care within technoscientific apparatuses. In a second line of ethnographic enquiry, the thesis documents my movements over 3 years within a European network of Aquaponic researchers, innovators and entrepreneurs. Following this ‘field-in-themaking’ (Swanson et al., 2015) the thesis develops an appreciation of knowledge politics involved in emergent fields, exploring the way urgent concerns become channelled down predictable disciplinary lines, complex issues like sustainability become side-lined for more attainable research targets, and technical problems get favoured over those of deliberation. In response to this, the thesis presents the outcome of a collaborative project in which the authors experiment with a shared aquaponic narrative and introduce the need for concepts that allow for types of negotiation that unsettle disciplinary boundaries. The thesis reclaims an idea of sustainability as a concept fitting for aquaponics in the Anthropocene. What follows is not a sparkling methodological blueprint that secures aquaponic solutions, but a collaborative experiment in the art of ‘paying attention’ (Stengers, 2016) that problematizes the experimental objectives of aquaponic research; a form of care for the academic milieu, one of many that increasingly sediment our troubled earth.
... Farmland can provide open space for recreation as well as valuable habitats for certain wildlife species. It may also add esthetic value to some landscapes (Pretty et al., 2000;Tegtmeier & Duffy, 2004). Artists, writers, and philosophers throughout history have drawn inspiration from pastoral landscapes and livestock often play a crucial role in shaping the landscape (FAO, 2016). ...
... Livestock keeping and production provide economic opportunities around the world, including employment and income generation (FAO, 2016), although there may be fewer opportunities in higher-income regions due to intensification and consolidation within the sector (FAO et al., 2006;Randolph et al., 2007;Thornton, 2010). Additionally, as in lower-income regions, livestock production in higher-income regions may be associated with benefits related to leisure, recreation, tourism, education, and inspiration opportunities (FAO, 2016;Pretty et al., 2000;Tegtmeier & Duffy, 2004). ...
Abstract Strong demand for dairy products has led to a global increase in dairy production. In many parts of the world, dairy systems are undergoing rapid intensification. While increased production may contribute to food security, higher dairy stocking rates in some regions have resulted in increased pressure on natural resources with the potential to affect public health and wellbeing. The aim of this review was to identify and describe the potential health harms and benefits associated with dairy production and consumption. Electronic databases Medline, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar were searched for published literature that investigated human health impacts of dairy production and consumption. Occupational hazards, environmental health impacts, ecosystem health impacts, foodborne hazards, and diet‐related chronic diseases were identified as potential public health hazards. Some impacts, notably climate change, extend beyond directly exposed populations. Dairy production and consumption are also associated with important health benefits through the provision of nutrients and economic opportunities. As the global dairy sector increases production, exposure to a range of hazards must be weighed with these benefits. The review of impacts presented here can provide an input into decision making about optimal levels of dairy production and consumption, local land use, and identification and management of specific hazards from this sector. Future research should consider multiple exposure routes, socioeconomic implications, and environmental factors, particularly in regions heavily dependent on dairy farming.
... The remaining fraction pollutes the environment. Apart from productivity issues, improper nitrogen management can lead to environmental threats and losses [125][126][127][128][129][130]. Production intensity usually determines the consumption of fertilisers and fuel [131]. ...
Every type of agricultural production is a burden for the natural environment. The paper's objective is to assess the energy use efficiency, GHG emissions, and provide an economic analysis of buckwheat production for Central Europe (Poland). The analysis and comparison involved two production systems: low-input and high-input ones. The experiment involved three varieties of buckwheat, Panda, Volma, and Mancan. The yields for analysis were obtained from the field experiment which was set up in 3 k-p fractional design was applied in two replications in which at the same time five factors were tested (A-variety, B-mineral fertilisation, C-sowing rate, D-weed control, E-growth regulator). A quartile was used as a statistical tool to select production systems. A high-input buckwheat production regime required, on average, 74.00% more energy than a low-input system. The total mean energy input for three varieties ranged from 7532.7 to 13,106.9 MJ ha −1 for low-and high-input systems, respectively. The results show that the energy use efficiency, specific energy, and net energy gain for the low-input system were on average 1.51, 9.6 MJ kg −1 , and 3878.8 MJ ha −1 , respectively, for the investigated varieties. For the high-input system, it was 1.35, 10.9 MJ kg −1 , 4529.9 MJ ha −1 , respectively. The total CO2 equivalent emissions during buckwheat production were higher for the high-input system than for the low-input system by more than 40%. The economic analysis demonstrated that the high-input system had better economic efficiency (without EU payment), 1.01 on average, than the low-input system, 1.07 on average. The international literature does not offer research on energy analysis for the production of common buckwheat and GHG emissions. The findings of this study demonstrate how the production systems affect energy and economic efficiency as well as GHG emissions. The authors suggest further research in Europe and globally, particularly on the energy use efficiency and GHG emissions in the production of common buckwheat, to verify the present results and improve production technologies (reduce inputs and costs).
... One reason for the absence of an effective strategy is that many pest problems result from poor farm design (issues of rotation, location, canopy, timing, borders, etc), and there has been a reluctance on the part of government regulators and extension staff to propose significant changes to farm design, that being considered the purview of the individual property owner. Pesticide costs are low relative to reliance 14 and many externalized costs are unpaid by pesticide users (Tegtmeier and Duffy, 2004). This has discouraged farmer willingness to invest in new approaches and created an accentuated aura of importance for pesticides as the primary pest control method. ...
Canadian food policy is deficient in many ways. First, there is neither national joined-up food policy, nor much supporting food policy architecture at the provincial and municipal levels. Second, there is no roadmap for creating such policy changes. And third, we don’t have an analytical approach to food policy change in Canada that would help us address deficiencies one and two. This paper addresses the third theme. In our experience, a significant limitation of existing Canadian food policy work is the lack of frame blending to bring more explanatory power to both current phenomena and a more desirable process of change. Consequently, we attempt to unify disparate literatures pertinent to the food policy change process in Canada to create a more cohesive approach, using four case studies of analyses already conducted to demonstrate the frame blending process.
... Agricultural production generates negative externalities, including water pollution and habitat loss (Tegtmeier and Duffy, 2004). To reduce these externalities, government agencies and non-governmental organizations have created programs that give producers a financial incentive to adopt on-farm conservation practices to reduce soil erosion and prevent water pollution. ...
Experimental research in behavioral economics focuses on consumer behaviors. Similar experimental research on profit-maximizing producers is rare. In three field experiments involving commercial agricultural producers in the US, we detect evidence of anchoring in competitive auctions for conservation contracts related to nutrient and pest management that were worth, on average, nearly nine thousand dollars. In these auctions, the value of the starting cost-share bid was randomized to be either 0% or 100%. When the starting value was 100%, final bids were 46% higher, on average. We find weak evidence that experience with conservation contracts may modestly attenuate the anchoring effect.
... (Pretty et al., 2000). An investigation of practices in the US distributed in 2005 presumed that cropland costs the economy roughly 5 to 16 billion dollars ($30-96/ha-$12-39/ ac), while livestock production costs 714 million dollars (Tegtmeier and Duffy, 2005). Assessing the welfares and also the constraints of OFS is rather very multifaceted. ...
Global climate changes such as increasing CO2 levels, temperature increases,
drought, etc., have been shown to adversely affect agricultural products.
Weeds can be seen as a major problem because they seem to fight at the
expense of the crop for resources such as light, water, and nutrients. Weed
species are commonly favored in crops that are more closely associated with
them. The association between weeds and crops is due to their similar growth
habits. The basic strategy should be considered as the core of the organic
weed control strategy: crop stand, crop rotation, crop cover, variety selection,
clean seeds, soil health, soil structure, spring tillage, delayed planting,
post-emergence tillage, hand weeding, mulches, and organic herbicides.
This chapter focuses on: (i) classification of weed species; and (ii) weed
management strategies under climate change.
... (Pretty et al., 2000). An investigation of practices in the US distributed in 2005 presumed that cropland costs the economy roughly 5 to 16 billion dollars ($30-96/ha-$12-39/ ac), while livestock production costs 714 million dollars (Tegtmeier and Duffy, 2005). Assessing the welfares and also the constraints of OFS is rather very multifaceted. ...
Azospirillum Bioinoculant Technology: Past to Current Knowledge and
Future Prospects
Palani Saranraj, Abdel Rahman Mohammad Al–Tawaha,
Panneerselvam Sivasakthivelan, Abdel Razzaq M. Altawaha,
Kangasalam Amala, Devarajan Thangadurai, and
Jeyabalan Sangeetha
... (Pretty et al., 2000). An investigation of practices in the US distributed in 2005 presumed that cropland costs the economy roughly 5 to 16 billion dollars ($30-96/ha-$12-39/ ac), while livestock production costs 714 million dollars (Tegtmeier and Duffy, 2005). Assessing the welfares and also the constraints of OFS is rather very multifaceted. ...
PART III: ORGANIC AGRICULTURE FOR FOOD
SAFETY
13. Organic Production Technology of Rice
Shah Khalid, Amanullah, Nadia, Imranuddin,
Mujeeb Ur Rahman, Abdel Rahman Al Tawaha,
Devarajan Thangadurai, Jeyabalan Sangeetha,
Samia Khanum, Munir Turk, Hiba Alatrash,
Sameena Lone, Khursheed Hussain, Palani Saranraj, and Arun
Karnwal
... (Pretty et al., 2000). An investigation of practices in the US distributed in 2005 presumed that cropland costs the economy roughly 5 to 16 billion dollars ($30-96/ha-$12-39/ ac), while livestock production costs 714 million dollars (Tegtmeier and Duffy, 2005). Assessing the welfares and also the constraints of OFS is rather very multifaceted. ...
... High organic content from human faeces, decayed domestic, sawmill wastes and plant materials that found their ways into these swamps may be responsible for the low DO record. According to Tegtmeier & Duffy (2004), the level of oxygen depletion depends primarily on the amount of waste added, the size and velocity, turbulence of the stream and the temperature of the water. A study by Lawson (2011) on the mangrove swamps of Lagos lagoon also recorded similar values (4.95±3.15 ...
Concentrations of Cu, Fe, and Zn in sediments, water and tissues of mud skippers (Periophthalmus papillio) from Isaka and Bundu mangrove swamp in the Upper reach of Bonny Estuary, Niger Delta, Nigeria were investigated. Water, sediment and Periophthalmus papillio samples were collected from three stations every three weeks for three months. The heavy metals and Physicochemical parameters were determined according to APHA 2000 methods. Concentration of heavy metals by stations followed the order: station III (Dockyard) > station II (Bundu-Ama) > station I (Isaka). Heavy metal distribution sequence in sediment, water and fish by stations followed: Dockyard (Sediment = Fe > Cu > Zn; Water = Cu > Fe > Zn; Fish = Zn > Fe > Cu); Isaka (Sediment = Fe > Cu > Zn; Water = Cu > Fe > Zn; Fish = Zn > Fe > Cu); Bundu Ama (Sediment = Fe > Cu > Zn; Water = Cu > Fe > Zn; Fish = Zn > Fe > Cu). Overall, heavy metal concentrations by samples followed the sequence (Sediment = Fe > Cu > Zn; Water = Cu > Fe > Zn; and Periophthalmus papillio = Zn > Fe > Cu) across the stations. Significantly high values of Cu, Fe and Zn were observed in sediment and water, where above the WHO and EPA standards while tissue concentration of Fe and Zn also exceeded the acceptable limit, Cu was relatively low and uniform.
... (Pretty et al., 2000). An investigation of practices in the US distributed in 2005 presumed that cropland costs the economy roughly 5 to 16 billion dollars ($30-96/ha-$12-39/ ac), while livestock production costs 714 million dollars (Tegtmeier and Duffy, 2005). Assessing the welfares and also the constraints of OFS is rather very multifaceted. ...
Innovative farming practices in the traditional agriculture have significantly been progressed in last 1,000 years. Most of these aboriginal agricultural methodologies were not finely honed. Concurrent improvement of biochemistry and engineering, farming practices were also rapidly improved during the early forty years of the twentieth century. After the industrial revolution, the application of farm machineries, irrigation and synthetic fertilizers and pesticides in crop production have dramatically changed the traditional farming practices. Although these modern approaches significantly increased the yield of crop to feed the increasing population, the degradation of environmental resources including soils has become apparent. Increasing environmental pollution and residual effects of the used synthetic chemicals pose a serious threat to human life and biodiversity. Considering these burning issues, researchers explored alternative sustainable techniques or solutions to alleviate these deleterious effects of modern farming, while preserving the maximum productivity. Therefore, an organic farming system (OFS) concept was started in the 1940s for avoiding the deleterious effects of the applied of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to the crop fields. The OFS was established as a substitution of the rapidly changing modern agricultural system in early 20th century. In the OFS, agricultural inputs and practices are generated from the biological origins such as organic manure, compost, non-GM elite cultivars, crop rotation and companion planting. Instead of synthetic chemicals, pests are managed through integrated pest management (IPM) approach. The OFS aims to maintain an agroecosystem by encouraging interior self-regulation for using synthetic agricultural inputs. The understanding of OFS revealed that the system is environment-friendly, and good for biodiversity and sustainability. Therefore, the environment-friendly OFS approaches have become a subject for the improvement of sustainable agriculture by many countries and organizations. This chapter highlights the current concept, status, economic benefits and challenges for sustainable OFS intensification. The generated knowledge of OFS is thought to be useful for the sustainable production of safe and nutritional food in the era of global climate change.
... Negative externalities are borne by society, and economists try to quantify them in order to support decision-making processes at the policy level [26,27]. Estimating the negative external effects helps to determine the magnitude of their consequences, which can be followed by devising solutions to internalise them [28]. Attempts have been made in the literature to characterise the economic-policy instruments relating to environmental issues [29]. ...
This paper aims to explore the importance of the direct-payments scheme as a tool for supporting the sustainable development of agriculture in Poland, and to assess the effects of the 2015 Common Agricultural Policy reform in this context. In particular, the study attempts to investigate the impact of different fund-allocation criteria on the regional distribution of direct payments. The research employs a simulation method in the form of variant analysis (the “what if” model)—a mathematical method with elements of statistical description, based on the complete dataset. For the purposes of one of the variants, a multi-criteria composite indicator was constructed, including stimulants and destimulants of the level of environmental sustainability of agricultural plant production. The analysis was conducted at the NUTS 2 level (voivodeships). The timeframe of the study covered the period 2010–2019. The data published by Statistics Poland and the Agency for the Restructuring and Modernisation of Agriculture were used as the source material. The analysis indicated that the 2015 Common Agricultural Policy reform redistributed public funds away from sustainable agricultural management principles. Applying some basic sustainability criteria in order to internalise environmental externalities would lead to a radical redistribution of first-pillar Common Agricultural Policy payments. The paper concludes that a real greening of the European Union’s agricultural policy is a task still to be accomplished.
... Industrialised food production has replaced or is replacing biodiverse agricultural landscapes with large monocultures requiring extensive amounts of inputs including mineral fertilisers and pesticides as well as fossil fuels (FAO, 2019). The consequence is not only the drastic reduction in (agro)biodiversity, but also impoverished soils with increased soil erosion, chemical runoffs, polluted aquafers as well as groundwater, antimicrobial resistance, as well as impaired air quality (Miller and Spoolman, 2009, p. 286ff;Tegtmeier and Duffy, 2004;Sundkvist et al., 2005;FAO, 2021). Furthermore, the FS is considered the major cause of deforestation while at the same time being the principal user of becoming increasingly scarce water resources (van Berkum et al., 2018;FAO, 2020a;etc.). ...
One way to approach the food systems transformation is through the prism of food system outcomes. The present PhD study employed a mixed methods research design and actor-oriented approach to investigate the outcomes and transformative potential of one of the alternative food systems – the Organic Food System. A stepwise analysis began with the identification of outcome categories along with the specifi c outcomes and proceeded with the investigation of the contribution to the 17 Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations, from goal- to target-level. The revealed outcomes can be attributed to the three dimensions of sustainability. Higher perception of wellbeing and overall quality of life have been repeatedly reported by the organic actors. The Sustainable Development Goals were found to have a high representation in the investigated case studies, whereby the goal 12, responsible consumption and production, seems to be central in all the investigated cases acting as a leverage, activating further outcomes. The results enabled the formulation of a conceptual framework, which needs to be tested in other contexts and settings.
... Pests and pathogens are responsible for large yield losses (Oerke, 2006) and are often counteracted with pesticides (Lamichhane et al. 2015). Rising concerns regarding the negative externalities of pesticides on human health and environmental safety (Tegtmeier and Duffy 2004, Geiger et al. 2010, Pimentel and Burgess 2014 foster strategies to reduce the risks from their use without compromising productivity and profitability (Lechenet et al. 2017). Reliable pest and pathogen detection and prediction support more timely and precise interventions, and thus reduced pesticide use. ...
A major challenge of agriculture is to improve the sustainability of food production systems in order to provide enough food for a growing human population. Pests and pathogens cause vast yield losses, while crop protection practices raise environmental and human health concerns. Decision support systems provide detailed information on optimal timing and necessity of crop protection interventions, but are often based on phenology models that are time‐, cost‐, and labor‐intensive in development. Here, we aim to develop a data‐driven approach for pest damage forecasting, relying on big data and deep learning algorithms. We present a framework for the development of deep neural networks for pest and pathogen damage classification and show their potential for predicting the phenology of damages. As a case study, we investigate the phenology of the pear leaf blister moth (Leucoptera malifoliella, Costa). We employ a set of 52,322 pictures taken during a period of 19 weeks and establish deep neural networks to categorize the images into six main damage classes. Classification tools achieved good performance scores overall, with differences between the classes indicating that the performance of deep neural networks depends on the similarity to other damages and the number of training images. The reconstructed damage phenology of the pear leaf blister moth matches mine counts in the field. We further develop statistical models to reconstruct the phenology of damages with meteorological data and find good agreement with degree‐day models. Hence, our study indicates a yet underexploited potential for data‐driven approaches to enhance the versatility and cost efficiency of plant pest and disease forecasting.
... The role of agriculture is obviously far more substantial, since it supplies products for other sectors of economy, provides workplaces for many people [15][16][17], and generates environmental pollution [18][19][20], but may also improve its quality [21][22][23] or the health of its consumers [24][25][26]. ...
In line with the assumptions of the European Green Deal, it is planned to allocate 25% of agricultural land to organic farming by 2030. However, the question arises: what share of organic farming and under what additional conditions is it able to feed the population of a given country? The aim of the article is to try to answer the above question for the example of Poland. In particular, the authors analyze: the problem of satisfying people’s nutritional needs, reducing food wastage, and finally the relationship between sustainable consumption and increasing the share of organic farming in Poland. Attention was also paid to possible potential changes in the agricultural land area with the growing share of organic farming. The proposed scenarios for the transition to organic farming concern the year 2030. We propose to increase the share in 20%, 40% and 60%, imposing them on changes in sustainable consumption of +/−25%, +/−50% and +/−75%. The available FAOSTAT (Statistic Data of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) and Statistics Poland data from 2008–2018 were used for the analysis. The model scenario analysis showed that the total food demand will be met in most of the scenarios. It has also been shown that with a higher level of transition to organic farming, it becomes necessary to reduce food wastage. Changing the consumption style not only creates opportunities for a wider development of organic farming in Poland but can also generate free areas on arable land (e.g., even more than 26% of free area in the +/−75% scenario). This may create potential opportunities for their use in the production of consumer crops, but also in the protection of the natural and agricultural environment.
... The expansion of irrigated agriculture may be one of the key drivers for the loss of natural habitats and biodiversity (Tegtmeier and Duffy, 2005;Savory and Duncan, 2016;EDIA, 2020b). In the Alentejo region, highly impacted by the Alqueva irrigation system, the expansion of intensive agriculture occurs mainly in previous areas of extensive agriculture, as 70% of land use changes for agriculture in Alentejo occurred in detriment of grazing soils and 20% of forested areas (INE, 2020b). ...
Multiple policy entries for a sustainable food system in Portugal: overview, challenges and solutions I
Delgado, C. (guest editor)
... We have reached a critical juncture in which this species-centric approach for providing agricultural needs of pollination is leading to a breakdown, not only of natural ecosystems, but of the agricultural production systems upon which we humans depend. While we may not be experiencing the costs of these externalities now, we have known for a while that eventually our agricultural production will decrease and become prohibitively costly unless we embrace a more sustainable system [70][71][72][73]. ...
Ecosystems are interconnected and complex, but conservation has often focused on rehabilitating individual species. A systems-ecology approach aims to support overall ecosystem structure and maintain ecological functions, and may be especially pertinent for mutualistic plant-pollinator communities. This approach focuses on species interactions as the units to be conserved within the larger ecosystem. Analyzing species interactions is a more holistic approach because it incorporates a broader web of organisms, and considers the plethora of potential indirect influences from interacting partners. In this article, we suggest pollinator researchers focus on plant-pollinator networks to inform conservation programs and best support the coexistence of pollinators and plants within natural and agricultural systems. We propose that a system-ecology perspective is the most promising way to simultaneously improve pollinator conservation, agricultural sustainability, and human well-being.
... However, they also need to be economically feasible for conventional nonintegrated producers who are often marginally profitable. Consumers may need to accept policies that support the internalization of environmental costs (and thus pay higher prices for some foods), which have traditionally been externalized (Tegtmeier and Duffy, 2004) and tolerated or ignored. Moreover, consumers must understand that, while the ''true cost" of food does not appear directly on their grocery bill, they are paying for these externalized costs in other ways (Pretty et al., 2001). ...
We face an urgent and complex challenge to produce large amounts of healthful animal and plant foods for an estimated 10 billion people by 2050 while maintaining essential ecosystem services. To compound this challenge, we must do so while not further degrading our environment and conserving essential nutrients such as copper, magnesium, phosphorus, selenium, and zinc that are in short supply for fertilization. Much good research has been done, but to meet this challenge, we need to greatly increase on-farm and watershed-scale research including on-farm evaluations and demonstrations of the putative best combinations of stewardship techniques over multiple years in real-world settings, which are backed by data on nutrient inputs, soil, air, and water chemistry (fluxes) and water discharge. We also need to work with farmers, specialists, and generalists in highly creative interdisciplinary teams that resist forming silos and that use combinations of techniques linked to agroecology and industrial ecology in combination with state-of-the-art engineering. Some of these research and demonstration farms need to be in catchments prone to pollution of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems with nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients. Some promising approaches include mixed crop-livestock systems, although these alone may not be productive enough without updating to meet the dietary needs of an estimated 10 billion people by 2050. Other approaches could be state-of-the-art multi-trophic production systems, which include several species of plants integrated into production with vertebrates (e.g., ruminants, pigs, poultry), invertebrates (e.g., insects, earthworms) and fish, shrimp, or crayfish to utilize wasted feed and excreta, and recycle nutrients back to the animals (via plants or invertebrates) in the systems. To cut costs and increase desirable outputs, we must recycle nutrients much better within our food production systems and produce both animal and plant foods more efficiently as nutrients cycle through systems.
... In addition to the productivity aspect, inadequate nitrogen management can lead to many hazards and losses related to the environment and social aspect [1,[7][8][9][10][11][12], since quality of the natural environment and human health are known to be adversely affected by pollution of soil, land and groundwater, eutrophication, odors from natural fertilizers, contamination with nitrogen compounds of food products. Other environmental problems and losses arise out of nitrogen accumulation in drinking water or food, or indirect changes in the diversity of ecosystems and biodiversity and the so-called external costs of agricultural pro-duction. ...
Nitrogen is the basic element directly affecting plant yielding. This causes that it is widely used as a component of mineral fertilizers. With increased doses of mineral nitrogen, only a certain part of it is used by plants. The rest goes into the environment , polluting the environment. The study attempts to determine changes in the nitrogen content in the arable layer and to determine the nitrogen flux leached from the soil. The research was carried out over a year and a half for three fields with different soils, under different crop conditions. Relations between soil moisture, suction pressure and unsaturated water conductivity were determined for the tested soils. In the mathematical model of water movement in soil, the Richards equation and the equation for the flow of soil solution were used. The source elements of the equations include water and nitrogen uptake by plants. There is a very clear correlation between precipitation and a stream of nitrogen deep into the soil. Soil physical properties play a very important role. The total amount of nitrogen washed out into the soil was determined. It is respectively 14.4 kg· ha-1 for clay soil and 75.5 and 91.4 kg·ha-1 for sandy soils with the same rainfall. In addition , the results were referred to the gross nitrogen balance of the studied fields.
... 9,10 Studies have also reported that pesticide residues in grassland ecosystems can affect the health of livestock animals, which can then further affect the pastoral economy and its sustainability. 11,12 Therefore, it is important to manage pesticide emissions and residue levels in grasslands. ...
... Generally, conventional soil management practices include three to four mechanical tillages per year for weed control or herbicide application. In addition, farmers usually increase the use of fertilizer to intensify vine growth and yield, with a corresponding enhancement of cost and pollution [3]. In contrast, conservative soil management practices such as zero or minimum tillage reduce erosion rates and moisture losses and increase organic matter content [4,5], with a positive effect on the yield and fruit quality traits [6]. ...
The aim of this study was to analyze the mid-term influence of minimum tillage (MT) combined with early leaf removal (ELR) on the performance of the black grapevine variety Nerello Mascalese (Vitis vinifera L.). The research was carried out from 2015 to 2018 in a vineyard located in the Mount Etna area, East Sicily, Southern Italy. An average of about 8000 cm2 of leaves were removed from the ELR vines, corresponding to a canopy defoliation of 44% in 2017 and 30% in 2018. As for the stem water potential of both primary and lateral leaves, ELR-MT treatment showed the best performance (up to −0.4 MPa) among the four combinations. In 2017, no differences in yield/vine were found among treatments, whereas in 2018 the yield was significantly lower in ELR treatments. Among the different treatments performed, the ELR-MT showed the best results both in terms of physiological plant parameters (water status and photosynthetic activity) and fruit quality (higher concentration of sugars and total anthocyanins and polyphenols). ELR-MT treatment is also associated with a lower incidence of tillage operations from four to only one per year (−60–70 h/ha). In contrast to what was observed in the first 3 years of application (i.e., from 2015 to 2017), yield was heavily penalized during the fourth year of application (2018), probably due to the excessive depletion of nutritional reserves, the reduction of bud fertility and the unfavorable meteorological condition. For these reasons, the ELR-MT combination might require an interruption every 2–3 years of application.
... There has been some scientific engagement previously, as Pretty et al. 8 set the scene for agricultural externality analysis at this century's beginning: they were able to record significant environmental impacts of agriculture at the overall societal level in monetary terms for the UK. This approach was translated for other regions subsequently, with calculations of agricultural external costs for the USA and Germany 2,9 . However, these first external cost assessments, with their characteristic top-down approaches, did not link specific causal emission values with said costs. ...
Although the agricultural sector is globally a main emitter of greenhouse gases, thorough economic analysis of environmental and social externalities has not yet been conducted. Available research assessing agricultural external costs lacks a differentiation between farming systems and food categories. A method addressing this scientific gap is established in this paper and applied in the context of Germany. Using life-cycle assessment and meta-analytical approaches, we calculate the external climate costs of foodstuff. Results show that external greenhouse gas costs are highest for conventional and organic animal-based products (2.41€/kg product; 146% and 71% surcharge on producer price level), followed by conventional dairy products (0.24€/kg product; 91% surcharge) and lowest for organic plant-based products (0.02€/kg product; 6% surcharge). The large difference of relative external climate costs between food categories as well as the absolute external climate costs of the agricultural sector imply the urgency for policy measures that close the gap between current market prices and the true costs of food.
... Since the goal of energy policy is to promote environmentally optimal solutions, in Italy to compare the potential environmental impacts of alternative policy is applied to quantify the impact of atmospheric emissions; so biogas support schemes in Italy were considered and revised to include subsidies for biomethane production process [6]. "Agriculture also has a significant effect on the environment and human health" [7]. In the paper were calculated the external costs of agricultural production in the USA taking into account natural resources, ecosystem biodiversity and human health. ...
Our study demonstrates the introduction of a market-based mechanism for environmental management in conditions of a shortage of natural (water) resources. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of environmental externalities and technological progress on the stability of economic system development. We considered a model of upstream and downstream firms with production negative externality, taking into account that producer pollutant and farm enterprise are situated along the Ingulets river. Experimental data and OLS method were used in this model. The results of the study and practical recommendations will allow participants of the technological process to respond quickly to changes in the state of the environment and make effective decisions aimed at ensuring the stability of the economic system and environmental safety. We found that enterprise's rate of technological development inspired by IT implementation has to be 0.28 times more than technological development of pollutant to save the stability of farm enterprise's output.
... For example, soil C sequestration provides value as avoided emission of CO 2 . Agricultural greenhouse emissions are often compared to "agricultural exhaust" (Franzluebbers et al., 2006) and are one of the numerous examples of market failures associated with the environment (Drummond & Goodwin, 2004;Tegtmeier & Duffy, 2004). SOC, SIC, and TSC are critical information for assessing regulating ES at the farm scale, and for achieving the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Keestra et al., 2016). ...
A “soil carbon hotspot” (SCH) is a geographic area having an abundance of soil carbon, and therefore higher ecosystems services value based on avoided social costs of CO2 emissions. Soil organic carbon (SOC), soil inorganic carbon (SIC), and total soil carbon (TSC) are critical data to help identify SCH at the farm scale, but monetary methods of hotspot evaluation are not well defined. This study provides a first of its kind quantitative example of farm-scale monetary value of soil carbon (C), and mapping of SCH based on avoided social cost of CO2 emissions using both Soil Survey Geographic (SSURGO) database and field measurements. The total calculated monetary value for TSC storage at the Willsboro Farm based on the SSURGO database was about 7.3 million U.S. dollars ($7.3M), compared to $2.8M based on field data from averaged soil core results. This difference is attributed to variation in soil sampling methodology, laboratory methods of soil C analyses, and depth of reported soil C results. Despite differences in total monetary valuation, observed trends by soil order were often similar for SSURGO versus field methods, with Alfisols typically having the highest total and area-normalized monetary values for SOC, SIC and TSC. Farm-scale C accounting provides a more detailed spatial resolution of monetary values and SCH, compared to estimates based on country-level reports in soil survey databases. Delineation and mapping of SCH at the farm scale can be useful tools to define land management zones, to achieve social profit for farmers, and to realize United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) based on avoided social cost of CO2 emissions.
... A study from the United States replicates the study by Pretty et al. (2000) with US data. Tegtmeier and Duffy examined the external costs of agricultural production in the United States by reviewing and revising valuation studies to compile aggregate figures [33]. External costs are estimated at $5.7 billion to $16.9 billion annually. ...
Plants are dependent on nitrogen for their growth. However, if more plant nutrients are deposited than the plant can absorb, the excess nitrogen seeps into the soil where it accumulates as nitrate. About 74% of the drinking water produced in Germany comes from groundwater. The legal limit of 50 milligrams of nitrate per liter of fresh water is exceeded frequently in Germany, especially in agricultural areas. High levels of nitrate in drinking water can quickly lead to health issues, under certain conditions. The nitrate problem is omnipresent in Germany. However, studies which determine the externalized costs of nitrogen eutrophication are mostly missing. The present study closes this gap by combining the results of a transdisciplinary investigation from hydrological analyses and environmental-economic calculations. Water samples were taken from a deep well in Hauneck, which is a municipality in Hesse (Germany). Afterwards, an isotope analysis was carried out to determine the groundwater residence time and possible sources of nitrate. Thus, in addition to the sources of pollution, concrete social costs were determined, using a damage cost approach as well as an avoidance cost approach. For Hauneck, it was found that about 54% of the drinking water price is directly linked to the externalization of costs. These are borne via the principle of the common burden. In addition, the isotope investigations have shown that the removal of excess nitrate will continue for decades, which will lead to long term external costs. The paper reveals how the internalization of these costs can contribute to the conservation of water resources.
... Previous research has established the impact of production agriculture on the environment and society in general (e.g., Tegtmeier & Duffy, 2004). Specifically, the impact on water quality outcomes is well documented given increasing attention on N leaching from agricultural fields as a contributor to the hypoxic zone in the Gulf of Mexico (Alexander, Smith, & Schwarz, 2000;Keeler et al., 2012Keeler et al., , 2016Kladivko et al., 2014;Robertson & Saad, 2013;Roley, Tank, Tyndall, & Witter, 2016;Ruffatti, Roth, Lacey, & Armstrong, 2019). ...
Unsubstantiated economic returns are a major contributor to producers’ reluctance to adopt cover crops. The objective of this study is to evaluate the direct short‐run net returns to the producer of implementing a predominantly cereal rye (Secale cereal L.) cover crop mix into a Midwest corn (Zea mays L.)–soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] rotation. Experimental agronomic data from field experiments in Lexington, IL, are used to calibrate economic simulations of the costs and benefits of cover crop adoption. Results indicate that net returns to cover crops, including current cost‐share payments, were routinely negative. Returns to the soybean phase of the rotation were higher than corn given that the cover crop significantly reduced corn yield in 1 of 2 yr but did not significantly affect soybean yield. A scenario where cover crop biomass was hypothetically harvested and valued as a livestock feedstuff increased returns. However, further research is needed to validate the agronomic assumptions underlying this scenario. Finally, the breakeven subsidy that would make the producer indifferent to planting cover crops was estimated to be US$13–$23 kg–1 of nitrate saved from leaving the field each year (or approximately $195–$345 ha–1). This is higher than current cost‐share payments ($140 ha–1). In the short‐run, incentivizing producers to adopt cover crops will likely require (i) improved recommendations for cover crop best management practices to eliminate current downside risk and (ii) higher cost‐share payments or established markets to internalize cover crop benefits that accrue to society.
Głównym celem pracy było zbadanie zależności między kierunkiem produkcji gospodarstw rolnych w regionie Wielkopolski i Śląska a poszczególnymi rodzajami ponoszonych przez nie kosztów ogólnogospodarczych. Do realizacji celu badawczego wykorzystano jednoczynnikową wariancję ANOVA. Do zobrazowania kierunków produkcji posłużono się danymi odnoszącymi się do typów rolniczych wyróżnionych w bazie FADN. Badania skupiają się na 4 rodzajach kosztów ogólnogospodarczych związanych z prowadzoną działalnością produkcyjną. Okres badawczy objął lata 2005–2020. Wyniki wskazują, że istnieje znaczne zróżnicowanie w poziomie ponoszonych kosztów ogólnogospodarczych przez gospodarstwa rolne ukierunkowane na produkcję roślinną i zwierzęcą.
Purpose: The main aim of the study is to analyse the relationship between the production direction of the European Union agricultural enterprises and the different types of total farming overheads incurred by these agricultural enterprises. Additionally, the achieved results are to present how the direction of production of the European Union agricultural enterprises influences on the incurred total farming overheads relating to the functioning of the agricultural enterprises. Design/methodology/approach: The one-way analysis of variance ANOVA was used to realise the aim of the study. To present the production directions the data relating to the eight agricultural types listed in the FADN base were used. The conducted studies have been focused on the four types of total farming overheads relating to the performed production activities. The study covers all European Union member countries from the period from 2005 to 2017. Findings: The most frequent differences in bearing the different types of total farming overheads are evident between the type of horticulture, wine and permanent crops and the types of agricultural enterprises focused on livestock production. The several differences may be observed in case of the agricultural enterprises oriented on the same food sources Originality/value: There are significant differences in the level of the incurred total farming overheads between the agricultural enterprises oriented on crop production and livestock production. The much higher costs may be observed in the agricultural enterprises oriented on crop production, in particular in case of horticulture, wine and permanent crops.
We have developed an add-on tool for use with the Agricultural Conservation Planning Framework (ACPF) that features multi-state financial analysis and field-scale nitrogen reduction tool for use when analyzing different ACPF conservation scenarios. Financial and expected field-scale nitrogen loss data are used to calculate total long-term cost and cost effectiveness of various conservation plans. Unique to the ACPF Financial and Nutrient Reduction Tool (FiNRT) is the ability to identify individual treatment areas for each practice evaluated, allowing users to create combinatorial conservation planning scenarios drawing from multiple ACPF-identified conservation practices. Financial data accounts for direct long-term annualized costs for BMP installation and management in Iowa and Minnesota. Opportunity costs of BMPs that retire cropland are spatially determined according to weighted-average crop productivity indices and land rent relationships. The tool quantifies the nitrogen requirements for each field, based on 6-year land-use data, and evaluates the proportion of nitrogen likely to be lost from the field as nitrate load via leaching. Financial analyses that can be accomplished by using the ACPF are illustrated in case study watershed scenarios in Iowa and Minnesota. In Iowa, featured scenarios range from 26% - 31% reduction in total nitrate for a total cost between $0.580 million - $2.3 million per year, respectively. In Minnesota, example scenarios range from 28% - 51% total nitrate reduction for total costs of $1.7 million - $2.1 million per year, respectively. Tradeoffs in BMP selection related to nitrogen reduction outcome and cost are also demonstrated. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Sodic soils are of major concern, especially in semi-arid and arid regions. Soil sodicity results from both natural and anthropogenic processes. Many studies have focused on the adverse effects, that sodic soils have on soil degradation, soil productivity, and associated harmful effects on the agricultural and natural environments. Here, basic processes related to soil sodicity are presented, and their impact on soil physical and hydraulic properties and productivity is discussed. The chapter also presents key insights regarding common practices used to cope with soil sodicity and the reclamation of sodic soils.
We must continually ask what should we do? What is the agricultural research task? We must explore whether our goals have been proper and sufficient, and if the results are good and adequate for the future. Those engaged in agriculture must begin to examine and expand agriculture’s ethical horizon—the full range or widest limit of our perception, interest, appreciation, knowledge, and experience. It is necessary to explore agriculture’s intellectual horizon, because our unexamined, ethical position, may limit what agriculture’s ethical horizon defines. This book will encourage those involved in all phases of the agricultural enterprise to initiate and continue discussion of agriculture’s ethical foundation.
Agricultural research has emphasized discovery, development, and employment of new practices, techniques, and machines to improve agricultural productivity and profit. These approaches are worthy of praise and support. A major purpose of this book is to continue discussion of agriculture’s ethical horizon, because our unexamined, ethical position, may limit what the horizon defines. We live in a postindustrial, information age society. We do not and no one ever will live in a postagricultural society. All nations have an agricultural foundation within their borders or elsewhere. Those in agriculture must strive to assure all the foundation is secure.
To yield abundant crops, an agrarian has to seed the right plant, at the right time, and in the right place. The right place is determined not only by the geographic location and climate peculiarities but the type of soil as well. Soil is the mainstay of agriculture and horticulture, forming the medium in which growth and ultimately the yield of food-producing crops occur. Machine learning (ML) has emerged as a high-performance computing method to create new opportunities to unravel, quantify, and understand data-intensive processes in agricultural operational environments. ML is an application of artificial intelligence (AI) that provides systems the ability to automatically learn and improve from experience without being explicitly programmed. The goal of ML is to understand the structure of data and fit it into models so that it can be utilized by people. In this research work, we developed a prediction system for crop selection based on soil features (physical properties, chemical properties, and biological properties) with 28 total properties. Five different hypothetical dataset versions were developed as training data for machine learning algorithms. This system follows analytics maturity curve stages, that is, descriptive, predictive, and prescriptive. The system works in two parts. First, it selects the suitable crop for specific soil health. Next, the system recommends health improvement guidelines for the selected soil sample so that the most suitable crop may become more profitable. The research deals with decision tree, naïve Bayes, and random forest algorithms and helps in decision making for crop selection by predicting with the highest accuracy.
Thoroughly revised and updated, the third edition of The Sociology of Food and Agriculture provides a cutting-edge, comprehensive introduction to the study of food and society. The book begins by examining the food economy, with chapters focusing on foodscapes, the financialization of food, and a new chapter dedicated to food and nutrition (in)security. In Part II, the book addresses community and culture. While some books only look at the interrelationships between food and culture, this section problematizes the food system from the standpoint of marginalized bodies. It contains chapters focusing on agricultural and food labor and the peasantries, topics which are often overlooked, and gender, ethnicity, and poverty. Part III examines food and the environment, with chapters addressing important topics such as agro-ecosystems, food justice, sustainable food, and agriculture and food sovereignty. The final part focuses on food futures and includes a brand-new chapter on sustainable diets and ethical consumption. The book concludes by showcasing how we can rethink food production and consumption in a way that can help heal social, political, and cultural divisions. All chapters draw on international case studies and include learning objectives, suggested discussion questions, and recommendations for further reading to aid student learning. The Sociology of Food and Agriculture is perfect for students of food studies, including food justice, food and nutrition security, sustainable diets, food sovereignty, environmental sociology, agriculture, and cultural studies.
The aim of this e-book is to present the most important aspects related to sustainability, corporate social responsibility and innovation from an accounting perspective. The book contains parts that deal with accounting aspects of sustainability and innovations. The book consists of ten chapters devoted to relevant and topical issues of sustainability and innovations. Chapter 1 Sustainability and Corporate Social Responsibility in Accounting is an introduction to further considerations and deals with the essence of sustainable development, corporate social responsibility and their recognition in accounting. Chapter 2 Social Responsibility Reporting Standards presents the most important reporting guidance such as GRI, OECD, United Nations Global Compact, International Organization for Standardization. Chapter 3 Narrative reporting focuses on descriptions and explanations in accounting reports. The chapter presents the links between accounting and language, the development of accounting narratives and the factors determining the use of narratives. Chapter 4 Integrated reporting discusses the motivations, objectives and the process of preparing an integrated report. Integrated reporting can prove to be an effective tool for businesses looking to shift their reporting focus from annual financial performance to long-term shareholder value creation. Chapter 5 Non-financial reporting in selected European countries presents the experience of Croatia, the Czech Republic and Poland in the field of preparing non-financial reports. A significant contribution to promoting the importance of sustainability reporting was made by the Non-Financial Reporting Directive (2014/95/EU). Chapter 6, Socially Responsible Investments discusses the essence of socially responsible investing and socially responsible investment. Socially responsible investing (SRI) is a decision making process concerning the allocation of free financial resources, where the investor aims at maximization of profit and minimization of risk on one part and includes the socio-ethical and environmental-ecological considerations on the other. Chapter 7 External costs – accounting perspective describes costs connected with using goods such as air, soil, water, silence or the aesthetics of the surroundings. One of the biggest problems for accounting in the future will be measuring the volume of using these goods or measuring the size of reduction in the quality of public goods suffered and assigning the decrease to particular companies. Chapter 8 Derivatives in accounting is devoted to financial instruments and presents two different approaches to accounting of derivatives: general model and hedge accounting. Derivatives are used to protect the enterprise against financial risk related to changes in prices on the markets, changes in the exchange rate or changes in interest rates, as well as for commercial purposes. Chapter 9 Costs of Research and Development shows the company's activity in the field of research and development and the related costs. R&D constitute an increasingly important element of the functioning of enterprises. Chapter 10 Cryptoassets – Nature, Valuation and Disclosures in Accounting focuses on cryptocurrencies (e.g. Bitcoin, Ethereum etc.) and digital tokens which are specific rights or values representatives. As a result of the transformation on the financial market, we are currently dealing with cryptoassets, which are a creation of blockchain technologies and the changing habits of the digital society. One of areas that there are a lot of doubts regarding these new technological solutions is accounting.
This article examines the effect of U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) regulations on agricultural values. Agricultural development is an important contributor to habitat and biodiversity loss in the United States. The ESA attempts to limit this loss by prohibiting habitat destruction on private lands, but this practice is controversial because it places much of the burden for conservation on farmers. I measure the effect of these restrictions on agriculture using a hedonic analysis of county‐level agricultural land values, profits, and revenues reported in the last four rounds of the agricultural census. Results provide strong evidence that ESA regulations depress these three economic measures in dryland areas, which includes counties with less than 1% of agricultural land in irrigation. Specifically, I find that farmland value and profit decline 4% after listing on average at the county level in dryland areas with protected habitat. There is no evidence that values are affected in irrigated counties.
This report presents the results of the integrated impact assessment of European soil protection policies conducted in RECARE project. The aim of the integrated impact assessment was to understand how the current set of EU soil protection policies, in the way that they have been implemented in the time frame from 2006 - 2012, have affected soil management practices, and by extension soil quality, in the countries where case studies are situated. Soil threats captured in this assessment include soil erosion, loss of soil organic matter. Subsoil compaction and soil sealing were not included. For soil sealing, an analysis was conducted at city / national level, and the summary of results of this analysis is presented in Annex 1. The analysis related to subsoil compaction is presented in a separate peer reviewed publication (forthcoming).
At EU level, there is no dedicated soil policy with binding requirements. Instead, there is a set of policies that are first and foremost agricultural policies, water protection policies, nutrient management policies and flood risk management policies, and which also have an effect on the way soils are managed, although soil protection is not an explicit objective of these policies. The diffuse nature of this set of policies makes it difficult to establish and quantify causality between EU policies and soil management practices, and to attribute impacts to the policies. The lack of systematic monitoring in this regard significantly limits availability of data for the assessment. Instead, the impact assessment resorted to a broad and differentiated evidence base, including a stocktaking and mapping of EU soil-related policies, 17 case studies based on interviews and expert assessments, insights from the relevant literature, and an online survey among European soil experts and practitioners.
Good management requires proper measurement, yet little is known about anthropogenic climate effects of agriculture. To remedy this, a precise measurement of negative externalities is urgently needed. Therefore, the authors of this article describe the heterogeneity of results from previous studies on climate effects and – focussing on the agricultural sector – identify reasons for this phenomenon. The authors conduct a meta-regression analysis, based on 53 primary studies that cover the period between 1951 and 2015. All countries or country groups are included in the 1,345 reported results on emitted amounts of CO2e and SO2e. Our findings confirm the well-known result that an increase in livestock quantities corresponds with a significant increase in emission levels. By integrating culture-related country data, the authors conclude that the level of “humane orientation” and the amounts of emissions follow opposite courses. Furthermore, studies conducted while the first author of this study was working for an NGO, report significantly higher emissions. Based on an adaptation of a meta-regression analysis to the field of environmental performance measurement, we are able to provide new insights about the influence of the change of individual drivers on the emission level. Examples of these insights include a one-third increase in cattle stock is associated with an increase in emissions of 29.45 t/km². We also find that publications where the first author works for an NGO reported an emission level 87.04 t/km² higher than other publications. These findings enable the identification of the main drivers of emissions, while helping to explain the heterogeneity of existing studies. Based on the findings of this study, companies can take reliable measures to reduce the external climate effects of their products.
The agrarian policy changes introduced in Cuba since 2007 have resulted in notable changes in land tenure. This has contributed to a shift to annual crops, substantial reductions in idle land and the partial (but still insufficient) recovery of non‐sugar agricultural output and yields. Despite these limited advances, the long‐term growth and development of Cuban agriculture requires more profound structural reforms. The experiences of China and Vietnam suggest that the (further) expansion of land tenure and property rights should be a logical first step to achieve this goal.
The concept of ecosystem services, especially in combination with economic valuation, can illuminate trade-offs involved in soil management, policy and governance, and thus support decision making. In this paper, we investigate and highlight the potential and limitations of the economic valuation of soil-based ecosystem services to inform sustainable soil management and policy. We formulate a definition of soil-based ecosystem services as basis for conducting a review of existing soil valuation studies with a focus on the inclusion of ecosystem services and the choice of valuation methods. We find that, so far, the economic valuation of soil-based ecosystem services has covered only a small number of such services and most studies have employed cost-based methods rather than state-of-the-art preference-based valuation methods, even though the latter would better acknowledge the public good character of soil related services. Therefore, the relevance of existing valuation studies for political processes is low. Broadening the spectrum of analyzed ecosystem services as well as using preference-based methods would likely increase the informational quality and policy relevance of valuation results. We point out options for improvement based on recent advances in economic valuation theory and practice. We conclude by investigating the specific roles economic valuation results can play in different phases of the policy-making process, and the specific requirements for its usefulness in this context.
Celem badań było rozpoznanie i ocena niekorzystnych skutków działalności rolniczej dla środowiska naturalnego (efekty zewnętrzne generowane przez rol-nictwo) w różnych systemach rolniczych. Przyjęto założenie, że efekty ze-wnętrzne generowane przez rolnictwo są zróżnicowane w zależności od systemu produkcji rolniczej. Dokonano identyfikacji generowania efektów zewnętrznych w rolnictwie w ujęciu regionalnym na świecie. Wskazano także na problem spo-sobów rozwiązywania problemu negatywnych efektów zewnętrznych. Badania w tym zakresie mogą stanowić wkład w dyskusję na temat zagrożeń dla środo-wiska ze strony działalności rolniczej.
Health is recognized as one of the most important components of the human capital of rural people in developing countries.
There is a growing body of literature showing the productivity effects of health associated with nutrition (e.g., Bliss and Stern, 1978;Strauss, 1986;Deolalikar, 1988;Pitt, Rosenzweig, and Hassan, 1990). In this literature, the productivity effects of health are inferred either by correlating health indicators with wages
or by including health indicators in an agricultural production function. The human capital literature also has demonstrated
that farmer education plays an important role in the allocative and technical efficiency of farmers (Welch, 1970; Schultz, 1975).
Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen has been cited as a major factor in the overfertilization of forests (often termed nitrogen saturation) in the northeastern United States and as a contributor to the eutrophication of coastal waters, including the Gulf of Mexico near the mouth of the Mississippi River. Sources of nitrogen emissions and the spatial patterns of nitrogen deposition within the Mississippi River Basin, however, have not been fully assessed. The objectives of this study were to (1) quantify the spatial distribution of atmospheric nitrogen deposition throughout the Mississippi River Basin, and (2) relate the locations of emission sources to the spatial deposition patterns to infer patterns of atmospheric transport. Data collected through the NADP/NTN (National Atmospheric Deposition Program/National Trends Network) and CASTNet (Clean Air Status and Trends Network) were used for this analysis. The highest rates of wet deposition of NO 3 were in the northeastern part of the basin where electric utility plants are concentrated, whereas the highest rates of wet deposition of NH 4 were in Iowa, near the center of intensive agricultural activities in the midwest. The lowest rates of atmospheric nitrogen deposition are on the (windward) side of the basin, which suggests that most of the nitrogen deposited within the western basin is derived from internal sources. Atmospheric transport eastward across the basin boundary is greater for NO 3 than NH 4 , but a significant amount of NH 4 is likely to be transported out of the basin through the formation of (NH 4) 2 SO 4 and NH 4 NO 3 particles, which greatly increases the atmospheric residence time of NH 4 . This process may be a factor in the transport of nitrogen from the midwest to upland forest regions in the Northeast, such as the western Adirondack region of New York, where NH 4 constitutes 40 percent of total wet nitrogen deposition.
This paper illustrates some of the conceptual and empirical issues that are confronted in designing soil conservation policy by examining the relationship between soil erosion (sediment loading) and water treatment costs. In section I of the paper, two methods for measuring the benefits of changes in ambient environmental quality are presented. Section II discusses the variables included in the models, the predictions about the impact of those variables on model parameters, and the data used to make parameter estimates. Section III presents the empirical estimates of the cost function and environmental linkage parameters and the estimated value of economic damages. -from Author
This trans-disciplinary study assesses total external environmental and health costs of modern agriculture in the UK. A wide range of datasets have been analysed to assess cost distribution across sectors. We calculate the annual total external costs of UK agriculture in 1996 to be £2343 m (range for 1990–1996: £1149–3907 m), equivalent to £208/ha of arable and permanent pasture. Significant costs arise from contamination of drinking water with pesticides (£120 m/year), nitrate (£16 m), Cryptosporidium (£23 m) and phosphate and soil (£55 m), from damage to wildlife, habitats, hedgerows and drystone walls (£125 m), from emissions of gases (£1113 m), from soil erosion and organic carbon losses (£106 m), from food poisoning (£169 m), and from bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) (£607 m). This study has only estimated those externalities that give rise to financial costs, and so is likely to underestimate the total negative impacts of modern agriculture. These data help to identify policy priorities, particularly over the most efficient way to internalise these external costs into prices. This would imply a redirection of public subsidies towards encouraging those positive externalities under-provided in the market place, combined with a mix of advisory and institutional mechanisms, regulatory and legal measures, and economic instruments to correct negative externalities. Further work examining the marginal costs and benefits of UK agriculture would help to inform future policy development.
Nitrates in drinking water, which may come from nitrogen fertilizers applied to crops, are a potential health risk. This report evaluates the potential benefits of reducing human exposure to nitrates in the drinking water supply. In a survey, respondents were asked a series of questions about their willingness to pay for a hypothetical water filter, which would reduce their risk of nitrate exposure. If nitrates in the respondent's drinking water were to exceed the EPA minimum safety standard, they would be willing to pay $45 to $60, per household, per month, to reduce nitrates in their drinking water to the minimum safety standard. There are 2.9 million households in the four regions studied (White River area of Indiana, Central Nebraska, Lower Susquehanna, and Mid-Columbia Basin in Washington). If all households potentially at risk were protected from excessive nitrates in drinking water the estimated benefits would be $350 million.
The existence of persistent technical inefficiency offers the opportunity for a 'free lunch' not typically implied by the neoclassical theory of the firm. When external effects are related to the use of particular inputs, reduction of persistent technically inefficient levels of input use represents a means of reducing external impacts. An important example is found in agriculture where substantial environmental impacts are generated by particular inputs. Within this context, this paper considers the usefulness of data envelopment analysis (DEA) for estimation of potential input reductions and assessment of potential reductions of environmental impacts of agricultural inputs. An application for French cereal production provides estimates that indicate that substantial potential exists for reduction of input use and environmental impacts.
Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS) is an autoimmune reaction that can cause acute neuro-muscular paralysis. Of an estimated 2,628 to 9,575 new U.S. cases with GBS annually, 526 to 3,830 are triggered by infection with Campylobacter, the most frequently isolated cause of foodborne diarrhea. Estimated total annual costs of Campylobacter-associated GBS of $0.2 to $1.8 billion plus previously estimated costs of campylobacteriosis ($1.3 to $6.2 billion) add to total annual costs from Campylobacter of $1.5 to $8.0 billion (1995 dollars). Assuming 55-70 percent of costs are attributable to foodborne sources, costs of campylobacteriosis from food sources ($0.7 to $4.3 billion) and costs of associated GBS ($0.1 to $1.3 billion) combined equal total annual costs of $0.8 to $5.6 billion from foodborne Campylobacter. Reducing Campylobacter in food could prevent up to $5.6 billion in costs annually.
Most environmental concerns about waste management either have focused on the effects of nutrients, especially N and P, on water quality or have emphasized odor problems and air quality. Microbes from manure are often low on the priority list for control and remediation, despite the fact that several outbreaks of gastroenteritis have been traced to livestock operations. The pathogens discussed in this paper include protozoans (Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia spp.), bacteria (Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp., and Mycobacterium paratuberculosis), and some enteric viruses. Clinical symptoms, prospects for zoonotic infection, and control methods other than the use of antimicrobials are considered. Recommendations to avoid disease transmission include taking steps to ensure the provision of clean, unstressful environments to reduce disease susceptibility and the careful handling and spreading of manure from animals at high risk for infection, especially young calves. Composting and drying of manure decrease the number of viable pathogens. Environmental controls, such as filter strips, also reduce the risk of water contamination.
To better quantify the impact of foodborne diseases on health in the United States, we compiled and analyzed information from multiple surveillance systems and other sources. We estimate that foodborne diseases cause approximately 76 million illnesses, 325,000 hospitalizations, and 5,000 deaths in the United States each year. Known pathogens account for an estimated 14 million illnesses, 60, 000 hospitalizations, and 1,800 deaths. Three pathogens, Salmonella, Listeria, and Toxoplasma, are responsible for 1,500 deaths each year, more than 75% of those caused by known pathogens, while unknown agents account for the remaining 62 million illnesses, 265,000 hospitalizations, and 3,200 deaths. Overall, foodborne diseases appear to cause more illnesses but fewer deaths than previously estimated.
Active surveillance of acute pesticide poisonings in a potato-growing region of highland Ecuador during 1991-1992 uncovered a rate of 171/100,000, due predominantly to occupational exposures to organophosphate and carbamate pesticides. Occupational exposure among agricultural workers was the most common reason for poisoning (32 male workers and 1 female worker, out of a total of 50 cases). Of these 33 cases, 28 of them reported pesticide application as the work task just prior to poisoning, with over 80% citing the use of World Health Organization Hazard Category I pesticides. The suicide rate of 17.1/100,000 and the overall mortality rate of 20.5/100,000 that we found are among the highest reported anywhere in the world. At the exchange rates prevailing at that time, median costs associated with these poisonings were estimated as follows: public and social security health care direct costs of US$ 9.85/case; private health costs of US$ 8.33/case; and lost-time indirect costs of US$ 8.33/agricultural worker. Each one of those costs was over five times the daily agricultural wage, which was then about US$ 1.50. Further costing of pesticide poisonings should be carried out in other settings to provide appropriate information for decisions about pesticide use. In addition, integrated pest management should be further evaluated as an appropriate technology to reduce the economic burden of illness from pesticide poisonings in developing countries.
Soil erosion is a major environmental threat to the sustainability and productive capacity of agriculture. During the last
40 years, nearly one-third of the world's arable land has been lost by erosion and continues to be lost at a rate of more
than 10 million hectares per year. With the addition of a quarter of a million people each day, the world population's food
demand is increasing at a time when per capita food productivity is beginning to decline.
This new edition builds on the explosion of research on sustainable agriculture since the late 1980s. By separating myth from reality, Miguel Altieri extracts the key principles of sustainable agriculture and expounds on management systems that “really work.” Providing case studies of sustainable rural development in developing countries, he goes beyond a mere description of practices to include data that reveal the socioeconomic and environmental impacts of alternative projects. Each chapter of Agroecology has been enriched and updated with the latest research results from around the world. New emphasis has been placed on such issues as the ecological economics of agriculture, policy changes needed for promoting sustainable agriculture, rural development in the Third World, the role of biodiversity in agriculture, and new research methodologies.
Soil erosion has been considered a threat to US farm productivity for many years, though only recently have economic costs been put to this damage. Using data from the Erosion Productivity Impact Calculator and erosion data from the 1982 National Resource Inventory, research has attempted to put figures to farmers losses due to soil erosion (on-farm losses), and also to the donor areas (off-farm losses). The costs to the farmers are shown to derive from a number of factors including yield drops, increased purchased inputs and drops in soil moisture. -R.C.Medler
This volume was assembled by a group of Michigan agricultural scientists, MSU Extension workers and farmers to promote greater understanding of Michigan field crop ecology in order to help Michigan farmers achieve greater sustainability in their farming systems. We touch briefly on the social, political and macroeconomic dimensions that are critical aspects of agricultural sustainability, but our primary goal is to build an understanding of the biological basis of sustainability. Our general approach is to describe management (especially field crop biodiversity and crop rotation) in terms of its influence on organisms' habitats and food sources found in the agricultural landscape. Both agricultural productivity and environmental quality can be significantly enhanced by more effectively managing the biological processes upon which agriculture is based.
This publication is available from the Michigan State University Extension Bookstore:
http://web2.msue.msu.edu/bulletins2/product/michigan-field-crop-ecology-503.cfm
Agricultural resource economics depends upon a widely scattered literature. This article presents some of the contributions of a forthcoming book on the subject. Some of the major environmental and resource management issues for agriculture are summarized with the needs of policy analysts, graduate students, and research economists in mind. Models involving dynamics and externality management are emphasized and illustrated with examples from water, pesticides, and land resources.
In this book, Professors Baumol and Oates provide a rigorous and comprehensive analysis of the economic theory of environmental policy. They present a formal, theoretical treatment of those factors influencing the quality of life. By covering both the theory of externalities and its application to environmental policy, the authors have retained the basic structure and organization of the first edition, which has become a standard reference in the field. In this edition, however, they have updated their analysis to incorporate recent research in environmental economics.
This paper starts by discussing and estimating the environmental costs of agricultural production. The author uses a separate benefit transfer intended to expose methodological issues to construct each cost category of agricultures's external effects. This is followed by a simple description of the framework for production decisions that account for environmental costs. Included are attribution of environmental externalities and measurement of environmental costs. Finally the author discusses research implications of environmental costing, including TQM and environmental policy analyses, environmental services and their unit values, strategies for measuring environmental values, and prognosis for agricultural adders. 42 refs., 1 fig., 1 tab.
Two adjacent watersheds totaling about 150 kilometers in Montufar Canton in Carchi Province in a cool moist highland zone in northern Ecuador served as the case study site. The authors find that with current technologies, reducing pesticide use would improve health but reduce yields. This tradeoff presents a dilemma for policy makers. Using pesticides has a positive effect on yields and farmers are not irrationally using pesticides; but farmers and their families are suffering health and economic impacts from the use of toxic pesticides. Acute poisonings cause loss of labor and considerable private health care costs. One short-term policy option is to substitute less dangerous but similarly effective chemical products for the more highly toxic ones. Education on the proper management and handling of these dangerous products with clear discussion of the long-term health effects may also be useful. However, unless there is a greater supply of personal protective equipment and incentives for their use, such interventions may be ineffective. A longer term solution is to change potato production technology. -from Authors
The Conservation Reserve Program, a land-retirement program designed to remove from production 40 to 45 million acres of highly erodible cropland, may generate an estimated $3.5 to $4 billion in water-quality benefits. Potential benefits include lower water-treatment costs, lower sediment removal costs, less flood damage, less damage to equipment that uses water, and increased recreational fishing. Benefits were estimated with a set of procedures that approximated the physical, chemical, biological, and economic links between soil erosion and water use.
Freeman attempts to assess the net benefits associated with environmental programs dealing with air and water quality. He concludes that stationary controls have been justified, but that mobile sources and water controls, as presently designed and implemented, have had costs greater than benefits to society. The reviewer notes that the book is more than just a compendium of mechanistic, technical detail; there is rather, far more general information on how economists view environmental problems than suggested by the title. An example is the discussions of the various approaches to valuing environmental benefits.
The economic gains due to honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) agricultural pollination are evaluated. The method of analysis focuses on the gains to consumers through lower prices for crops that are benefited by honey bees. Economic demand functions for the major agricultural crops that are pollinated by bees are estimated. The amounts by which the yields of pollinated crops are increased are estimated from a variety of sources. In the final step, the surplus realized by consumers of these crops that would be lost if honey bees were depleted is determined. The annual social gains are estimated to range between $1.6 and $5.7 billion.
Externalities due to the use of commercial fertilizers, animal manures and pesticides in agricultural production have lead to increasing concern in a large number of European countries. The application of general policy measures such as taxes or quotas has thus been considered to reduce the use of these inputs in production. When applying this type of indirect regulation, i.e. trying to correct externalities through the regulation of input, regional differences in agricultural production and natural conditions can have a significant impact on the efficiency of such general policy measures.
The purpose of this special issue is to elucidate concepts of value and methods of valuation that will assist in guiding human decisions vis-à-vis ecosystems. The concept of ecosystem service value can be a useful guide when distinguishing and measuring where trade-offs between society and the rest of nature are possible and where they can be made to enhance human welfare in a sustainable manner. While win-win opportunities for human activities within the environment may exist, they also appear to be increasingly scarce in a ‘full’ global ecological–economic system. This makes valuation all the more essential for guiding future human activity. This paper provides some history, background, and context for many of the issues addressed by the remaining papers in this special issue. Its purpose is to place both economic and ecological meanings of value, and their respective valuation methods, in a comparative context, highlighting strengths, weakness and addressing questions that arise from their integration.
A framework for modifying sectoral accounts for environmental externalities is assembled as a basis for estimating the National Income Accounts for U.K. agriculture and forestry. Valuation of positive and negative environmental impacts draws on revealed and expressed preference evaluations. The approach taken seeks to modify the national accounts for agriculture and forestry by first assessing the physical significance of the relevant externalities (in terms of land use designations and physical pollutants) and then valuing them using existing studies.
Nitrogen is a key element controlling the species composition, diversity, dynamics, and functioning of many terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. Many of the original plant species living in these ecosystems are adapted to, and function optimally in, soils and solutions with low levels of available nitrogen. The growth and dynamics of herbivore populations, and ultimately those of their predators, also are affected by N. Agriculture, combustion of fossil fuels, and other human activities have altered the global cycle of N substantially, generally increasing both the availability and the mobility of N over large regions of Earth. The mobility of N means that while most deliberate applications of N occur locally, their influence spreads regionally and even globally. Moreover, many of the mobile forms of N themselves have environmental consequences. Although most nitrogen inputs serve human needs such as agricultural production, their environmental conse- quences are serious and long term. Based on our review of available scientific evidence, we are certain that human alterations of the nitrogen cycle have: 1) approximately doubled the rate of nitrogen input into the terrestrial nitrogen cycle, with these rates still increasing; 2) increased concentrations of the potent greenhouse gas N2O globally, and increased concentrations of other oxides of nitrogen that drive the formation of photochemical smog over large regions of Earth; 3) caused losses of soil nutrients, such as calcium and potassium, that are essential for the long-term maintenance of soil fertility; 4) contributed substantially to the acidification of soils, streams, and lakes in several regions; and 5) greatly increased the transfer of nitrogen through rivers to estuaries and coastal oceans. In addition, based on our review of available scientific evidence we are confident that human alterations of the nitrogen cycle have: 6) increased the quantity of organic carbon stored within terrestrial ecosystems; 7) accelerated losses of biological diversity, especially losses of plants adapted to efficient use of nitrogen, and losses of the animals and microorganisms that depend on them; and 8) caused changes in the composition and functioning of estuarine and nearshore ecosystems, and contributed to long-term declines in coastal marine fisheries.
Sumario: I. Introduction to agriculture and pollution -- II. Pesticides and the environment -- III. Fertilizers and health -- IV. Fertilizers and the environment -- V. Fertilizers and health -- VI. Farm wastes -- VII. Agriculture as a global polluter -- VIII. The impact of air pollution on agriculture -- IX. The impact of land and water pollution on agriculture -- X. The control of pollution -- XI. Agriculture without pollution.
Agricultural sectors in most advanced economies have come under severe criticism for lacking the characteristics of 'sustainability'. What is usually meant is that a combination of subsidies and modern farming methods is producing an economically and environmentally non-viable
agricultural sector. Using economic valuation techniques, and adjusting for prevailing subsidies, we seek to re-estimate the contribution that the agricultural sector made to the UK economy in the year 1998. The sector is markedly smaller if adjustments are made for subsidies. But these subsidies allow the sector to be a generator of both substantial environmental benefits, and also of extensive environmental damages.
Bibliogr. na konci kapitol Rozmn
Cryptosporidium parvum is an important emerging pathogen in the United States and a cause of severe, life-threatening disease in patients with AIDS.
No safe and effective form of specific treatment for cryptosporidiosis has been identified to date. The parasite is transmitted
by ingestion of oocysts excreted in the feces of infected humans or animals. The infection can therefore be transmitted from
person to person through ingestion of contaminated water (drinking water and water used for recreational purposes) or food,
from animal to person, or by contact with fecally contaminated environmental surfaces. Outbreaks associated with all of these
modes of transmission have been documented. Patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection should be made more aware
of the many ways that Cryptosporidium species are transmitted, and they should be given guidance on how to reduce the risk of exposure. This article summarizes
existing data on the various modes of transmission. It includes an in-depth look at waterborne transmission because as more
research data are made available to the public, physicians will increasingly be asked by patients about the importance of
this source of infection compared with other sources of infection.
Eutrophication has many known consequences, but there are few data on the environmental and health costs. We developed a new framework of cost categories that assess both social and ecological damage costs and policy response costs. These findings indicate the severe effects of nutrient enrichment and eutrophication on many sectors of the economy. We estimate the damage costs of freshwater eutrophication in England and Wales to be $105-160 million yr(-1) (pound 75.0-114.3 m). The policy response costs are a measure of how much is being spent to address this damage, and these amount to $77 million yr(-1) pound 54.8 m). The damage costs are dominated by seven items each with costs of $15 million yr(-1) or more: reduced value of waterfront dwellings, drinking water treatment costs for nitrogen removal, reduced recreational and amenity value of water bodies, drinking water treatment costs for removal of algal toxins and decomposition products, reduced value of nonpolluted atmosphere, negative ecological effects on biota, and net economic losses from the tourist industry. In common with other environmental problems, it would represent net value (or cost reduction) if damage was prevented at source. A variety of effective economic, regulatory, and administrative policy instruments are available for internalizing these costs.
Traditional measures of aggregate income do not accurately reflect welfare in an economy. In particular aggregate income fails
to account for changes in marketed and non-marketed natural capital and its impact on economic welfare. If natural capital
is theoretically equivalent to reproducible capital, then depreciation of the resource base should be deducted from net product
as presently estimated. Revision of land use sector accounts for Great Britain is undertaken for carbon fixing potential of
land use and the impact of other pollutants and the non-marketed aspects of land use.
In this paper, we develop atheoretically consistent framework to incorporate theenvironmental effects of agricultural production andthe depletion of natural capital caused byagricultural production into the existing incomeaccounts. We apply the framework and adjust theincome attributed to the agricultural sector andeconomy-wide net national product (NNP) for the UnitedStates. Estimated adjustments to the incomeattributed to agriculture are in the range of $4billion and have declined as a percentage of net farmincome since 1982. Copyright Kluwer Academic Publishers 2000
In this study, the hedonic price method was used toidentify and monetarize some of the external effectsof agricultural and sylvicultural activities. Weexamined the renting price of ruralself-catering cottages, or gîtes. Intensivelivestock farming caused the renting-price ofgîtes to decrease, whereas permanent grassland hadthe opposite effect. Copyright Kluwer Academic Publishers 2000
This paper deals with the valuation of some negative external effects arising from agricultural production in Italy. External effects are treated in a transformation function as a ‘bad’ output additional to the normal output of a production activity. In this case we can distinguish a price component or shadow price of the external effect and a quantity component and estimate them separately. In order to calculate the price component of the external effects we first estimate one point on the marginal external costs curve and then try to obtain the whole curve, i.e. external costs associated to different levels of emissions in different years. As to the quantity component, net emissions of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium have been estimated. The aggregate value of external effects is then calculated for thirty years from 1961 to 1991 and deducted from the value added of the agricultural sector, as a first step towards the correction of national accounting aggregates to take environmental degradation into account. Copyright Kluwer Academic Publishers 1999
There has been an increasing public interest in promoting the supply of environmental benefits by agriculture. The Environmentally Sensitive Area scheme addresses this challenge by offering farmers voluntary agreements: entrants are compensated for complying with a package of prescribed farming practices designed to secure conservation goals. This paper emphasizes the uptake of agreements from two perspectives: (i) ex post, it considers why some eligible farmers join a proposed scheme and why some do not, (ii) ex ante, it discusses how non-eligible farmers would behave if they were proposed a well-defined scheme. Ex post perspective refers to farmers' actual behaviour which is observed by the environmental agency, whereas the ex ante perspective is related to their contingent one. A single economic model is derived to deal with both cases. Econometric results from a French case study with respect to wetland preservation are given. There is some consistency between the empirical results obtained in both cases, and to some extent it may be argued that contingent behaviour predicts the actual one. Copyright Kluwer Academic Publishers 1998
Abstract Currently Unavailable.
This paper analyses how farm access to credit affects farm input allocation and farm efficiency in the CEE transition countries. Drawing on a unique farm level panel data with 37,409 observations and employing a matching estimator we are able to control for the key source of endogeneity – unoberserved heterogeneity. We find that farms are credit constrained both in the short-run as well as in the long-run, but that credit constraint is asymmetric between inputs. Our estimates suggest that farm access to credit increases TFP up to 1.9% per 1000 EUR of additional credit. The use of variable inputs and capital investment increases up to 2.3% and 29%, respectively, per 1000 EUR of additional credit. Due to credit-financed investment in labour-saving farm equipment, labour use reduces for low level of credit. Farms are found not to be credit constrained with respect to land.
Natural Resource Accounting (RCA) combines national income and product accounting concepts with analysis of natural resource and environmental issues. This paper considers this approach for the RCA Appraisal required by the Soil and Water Resources Conservation Act. Recent natural resource accounting literature is examined in light of requirements of the RCA Appraisal. The paper provides a critique of the economic content of the Second RCA Appraisal and develops a natural resource accounting framework for considering these same effects. Finally, the paper summarizes the benefits which might result from adopting a more explicit Natural Resource Accounting framework for the next RCA Appraisal.