Article

Environmental Impacts of Cultured Meat Production

June 2011
Environmental Science and Technology 45(14):6117-23

DOI:10.1021/es200130u

Source
PubMed

Authors:

Hanna Tuomisto

University of Helsinki

Joost Teixeira de Mattos

University of Amsterdam

Cultured meat (i.e., meat produced in vitro using tissue engineering techniques) is being developed as a potentially healthier and more efficient alternative to conventional meat. Life cycle assessment (LCA) research method was used for assessing environmental impacts of large-scale cultured meat production. Cyanobacteria hydrolysate was assumed to be used as the nutrient and energy source for muscle cell growth. The results showed that production of 1000 kg cultured meat requires 26-33 GJ energy, 367-521 m(3) water, 190-230 m(2) land, and emits 1900-2240 kg CO(2)-eq GHG emissions. In comparison to conventionally produced European meat, cultured meat involves approximately 7-45% lower energy use (only poultry has lower energy use), 78-96% lower GHG emissions, 99% lower land use, and 82-96% lower water use depending on the product compared. Despite high uncertainty, it is concluded that the overall environmental impacts of cultured meat production are substantially lower than those of conventionally produced meat.

3D Bioprinting of Cultured Meat: A Promising Avenue of Meat Production

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Sep 2023
FOOD BIOPROCESS TECH

Objective Cultured meat is considered to be a viable alternative to conventional flesh to satisfy the increasing human demand for meat. However, current cultured meat products fail to meet consumer expectations. This paper aims to summarize existing methods of cultured meat production, especially 3D bioprinting of cultured meat, which is an emerging approach with unique advantages. By discussing the advantages and shortcomings of the existing techniques, the prospect for the future development of cultured meat is provided. Methods The potential ecological sustainability of cultured meat is evaluated in order to determine the necessity for its development. The advancements and limitations of cultured meat based on tissue engineering, 3D printing of meat, and 3D bioprinting of cultured meat are discussed. Future trends in 3D bioprinting of cultured meat are predicted, as well as potential challenges in this field. Results (1) Cultured meat is an ecologically sustainable alternative to conventional meat. (2) Cultured meat based on tissue engineering has allowed the creation of cultured muscle, adipose, and multi-component meat. The issues are that the shape of the products is unpredictable, and the process of producing large-size and multi-component cultured meat is arduous, which is not conducive to sustainable manufacturing. (3) 3D printing has been utilized in the customized processing of meat to achieve personalized demands. However, it relies on natural meat for its raw materials and cannot replace livestock production. (4) There have been preliminary attempts to use 3D bioprinting technology for cultured meat production. It combines the advantages of tissue engineering and 3D printing, which is able to create cultured beef, pork, and seafood. (5) The potential advantages of 3D bioprinting of cultured meat are higher quality and yield, enhanced cost-effectiveness, and superior ecological sustainability. (6) In the future, 3D bioprinting of cultured meat will move towards multi-component products, integrated fabrication, and cloud manufacturing. (7) The urgent issues in 3D bioprinting of cultured meat are the development of edible and printable biomaterials, the advancement of bioprinting techniques, and the life cycle assessment of manufacturing process. Conclusion 3D bioprinting is a promising avenue to improve the quality and yield, reduce production costs, and enhance the ecological sustainability of cultured meat. It may allow people to satisfy the growing demand for meat in a sustainable manner.

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To satisfy the increasing demand for the protein supply of the growing global population, cultivated meat is being garnered significant attention that can meet consumer needs with a reduced impact on the planet nowadays. Due to being a nascent industry, there are still many hurdles to overcome such as cost reduction. This study aims to investigate the effect of microbiota-derived postbiotics to reduce the need for growth factors (GFs) or fetal bovine serum (FBS), as the main cost drivers of this technology. For this purpose, postbiotic Biftek-1 (B-1) was extracted from Enterococcus hirae, an isolate from cow milk microbiota, and bovine satellite cells (bSCs) were isolated from muscle biopsies, then identified by flow cytometry and immunofluorescence assay. The effects of different doses of GFs and B-1 on cell viability and myogenic profile of bSCs were evaluated. According to the results, low concentrations of GFs (40 ng/mL IGF1 and 20 ng/mL FGF2) combined with our growth medium supplement B-1 significantly increased bSCs proliferation, similar to FBS, but did not lead to any significant changes on their myogenic profiles. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first attempt to use the postbiotics on cultivated meat technology.

Evaluation of crises suitability of food systems: a comparison of alternative protein sources

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Global crises affecting food security have kept increasing for four years in a row, with almost 350 million people expected to suffer from food insecurity in 2023, more than double the number compared to 2020. This draws attention to the importance of finding food capable to feed a population under such conditions. In this research criteria were developed to gain comparative insights into crises suitability of food system’s food security. Four principal criteria – production characteristics, intrinsic attributes, supply chain efficiency, and feasibility of conversion – were identified to encompass this crises suitability, and translated into measurable indicators tailored to protein foods. A multi criteria analysis (MCA) was developed which enabled the assessment of different alternative protein sources – insects, cultured meat, mycoproteins, algae, and plant proteins – on the basis of equal importance of the crises suitability criteria. Chicken meat, being currently the most efficient protein source in times of crisis, was used as a reference protein source. Based on the suitability criteria, insects and cultured meat resulted from the comparative study convincingly as the most suitable to replace chicken meat. Although the systems of the other alternative protein sources did not emerge as suitable options to replace chicken meat in a crisis, algae, mycoproteins, and plant proteins could support chicken meat as complementary sources of proteins if embedded in the food supply. When adopting these criteria, the type of crisis needs to be taken into account to judge the relative importance of the criteria, as a basis for decision making on the crisis suitability of food stuff’s systems. The methodology applied allowed to identify a clear distinction between crises suitability of alternative proteins systems, and has therefore potential for application to other food systems. Then, the indicators for the criteria need to be tailored towards the nature of the specific food system.

Do Consumers Perceive Cultivated Meat as a Sustainable Substitute to Conventional Meat? Assessing the Facilitators and Inhibitors of Cultivated Meat Acceptance

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Conventional meat production has become a force of environmental damage, but global meat consumption is predicted to continue increasing. Therefore, the technology of cultivated meat is undergoing rapid development. The current study explores what factors explain U.S. consumers’ intention to purchase cultivated meat as a sustainable substitute for conventional meat by applying a dual-factor model. A total of 410 completed responses were received from a nationwide survey. Structural equation modeling was conducted to test the model and hypotheses. The results showed that physical health, animal welfare, and food quality significantly encouraged consumer acceptance of cultivated meat as a sustainable substitute for conventional meat. Food technology neophobia significantly inhibits the acceptance of cultivated meat, whereas unnaturalness did not show an impact on cultivated meat acceptance. Furthermore, the acceptance of cultivated meat as a sustainable substitute significantly enhanced consumers’ purchase intention. The findings inform practitioners about promoting cultivated meat in that marketers should emphasize the benefits of cultivated meat with health, animal welfare, food quality, and the environment. While technological language should be used carefully to avoid food technology neophobia, it is also essential to educate consumers on the science of cultivated meat in order for them to understand its benefits to sustainability.

An Overview of Recent Progress in Engineering Three-Dimensional Scaffolds for Cultured Meat Production

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Cultured meat is a new type of green, safe, healthy, and sustainable alternative to traditional meat that will potentially alleviate the environmental impact of animal farming and reduce the requirement for animal slaughter. However, the cultured meat structures that have been prepared lack sufficient tissue alignment. To create a product that is similar in texture and taste to traditional animal meat, muscle stem cells must be organized in a way that imitates the natural structure of animal tissue. Recently, various scaffold technologies and biomaterials have been developed to support the three-dimensional (3D) cultivation and organization of muscle stem cells. Hence, we propose an overview of the latest advancements and challenges in creating three-dimensional scaffolds for the biomanufacturing of cultured meat.

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The "big food view" has attracted widespread attention due to the view of sustainable nutrition and human health as part of sustainable development. The "big food view" starts from better meeting the people's needs for a better life. While ensuring the supply of grain, the effective supply of meat, vegetables, fruits, aquatic products and other foods also should be guaranteed. Using cell factories to replace the traditional food acquisition methods, establishing a new model of sustainable food manufacturing, will greatly reduce the demand for resources in food production, and improve the controllability of food production and manufacturing, and effectively avoid potential food safety and health risks. Cell factories can provide key technologies and supporting methods for the biological manufacturing of important food components, functional food ingredients and important functional nutritional factors, realizing a safer, nutritious, healthy and sustainable way of food acquisition. The combination of cell factory technology and other technologies meets the people's new dietary demand, and also supports that sustainable nutrition and human health as part of sustainable development. This paper focuses on the big food view and human health from the prospect of bio-manufacturing and future food, which aims to better meet people's dietary needs for increasingly diversified, refined, nutritious and ecological food through diversified food manufacturing.

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Exploring the general public's and experts' risk and benefit perceptions of cultured meat in Singapore: A mental models approach

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The Alternative Livestock Revolution: Prospects for Consumer Acceptance of Plant-based and Cultured Meat in South Africa

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Although South Africa accounts for half of the alternative meat market for the African continent, there remains a lack of information about consumer demand for plant-based and lab-cultured meat and its market potential domestically. This study reports the results of a nationwide survey of 649 South African consumers who completed a choice experiment in which they selected among conventional beef and three alternative burger patties at varying prices. Results indicate that holding prices constant and conditional on choosing a food product, 21% of the market share was estimated for plant-based meat alternatives and 38% for lab-cultured meat.

The Heat about Cultured Meat in Poland: A Cross-Sectional Acceptance Study

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Cultured meat acceptance for global food security: a systematic literature review and future research directions

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Cultured meat is a novel technology-based meat alternative with the potential to complement protein supply for a growing world population. An increasing body of consumer research has investigated personal factors explaining consumers’ acceptance of cultured meat. Research on cultural and economic drivers impacting consumer responses across countries, however, is scant. In this light, this article aims to provide a cross-cultural perspective on cultured meat acceptance and guide future empirical research in this domain. First, this article proposes a framework to explain cross-national differences in cultured meat acceptance comprising societal factors (i.e., culture and religion), indicators of the food environment (i.e., meat production and consumption), and economic market parameters (i.e., gross domestic product, carbon dioxide emissions, and population growth). Second, the paper applies a systematic literature review, including 105 empirical consumer studies related to cultured meat. Third, the identified papers are analyzed according to the proposed framework. The findings of this descriptive analysis demonstrate that empirical research to date has predominately been conducted in countries that produce and consume high amounts of meat and are characterized by high gross domestic products per capita. Many of these surveyed countries harbor secular-rational and self-expressional cultural value orientations. Other country types have been less prominently explored, although they represent potentially relevant target markets for cultured meat in the future. Cross-cultural research aiming to explain differences across countries is scarce. To guide future research, the paper develops research propositions relating societal factors, food environment, and market-related factors to consumer acceptance of cultured meat across countries.

The role of natural scientists in navigating the social implications of cellular agriculture: insights from an interdisciplinary workshop

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The emerging field of cellular agriculture uses cell culture to create animal products, potentially mitigating climate and health risks associated with conventional animal agriculture. However, cellular agriculture products are poised to enter the food ecosystem without an understanding of the long-term consequences and social implications. While these discussions have begun among social scientists, dialogues are lacking among natural scientists and engineers, perpetuating a disconnect between those progressing new technology and those most directly impacted by it. To begin to bridge this gap, an interdisciplinary workshop was organized by the Food and Agriculture Institute at the University of the Fraser Valley in collaboration with the Arrell Food Institute, New Harvest, and Cellular Agriculture Canada. At his workshop, representatives from cellular agriculture companies, STEM research labs, dairy farms, animal rights organizations, and Indigenous communities convened to discuss the social implications of cellular agriculture. Specific topics of interest were food security, labor, and employment, power relations and governance, and animal ethics. In this commentary, the authors highlight critical learnings from the workshop as natural scientists, namely the relationship between food and identity, the variety of human-animal relationships, and implications for nutrition and health. We believe that for a just transition of our food systems, the development of cellular agriculture needs to include communities as collaborators from the outset. While this work is difficult in the current environment of market capitalism, it has the potential to improve the culture of research and development to benefit the broader society. To this end, we provide resources, examples, and invitations to natural scientists and researchers interested in engaging with this work. As we rapidly approach a food system that includes products created with cellular agriculture, we encourage readers to consider which individuals and populations need to be involved in this growth, and how they can work together to promote a sustainable future for all.

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Synthetic meat made from animal cells will transform how we eat. It will reduce suffering by eliminating the need to raise and slaughter animals. But it will also have big public health benefits if it becomes widely consumed. In this paper, we discuss how "clean meat" can reduce the risks associated with intensive animal farming, including antibiotic resistance, environmental pollution, and zoonotic viral diseases like influenza and coronavirus. Since the most common objection to clean meat is that some people find it "disgusting" or "unnatural," we explore the psychology of disgust to find possible counter-measures. We argue that the public health benefits of clean meat give us strong moral reasons to promote its development and consumption in a way that the public is likely to support. We end by depicting the change from farmed animals to clean meat as a collective action problem and suggest that social norms rather than coercive laws should be employed to solve the problem.

Are genetic drift and stem cell adherence in laboratory culture issues for cultivated meat production?

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Mesenchymal stem cell-based cultivated meat is a promising solution to the ecological and ethical problems posed by traditional meat production, since it exhibits a protein content and composition that is more comparable to original meat proteins than any other source of cultivated meat products, including plants, bacteria, and fungi. Nonetheless, the nature and laboratory behavior of mesenchymal stem cells pose two significant challenges for large-scale production: genetic drift and adherent growth in culture. Culture conditions used in the laboratory expose the cells to a selective pressure that causes genetic drift, which may give rise to oncogene activation and the loss of “stemness.” This is why genetic and functional analysis of the cells during culture is required to determine the maximum number of passages within the laboratory where no significant mutations or loss of function are detected. Moreover, the adherent growth of mesenchymal stem cells can be an obstacle for their large-scale production since volume to surface ratio is limited for high volume containers. Multi-tray systems, roller bottles, and microcarriers have been proposed as potential solutions to scale-up the production of adherent cells required for cultivated meat. The most promising solutions for the safety problems and large-scale obstacles for cultivated meat production are the determination of a limit number of passages based on a genetic analysis and the use of microcarriers from edible materials to maximize the volume to surface proportion and decrease the downstream operations needed for cultivated meat production.

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For the present work, we utilized Leslie White’s anthropological theory of cultural evolutionism as a theoretical benchmark for econometrically assessing the macrodynamics of energy use in agrarian societies that constituted the human civilization’s second energy paradigm between 12,000 BC and 1800 AC. As White’s theory views a society’s ability to harness and control energy from its environment as the primary function of culture, we may classify the evolution of human civilizations in three phases according to their energy paradigm, defined as the dominant pattern of energy harvesting from nature. In this context, we may distinguish three energy paradigms so far: hunting–gathering, agriculture, and fossil fuels. Agriculture, as humanity’s energy paradigm for ~14,000 years, essentially comprises a secondary form of solar energy that is biochemically transformed by photosynthetic life (plants and land). Based on this property, we model agrarian societies with similar principles to natural ecosystems. Just like natural ecosystems, agrarian societies receive abundant solar energy input but also have limited land ability to transform and store them biochemically. As in natural ecosystems, this constraint is depicted by the carrying capacity emerging biophysically from the limiting factor. Hence, the historical dynamics of agrarian societies are essentially reduced to their struggle to maximize energy use by maximizing the area and productivity of fertile land –in the role of a solar energy transformation hub– mitigating their limiting factor. Such an evolutionary forcing introduced technical upgrades, like the leverage of domesticated livestock power as a multiplier of the caloric value harvested by arable and grazing land combined. According to the above, we tested the econometric performance of four selected dynamic maps used extensively in ecology to reproduce humanity’s energy harvesting macrodynamics between 10,000 BC and 1800 AC: (a) the logistic map, (b) the logistic growth map, (c) a lower limiting case of the Hassel map that yields the Ricker map, and (d) a higher limiting case of the Hassel map that yields the Beverton–Holt map. Following our results, we discuss thoroughly our framework’s major elaborations on social hierarchy and competition as mechanisms for allocating available energy in society, as well as the related future research and econometric modeling challenges.

First Impressions and Food Technology Neophobia: examining the role of visual information for consumer evaluations of cultivated meat

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Aug 2023
FOOD QUAL PREFER

Discussions and images of cultivated meat are increasingly common in popular media, often stressing highly technical aspects. Despite growing research on cultivated meat, the importance of information provision in specific, little is known about the influence of images on consumer attitudes and evaluations. Using a representative sample of 727 potential consumers in Germany, the current research employed an experimental survey with a between-subjects design, where participants received information about cultivated meat and its prospective benefits together with (a) no images, (b) images presenting meat in a more familiar form, or (c) images with a laboratory focus. Logistic quantile regression is employed for the first time to assess how determinants of consumer evaluations vary depending on one’s intention to try and consume cultivated meat. The results underscore the key role of food technology neophobia as a determinant of consumer evaluations. Moreover, our findings help to clarify why individuals are likely to accept (and not just reject) cultivated meat as well as suggest the potential for misleading inferences when relying on linear regression for analyzing issues of consumer acceptance, behavioral intentions, and the like.

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The global food system must meet the increasing demand for food, fiber, and energy while reducing environmental impacts. The UN Food System Summit (UNFSS) has made a clear call to action for a global food systems transformation. We argue that three major discrepancies remain, potentially delaying the urgent implementation of the call to action. First, Nature-based Solutions (NbS) are not sufficiently focused on agriculture, leading to funding allocation issues. Second, a mismatch of agroecology with technology innovations may slow scaling agroecological farming. Lastly, agricultural diversification must move beyond organic landscapes and into conventional agriculture. As a solution, principles of NbS should be clear on agricultural integration. Moreover, stakeholder awareness must increase that agroecology does not necessarily conflict with agricultural technologies. Future agricultural models must apply measures such as agricultural diversification in conjunction with technology innovations to then ascertain an overall timely and successful implementation of the UNFSS call to action.

Of post-animal meat and other forms of food innovation: a critical and intersectional reading from the perspective of political ecology Introducing a polarised debate

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Jul 2023

Alice Dal Gobbo

This commentary is a reflection on cultured meat and, more generally, food innovation, articulated from the perspective of political ecology (for a proposal around the ‘political ecology of food’ see Moragues-Faus and Marsden, 2017). This approach allows to critically investigate the status and role of novel foods in the context of the ecologic crisis, highlighting the complex entanglements of power, labour and value that subtend processes of food innovation and shape imaginaries of future food systems, as well as pathways of sustainability. As such, political ecology also calls for a reflection on food politics at large, envisioning transformative practices that question current arrangements of gender, class, race, species. In its unwillingness to ‘solve’ or close down the vast problem of food innovation, political ecology highlights ambiguities, risks, but also opportunities, as tools to guide a radical political imagination around food in the context of the contemporary ecological crisis. This stands in contrast with the polarising and partial way in which cultured meat tends to be represented in present public debates. The Italian ‘ban’ on cultured meat that is likely to be introduced is particularly interesting and it will serve as a starting point for this commentary.

How information affects consumers' attitudes toward and willingness to pay for cultured meat: evidence from Chinese urban consumers

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Jul 2023
BRIT FOOD J

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to assess the impact of providing information on Chinese consumers' attitudes toward and willingness to pay (WTP) for cultured meat, and to further focus on the heterogeneous effect of prior awareness. Design/methodology/approach The data were collected by interviewing 1,004 consumers through a face-to-face survey conducted in 2019. Repeated measures ANOVA, ordinary least squares and maximum likelihood estimation were employed for data analysis. Findings Whether consumers have heard of cultured meat before is not an important determinant for their attitude, but whether they know it well is. Consumers' attitudes and WTP all improved after the provision of information, but knowledgeable consumers' attitudes were less influenced by information than those without prior knowledge. Unlike attitude, prior awareness does not affect the effect of information on WTP. Originality/value Despite extensive studies on the impact of information on the acceptance of cultured meat, few have analyzed the heterogeneous effect of prior awareness. In the research on prior awareness of cultured meat, firstly, no consistent conclusions about the effect of prior awareness on attitude; secondly, previous studies only considered heterogeneous effects of prior awareness on attitude toward cultured meat, while ignored WTP. This paper provides new insights in these areas. Further, this paper provides the first evidence on the heterogeneous impact of prior awareness in developing countries; most previous research has focused on consumers in developed countries.

Cell culture medium cycling in cultured meat: Key factors and potential strategies

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Background: Cultured meat is a promising alternative to animal-derived meat production, as it has the potential to offer a sustainable and ethical source of meat for human consumption. Despite the many advantages of cultured meat, scaling up its production remains a major challenge. Among the key factors that must be addressed for efficient production is high-density cell culture, which poses several obstacles, such as the accumulation of metabolic by-products, including toxic ammonia and the inhibitory effects of lactate. Additionally, the use of expensive growth factors and recombinant proteins limits the cost-effectiveness of cultured meat production. Scope and approach: This review provides an overview of methods for reducing the accumulation of metabolic by-products (ammonia and lactate), including genetic engineering, culture strategies, physicochemical adsorption, biocatalytic conversion, and electrochemistry. Immobilization of growth factors by separation and concentration enhances their biological activity, moderate release, and recovery. Additionally, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these methods in the field of cultured meat. Key findings and conclusions: The study concludes that adsorption is a promising pathway for the removal of metabolic by-products. However, the development of adsorbents with favorable biocompatibility, high adsorption efficiency, and reusability remains a challenge. The development of cost-effective alternatives to animal-derived sources and media cycling technology to optimize the usage of media components are essential for the progress of cultured meat production.

Reduced zoonoses and improved nutritional profiles: interrogating cultured meat and its alleged health benefits

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Cultured meat is being marketed as a multi-faceted improvement over traditional meat production. Some proponents claim that cultured meat reduces the potential spread of zoonotic disease; others further claim that cultured meat can be made more nutritious than traditional meat. This paper demonstrates – through a review of citations regarding proponent claims surrounding cultured meat’s potential to reduce zoonotic disease spread and improve nutritional possibilities – that cultured meat’s alleged health benefits are not based on quantitative data, nor based on well-developed theoretical research. Claims are often based on presumptions held throughout the literature; this paper calls these presumptions into question by investigating theoretical questions related to how cultured meat will be produced. Importantly, the paper also examines the recent emergence of “exotic cultured meat,” positing that proponent ambitions for diversified food experiences are not exempt from concerns about zoonotic disease spread and nutritional value. Healthcare professionals need to be aware of the limited evidence available for health-related claims which are being used to promote cultured meat. While such a conclusion does not require dismissing cultured meat’s potential, greater scrutiny is needed at this time, especially as cultured meat inches closer to becoming publicly available. This paper develops cultured meat research further by identifying the need for: deeper consideration of the interaction between humans and animals throughout the supply chain; greater care to be taken regarding the use of various sources as definitive proof of cultured meat’s alleged health benefits; and critical consideration of the implications of exotic cultured meat production.

Aligning cultivated meat with conventional meat consumption practices increases expected tastefulness, naturalness, and familiarity

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Exploring Muslim Consumers’ Acceptance of Cultured Beef Meat

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The advancement in cultured meat research in cellular agriculture has greatly surged. The concerns of halalness and thayibban (cleanliness and permissibility to consume) of cultured beef meat will arise among Muslim consumers, prompting the question, “Who will consume the cultured meat, and are Muslims ready to consume it?” This study aimed to clarify how Muslims perceive cultured meat and the issues surrounding their acceptance. A chi-square test and a binary logistic regression analysis were applied to reveal the acceptance of cultured meat. The results revealed that 44.1% of the respondents accepted cultured meat as their food, while 55.9% expressed doubts due to religious concerns. Their attitudes toward cultured meat influenced their decision to accept it as food. Some consumers had high expectations for cultured meat because they believed it would be superior in taste and have nutritional value and health effects. In conclusion, those Muslims who did not doubt cultured meat accepted it as future food with expectations for better function and value.

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Growing research and technological development is making the commercial production of cultured meat as a sustainable alternative to livestock-derived meat an increasing reality. However, to competitively position cultured meat on the food market, appropriate marketing and communication tailored to specific demographics is required. We aimed to define the motives that influence the willingness to include cultured meat in consumption based on age, specifically in Generation Z and Generation Y. To achieve this, data from a questionnaire survey that asked about ethical, ecological and health and safety factors around cultured meat was collected from 740 respondents (301 Generation Z and 439 Generation Y) and analyzed using the Mann-Whitney test and structural equation modeling. Generation Z were significantly more likely than Generation Y (p < 0.05) to consider cultured meat healthier than conventional meat because of the possibility of adjusting the composition and nutrient content. Generation Z were also significantly less concerned than Generation Y (p < 0.05) about the consequences that consuming cultured meat might have on human health. In Generation Z, ethical, ecological and health and safety factors significantly influenced their willingness to consume cultured meat (all p < 0.01). In conclusion, we confirmed the influence of ecological and ethical awareness, as well as health and safety, on willingness to include cultured meat in consumption; these areas could be targeted when marketing cultured meat.

Toward sustainable culture media: Using artificial intelligence to optimize reduced-serum formulations for cultivated meat

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Jun 2023
SCI TOTAL ENVIRON

When considering options for future foods, cell culture approaches are at the fore, however, culture media to support the process has been identified as a significant contributor to the overall global warming potential (GWP) and cost of cultivated meat production. To address this issue, an artificial intelligence-based approach was applied to simultaneously optimize the GWP, cost, and cell growth rate of a reduced-serum culture media formulation for a zebrafish (ZEM2S cell line) cultivated meat production system. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to design the experiments, with seven components - IGF, FGF, TGF, PDGF, selenium, ascorbic acid, and serum - selected as independent variables, given their influence on culture media performance. Radial basis function (RBF) neural networks and genetic algorithm (GA) were applied for prediction of dependent variables, and optimization of the culture media formulation, respectively. The results indicated that the developed RBF could accurately predict the GWP, cost and growth rate, with a model efficiency of 0.98. Subsequently, the three developed RBF neural networks predictive models were used as the inputs for a multi-objective genetic algorithm, and the optimal quantities of the independent variables were determined using a multi-objective optimization algorithm. The suggested RSM + RBF + GA framework in this study could be applied to sustainably optimize serum-free media development, identifying the combination of media ingredients that balances yield, environmental impact, and cost for various cultivated meat cell lines.

Eliciting Non-hypothetical Willingness-to-pay for Novel Products: An Application to Cultured Meat

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023
ENVIRON RESOUR ECON

Estimating the demand for greener products may be challenging when these products are not yet on the market. We design an experiment to elicit the willingness-to-pay (WTP) for a novel product in a non-hypothetical way, despite the fact that the product is not marketed and thus cannot be delivered to participants. We consider a cultured meat product which is presented to participants using the producer’s advertising. The basic experimental device consists in eliciting (i) how much a participant is willing to pay for the product under uncertainty about product delivery, and (ii) her beliefs about the probability that the product will be actually delivered. In our sample of 158 French students, under 20% of participants never want to buy the product, and below 10% assign a probability of zero that the product will be delivered if purchased. The average WTP is fairly low, at about 3 Euros per 100 g. A number of factors increase (e.g., education and low meat consumption) or decrease (e.g., neophobia and disgust) this WTP. The simple exposure to the new meat substitute during this experiment reduces subjects’ pro-meat justifications. We investigate the external validity of our results using a hypothetical survey on a representative sample (N = 1200). We also discuss methodological issues such as deception and incentive compatibility.

Repurposing agricultural waste as low-cost cultured meat scaffolds

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023

Growing meat in vitro using tissue engineering and bioproduction techniques (cellular agriculture) has become an increasingly promising solution to the global food security challenge. Our lab has established methods to cultivate bovine muscle tissue on decellularized plants, representing a viable low-cost, sustainable method to grow meat on edible scaffolds. Most work in this area has focused on the use of edible plant materials (i.e., spinach leaves, apple, broccoli) with inherent economic value. Harvest waste such as corn husk or jackfruit represent abundant sources of cellulose for scaffold production and may be a viable alternative. The present study aims to investigate production of cultured meat through tissue engineering and bioproduction on decellularized, edible samples of corn husk and jackfruit rind. Corn husks and jackfruit rinds were exposed to immersion decellularization. DNA quantification and histological analysis demonstrated sufficient decellularization (0.17 ± 0.06 and 0.07 ± 0.00 ug DNA/g tissue for corn husk and jackfruit rinds, respectively). Following decellularization, corn husk scaffold stiffnesses decreased from 56.67±16.71 MPa to 12.95±2.43 MPa in fiber-aligned direction, while jackfruit decreased from 7.54 ±2.42 MPa to 2.47±1.47 MPa. Seeded scaffolds with bovine satellite cells (BSCs) (11.45±2.24 ug/ul lysate/Gram) and avian (QM7s) (12.90±1.99 ug/ul lysate/Gram) demonstrated increased protein yields on jackfruit scaffolds. QM7 cultured on corn husk scaffolds yielded increased protein but PBSCs seeded on corn husks did not yield protein content higher than controls (QM7 on corn husk: 16.28±3.55, PBSCs on corn husks: 9.57±1.56 ug/ul lysate/Gram, control: 6.35±1.43 ug/ul lysate/Gram). Additionally, cell transfer from scaffold to scaffold (bead-to-bead transfer) was observed on corn husk scaffolds in a dynamic environment. These results suggest that decellularized harvest waste scaffolds may aid in realization of cultured meat products that will contribute to a more robust and environmentally sustainable food supply.

Designing Highly Aligned Cultured Meat with Nanopatterns-Assisted Bio-Printed Fat Scaffolds

Article

Dec 2023

Over the past decade, cultured meat has attracted considerable attention as a sustainable alternative. Mimicking highly aligned muscle tissues and adipose tissues to replicate real meat poses a significant challenge to the development of cultured meat. Recently, techniques involving co-culture or post-assembly of different types of tissues have been introduced for cultured meat production. However, there is a need for a more straightforward approach for simultaneously replicating muscle and fat tissues. In this study, we developed nano-cultured meat that recapitulates the structural and physiological characteristics of real meat. GelMA was dissolved in an oil-in-water emulsion to create a fat bioink, and a fat scaffold was fabricated using a digital light processing-based 3D printer. Subsequently, the empty spaces within the fat scaffold were filled with myoblast-laden hydrogel, followed by integration with nanopatterns. The resultant nano-cultured meat not only mimics highly aligned muscle tissue similar to real meat but also allows for the tunable reproduction of fat tissue. Overall, the proposed nano-cultured meat offers valuable insights for achieving a high level of maturity and developing customizable next-generation cultured meat.

Cultivated meat manufacturing: Technology, trends, and challenges

Article

Nov 2023

The growing world population, public awareness of animal welfare, environmental impacts and changes in meat consumption leads to the search for novel approaches to food production. Novel foods include products with a new or specifically modified molecular structure, foods made from microorganisms, fungi, algae or insects, as well as from animal cell or tissue cultures. The latter approach is known by various names: “clean meat”, “in vitro meat” and “cell‐cultured” or “(cell‐)cultivated meat”. Here, cells isolated from agronomically important species are expanded ex vivo to produce cell biomass used in unstructured meat or to grow and differentiate cells on scaffolds to produce structured meat analogues. Despite the fast‐growing field and high financial interest from investors and governments, cultivated meat production still faces challenges ranging from cell source choice, affordable expansion, use of cruelty‐free and food‐grade media, regulatory issues and consumer acceptance. This overview discusses the above challenges and possible solutions and strategies in the production of cultivated meat. The review integrates multifaceted historical, social, and technological insights of the field, and provides both an engaging comprehensive introduction for general interested and a robust perspective for experts.

Emergent methane mitigation and removal approaches: A review

Article

Nov 2023

Techno-economic assessment of plant-based meat analogue produced by the freeze alignment technique

Article

Nov 2023

Proliferation of mammalian cells with Chlorococcum littorale algal compounds without serum support

Article

Oct 2023
BIOTECHNOL PROGR

In recent years, serum-free medium for mammalian cell cultivation has attracted a lot of attention, considering the high cost of production and environmental load involved in developing the conventional animal sera. The use of alternative growth-promoting products in mammalian cell cultivation such as extracts from microalgae has proven to be quite beneficial and environmental-friendly. This research aims to cultivate mammalian cells with growth-promoting factors derived from Chlorococcum littorale. We have established a simple extraction using the ultrasonication method and applied the extract in place of serum on mammalian C2C12 cell lines, 3T3 cell lines, and CHO cell lines to compare and analyze the effectiveness of the extract. Cell passage was conducted in a suspended culture condition with the addition of the extract. The results indicate that the extract from microalgae shows a high proliferation rate in all cell lines without fetal bovine serum. Moreover, it is eco-friendly and has huge potential to replace the traditional cell culture system. It could be applied in the fields of regenerative medicine, gene/cell therapies, as well as cultured meat production.

A multi-level perspective of potential transition pathways towards cultured meat: Finnish and German political stakeholder perceptions

Article

Nov 2023
RES POLICY

Muscle cell proliferation using water-soluble extract from nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 for sustainable cultured meat production

Article

Oct 2023
BIOCHEM BIOPH RES CO

Environmental and nutritional perspective of a more sustainable meat consumption in Brazil

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2023
Environ Dev Sustain

Regular consumption of meat products has positive and negative effects on people’s health. Meat consumption is responsible for the majority of the dietary environmental impact of Brazilians. In this context, our paper aims to investigate the environmental and nutritional impacts of more sustainable meat consumption in Brazil. We collected data from the National Dietary Survey for food intake and the life cycle assessment literature database for environmental footprints. We used the ANOVA test to compare the nutritional and environmental impact of the base scenario with three different scenarios of reduction in meat consumption in Brazil. Our results showed that the proposed scenarios reduced the current meat intake by 25–50% and had a positive healthy effect due to the reduction in 24–75% of saturated fat, and 26–69% of cholesterol intake, but also possible negative healthy effect mainly due to the reduction in 26–68% of protein, 24–75% of iron, and 24–78% of zinc intake. A reduction in Brazilian meat consumption also implies a decrease in the dietary environmental impact in terms of carbon footprint by 16–55%, and water footprint and ecological footprint by 12–35% on average. Our results contribute toward policymakers to better understand meat dietary nutritional and environmental impact in Brazil, and to inform a sustainability framework to help actions in food and nutrition policy development in Brazil.

Microbial gas fermentation technology for sustainable food protein production

Article

Aug 2023
BIOTECHNOL ADV

The development of novel, sustainable, and robust food production technologies represents one of the major pillars to address the most significant challenges humanity is going to face on earth in the upcoming decades - climate change, population growth, and resource depletion. The implementation of microfoods, i.e., foods formulated with ingredients from microbial cultivation, into the food supply chain has a huge potential to contribute towards energy-efficient and nutritious food manufacturing and represents a means to sustainably feed a growing world population. This review recapitulates and assesses the current state in the establishment and usage of gas fermenting bacteria as an innovative feedstock for protein production. In particular, we focus on the most promising representatives of this taxon: the hydrogen-oxidizing bacteria (hydrogenotrophs) and the methane-oxidizing bacteria (methanotrophs). These unicellular microorganisms can aerobically metabolize gaseous hydrogen and methane, respectively, to provide the required energy for building up cell material. A protein yield over 70% in the dry matter cell mass can be reached with no need for arable land and organic substrates making it a promising alternative to plant- and animal-based protein sources. We illuminate the holistic approach to incorporate protein extracts obtained from the cultivation of gas fermenting bacteria into microfoods. Herein, the fundamental properties of the bacteria, cultivation methods, downstream processing, and potential food applications are discussed. Moreover, this review covers existing and future challenges as well as sustainability aspects associated with the production of microbial protein through gas fermentation.

The fibronectin concentration that optimally maintains porcine satellite cells

Article

Aug 2023

Objective: 'Cultured meat' has been suggested as means of solving the problems associated with overpopulation and gas emissions. Satellite cells are a major component in the production of cultured meat; however, these cells cannot be maintained in vitro over long periods. Fibronectin is a glycoprotein that affects biological processes such as cell adhesion, differentiation, and migration. Unfortunately, the characteristics of porcine satellite cells grown in a long-term culture when exposed to fibronectin-coated dishes are unknown. The objective of this study was to investigate the appropriate concentration of fibronectin coated dishes for proliferation and maintenance of porcine satellite cells at long-term culture. Methods: In this study, we isolated the satellite cells and fibroblast cells with pre-plating method. We next analyzed the cell doubling time, cell cycle, and rate of expressed Pax7 and MyoD1 in porcine satellite cells cultured with 20 μg/ml of fibronectin-, gelatin-, and non-coated dishes at early and late passage. We then analyzed the proliferation of porcine satellite cells with various concentrations of mixed gelatin/fibronectin. We next determined the optimal concentration of fibronectin that would encourage proliferation and maintenance of porcine satellite cells in a long-term culture. Results: Doubling time was lowest when 20 μg/ml of fibronectin was used (as tested during an early and late passage). Levels of expressed Pax7 and MyoD1, assessed using immunocytochemistry, were highest in cells grown using fibronectin-coated dishes. The proliferation of gelatin/fibronectin mixed coatings had no significant effect on porcine satellite cells. The concentration of 5 μg/ml fibronectin coated dishes showed the lowest doubling time and maintained expression of Pax7. Conclusion: 5 μg/ml concentration of fibronectin effectively maintains porcine satellite cells, a discovery that will be of interest to those developing the next generation of artificial meats.

Cultured meat production: what we know, what we don’t know and what we should know

Article

Aug 2023
Ital J Anim Sci

Laboratuvardan Sofraya Etik Bir Sorunsal: İn-Vitro Et

Chapter

Full-text available

Jun 2023

Dünya nüfusunun 2050 yılına kadar yaklaşık on milyara ulaşacağı tahmin edilirken, nüfus artışına paralel olarak özellikle hayvansal protein kaynaklarına olan talebin de giderek daha fazla artacağı öngörülmektedir. Mevcut gıda sistemlerinin karşılaşması muhtemel olan bu zorluğun üstesinden gelebilmek için alternatif protein kaynakları üzerinde durulmakta ve in-vitro et üretimi etkili bir çözüm olarak önerilmektedir. İn-vitro et, tüketici gruplarının kabulünü etkileyebilecek bazı avantaj ve dezavantajlara sahiptir. Çok az sayıda hayvandan veya hiç hayvan olmadan üretilmesi, hayvanlara verilen acının bertaraf edilmesi, potansiyel çevresel bozulmaların önlenmesi, protein kaynaklarının artırılarak küresel boyutta açlığın azaltılması, gıda kaynaklı hastalıkların ve salgınların önüne geçilmesi gibi önemli birtakım yararların, invitro etlerin endüstriyel ölçekte benimsenmesi, pazar payını ve rekabet edebilirliğini artırması hususunda belirleyici olabileceği öngörülmektedir. Ancak in-vitro etin nihai başarısının tüketici kabulüne bağlı olması sebebiyle, dezavantaj olarak kabul edilen üretim sürecine ilişkin bazı hususların ise etik açıdan değerlendirilmesi ve daha fazla araştırma ile çözüme ulaşılması önem arz etmektedir. Bu kapsamda in-vitro ete yönelik felsefi ve uygulamalı araştırmalara da ihtiyaç duyulması sebebiyle, çalışmada henüz laboratuvar ortamında geliştirilme ve iyileştirme aşamasında olan, ancak yakın gelecekte sofralarda yer edinebilecek in-vitro ete ilişkin avantaj ve dezavantajların ortaya konulması ve tüketici endişelerine neden olabilecek önemli bazı etik sorunların üzerinde durulması amaçlanmıştır. Sonuç olarak laboratuvardan sofraya kadar uzanan bu süreçte in-vitro ete ilişkin avantaj ve dezavantajlar dikkate alındığında alternatif tüketim ürünlerine yönelik birtakım etik kaygıların devam edebileceği, ancak bu tür kaygıların yeni araştırmalar ile açıklığa kavuşturulabileceği söylenebilir.

Environmental life cycle assessment of recombinant growth factor production for cultivated meat applications

Article

Jul 2023
J CLEAN PROD

Advancing our understanding of bioreactors for industrial-sized cell culture: health care and cellular agriculture implications

Article

Jul 2023
AM J PHYSIOL-CELL PH

Bioreactors are advanced biomanufacturing tools that have been widely utilized to develop various applications in the fields of health care and cellular agriculture. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the use of bioreactors to enhance the efficiency and scalability of these technologies. In cell therapy, bioreactors have been utilized to expand and differentiate cells into specialized cell types that can be used for transplantation or tissue regeneration. In cultured meat production, bioreactors offer a controlled and efficient means of producing meat without the need for animal farming. Bioreactors can support the growth of muscle cells by providing the necessary conditions for cell proliferation, differentiation, and maturation, including the provision of oxygen and nutrients. This review article aims to provide an overview of the current state of bioreactor technology in both cell therapy and cultured meat production. It will examine the various bioreactor types and their applications in these fields, highlighting their advantages and limitations. Additionally, it will explore the future prospects and challenges of bioreactor technology in these emerging fields. Overall, this review will provide valuable insights for researchers and practitioners interested in utilizing bioreactor technology to develop innovative solutions in the biomanufacturing of therapeutic cells and cultured meat.

A governance framework to manage the food-environment-livelihood trilemma of alternative proteins

Article

Jul 2023

Global food systems are closely interconnected with contemporary challenges such as food security, environmental crises, and inclusive development. Protein production, in particular, is strongly associated with these issues, as the resource-intensive predominant production models can lead to environmental pressures and food inequity. Alternative proteins (APs) have been proposed as part of the solution to meeting future global protein demand while keeping modes of production and consumption within planetary boundaries. Here, we stress that the potential of APs to address this crucial food-environment-livelihoods trilemma hinges on collective social choices made early in the sociotechnical transition. We therefore call for a managed and socially embedded transition in which public agents together with civil society and private actors work to ensure balanced outcomes, with global and domestic food inequities in mind. Our emphasis on AP adoption as an open-ended process highlights the underlying political economy of food systems transitions and technological development.

Fabrication of cell cultured meat by hydrogel with topographic microstructures

Article

Jul 2023

Production of cultured meat: challenges and opportunities

Chapter

Jan 2023

Risk assessment of cultured meat

Article

Jul 2023
TRENDS FOOD SCI TECH

A simple and robust serum-free media for the proliferation of muscle cells

Article

Jun 2023
FOOD RES INT

Cultivated meat production requires an efficient, robust and highly optimized serum-free cell culture media for the needed upscaling of muscle cell expansion. Existing formulations of serum-free media are complex, expensive and have not been optimized for muscle cells. Thus, we undertook this work to develop a simple and robust serum-free media for the proliferation of bovine satellite cells (SCs) through Design of Experiment (DOE) and Response Surface Methodology (RSM) using precise and high-throughput image-based cytometry. Proliferative attributes were investigated with transcriptomics and long-term performance was validated using multiple live assays. Here we formulated a media based on three highly optimized components; FGF2 (2 ng/mL), fetuin (600 µg/mL) and BSA (75 µg/mL) which together with an insulin-transferrin-selenium (1x) supplement, sustained the proliferation of bovine SCs, porcine SCs and murine C2C12 muscle cells. Remarkably, cells cultured in our media named Tri-basal 2.0+ performed better than cell cultured in 10% FBS, with respect to proliferation. Hence, the optimized Tri-basal 2.0+ enhanced serum-free cell attachment and long-term proliferation, providing an alternative solution to the use of FBS in the production of cultivated meat.

Realization of Cultured Steak Meat as a Cell-Based Food細胞性食品としての培養ステーキ肉実現に向けて

Article

Jun 2023

The recent increase in environmental awareness has led to a growing interest in cellular foods, including cultured meats, which are protein sources made from cells with a low environmental impact. This paper provides an overview of the background behind the interest in cultured meat and explains how it is made. Additionally, the paper focuses on the development of "cultured steak meat". We introduce the method for creating 1 cm square diced cultured steak meat by stacking hydrogel sheets including bovine satellite cells and myoblasts obtained from fresh beef, and report efforts of conducting the first tastings event of cultured meat as a research institute in Japan. Because sensory evaluation has become possible in our laboratory, we anticipate significant advancements in the research and development of creating appetizing cultured meat. graphical abstract Fullsize Image

Sources of Variability of Evapotranspiration in California

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2005

The variability (1990-2002) of potential evapotranspiration estimates (ETo) and related meteorological var- iables from a set of stations from the California Irrigation Management System (CIMIS) is studied. Data from the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) and from the Department of Energy from 1950 to 2001 were used to validate the results. The objective is to determine the characteristics of climatological ETo and to identify factors controlling its variability (including associated atmospheric circulations). Daily ETo anomalies are strong- ly correlated with net radiation (Rn) anomalies, relative humidity (RH), and cloud cover, and less with average daily temperature (Tavg). The highest intraseasonal variability of ETo daily anomalies occurs during the spring, mainly caused by anomalies below the high ETo seasonal values during cloudy days. A characteristic circulation pattern is associated with anomalies of ETo and its driving meteorological inputs, Rn, RH, and Tavg, at daily to seasonal time scales. This circulation pattern is dominated by 700-hPa geopotential height ( Z700) anomalies over a region off the west coast of North America, approximately between 328 and 448 latitude, referred to as the California Pressure Anomaly (CPA). High cloudiness and lower than normal ETo are associated with the low- height (pressure) phase of the CPA pattern. Higher than normal ETo anomalies are associated with clear skies maintained through anomalously high Z700 anomalies offshore of the North American coast. Spring CPA, cloud- iness, maximum temperature (Tmax), pan evaporation (Epan), and ETo conditions have not trended significantly or consistently during the second half of the twentieth century in California. Because it is not known how cloud cover and humidity will respond to climate change, the response of ETo in California to increased greenhouse- gas concentrations is essentially unknown; however, to retain the levels of ETo in the current climate, a decline of Rn by about 6% would be required to compensate for a warming of 138C.

Virtual Water Flows Between Nations in Relation to Trade in Livestock and Livestock Products

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2003

Water footprint manual

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2009
SPINAL CORD

People use lots of water for drinking, cooking and washing, but even more for producing things such as food, paper, cotton clothes, etc. The water footprint is an indicator of water use that looks at both direct and indirect water use of a consumer or producer. The water footprint of an individual, community or business is defined as the total volume of freshwater that is used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business.

Assessing freshwater use impacts in LCA: Part I—inventory modelling and characterisation factors for the main impact pathways

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2008

Background, aim and scopeFreshwater is a basic resource for humans; however, its link to human health is seldom related to lack of physical access to sufficient freshwater, but rather to poor distribution and access to safe water supplies. On the other hand, freshwater availability for aquatic ecosystems is often reduced due to competition with human uses, potentially leading to impacts on ecosystem quality. This paper summarises how this specific resource use can be dealt with in life cycle analysis (LCA). Main featuresThe main quantifiable impact pathways linking freshwater use to the available supply are identified, leading to definition of the flows requiring quantification in the life cycle inventory (LCI). ResultsThe LCI needs to distinguish between and quantify evaporative and non-evaporative uses of ‘blue’ and ‘green’ water, along with land use changes leading to changes in the availability of freshwater. Suitable indicators are suggested for the two main impact pathways [namely freshwater ecosystem impact (FEI) and freshwater depletion (FD)], and operational characterisation factors are provided for a range of countries and situations. For FEI, indicators relating current freshwater use to the available freshwater resources (with and without specific consideration of water ecosystem requirements) are suggested. For FD, the parameters required for evaluation of the commonly used abiotic depletion potentials are explored. DiscussionAn important value judgement when dealing with water use impacts is the omission or consideration of non-evaporative uses of water as impacting ecosystems. We suggest considering only evaporative uses as a default procedure, although more precautionary approaches (e.g. an ‘Egalitarian’ approach) may also include non-evaporative uses. Variation in seasonal river flows is not captured in the approach suggested for FEI, even though abstractions during droughts may have dramatic consequences for ecosystems; this has been considered beyond the scope of LCA. ConclusionsThe approach suggested here improves the representation of impacts associated with freshwater use in LCA. The information required by the approach is generally available to LCA practitioners Recommendations and perspectivesThe widespread use of the approach suggested here will require some development (and consensus) by LCI database developers. Linking the suggested midpoint indicators for FEI to a damage approach will require further analysis of the relationship between FEI indicators and ecosystem health.

Possibilities for an in vitro meat production system

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2010
INNOV FOOD SCI EMERG

Meat produced in vitro has been proposed as a humane, safe and environmentally beneficial alternative to slaughtered animal flesh as a source of nutritional muscle tissue. The basic methodology of an in vitro meat production system (IMPS) involves culturing muscle tissue in a liquid medium on a large scale. Each component of the system offers an array of options which are described taking into account recent advances in relevant research. A major advantage of an IMPS is that the conditions are controlled and manipulatable. Limitations discussed include meeting nutritional requirements and large scale operation. The direction of further research and prospects regarding the future of in vitro meat production will be speculated.Industrial relevanceThe development of an alternative meat production system is driven by the growing demand for meat and the shrinking resources available to produce it by current methods. Implementation of an in vitro meat production system (IMPS) to complement existing meat production practices creates the opportunity for meat products of different characteristics to be put onto the market. In vitro produced meat products resembling the processed and comminuted meat products of today will be sooner to develop than those resembling traditional cuts of meat. While widening the scope of the meat industry in practices and products, the IMPS will reduce the need for agricultural resources to produce meat.

Assessing the environmental impacts of contrasting farming systems

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Jan 2009

This paper examines how opportunity costs of land use can be taken into account when life cycle assessment (LCA) is used to compare environmental impacts of contrasting farming systems. Energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) balances of organic, conventional and integrated farm models are assessed. It is assumed that the farm size and food product output are equivalent in all farm models, and the remaining land that is not needed for food crops is used for Miscanthus energy crop production. The impacts of integrating biogas production into the farming systems are also explored. The results illustrate the significance of taking into account the opportunity costs of land use and suggest that integrated farming systems have potential to reduce negative environmental impacts compared to organic and conventional systems.

Animal-free Meat Biofabrication

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2011

Nutrition-related diseases, food borne illnesses, resource use and pollution and use of farm animals are some serious consequences associated with conventional meat production system and consumers have expressed growing concern over them. Biofabrication, production of complex living and non-living biological products, is a potential solution to reduce these ill effects of current meat production system. The industrial potential of biofabrication technology is far beyond the traditional medically oriented tissue engineering and organ printing and, in the long term, biofabrication can contribute to the development of novel biotechnologies that can dramatically transform traditional animal-based agriculture by inventing animal-free food, leather and fur products. In this study we review the possibility of producing in vitro meat using tissue-engineering techniques that may offer health and environmental advantages by reducing environmental pollution and land use associated with current meat production systems. Besides, reducing the animal suffering significantly, it will also ensure sustainable production of designer, chemically safe and disease free meat as the conditions in an in vitro meat production system are controlled and manipulatable. The techniques required to produce in vitro meat are not beyond imagination and the basic methodology of an in vitro meat production system (IMPS) involves culturing muscle tissue in a liquid medium on a large scale but the production of highly-structured, unprocessed meat faces considerably greater technical challenges and a great deal of research is still needed to establish a sustainable in vitro meat culturing system on an industrial scale. In the long term, tissue-engineered meat is the inescapable future of humanity. However, in the short term the extremely high prohibitive cost of the biofabrication of tissue-engineered meat is the main potential obstacle, although large-scale production and market penetration are usually associated with a dramatic price reduction.

Effect of black polyethylene shade covers on the evaporation rate of agricultural reservoirs

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2006
SPAN J AGRIC RES

The potential use of shade covers to reduce evaporation from agricultural reservoirs motivated this study on the effect of black polyethylene shade on the evaporation rate from a small water body (Class-A pan) and of its driving variables. Evaporation was measured hourly in two pans during the summer in Cartagena (Spain), along with the measurements of air temperature and humidity, water temperature, solar radiation and wind speed. The first pan was uncovered whereas the second pan was covered with black polyethylene shade as either a single or double-layer. The main factors influencing reduced evaporation (mass transfer coefficient and surface-to-air vapour pressure deficit) were analyzed, focusing on the changes in the uncovered pan. In the shaded pan there was a decrease in daily evaporation of 75 and 83% for single and double-layer shade respectively. Condensation on the shade was considerable and was 14 and 21% of the daily evaporation losses for the single and double-layer shade respectively. It was concluded that (i) black polyethylene shade appears to be an efficient way to reduce evaporative loss from agricultural reservoirs, and (ii) an economic analysis of their implementation under the current scarce water supply, for agriculture, in southern Spain justified their use.

Reactor design for large scale suspension animal cell culture

Article

Full-text available

May 1999

The scale of operation of freely suspended animal cell culture has been increasing and in order to meet the demand for recombinant therapeutic products, this increase is likely to continue. The most common reactor types used are stirred tanks. Air lift fermenters are also used, albeit less commonly. No specific guidelines have been published for large scale (>/=10 000 L) animal cell culture and reactor designs are often based on those used for microbial systems. However, due to the large difference in energy inputs used for microbial and animal cell systems such designs may be far from optimal. In this review the importance of achieving a balance between mixing, mass transfer and shear effects is emphasised. The implications that meeting this balance has on design of vessels and operation, particularly in terms of strategies to ensure adequate mixing to achieve homogeneity in pH and dissolved gas concentrations are discussed.

Virtual Water Trade: A Quantification of Virtual Water Flows Between Nations in Relation to International Crop Trade

Chapter

Jan 2003

The ecology of Nostoc

Article

Jun 2008
J PHYCOL

Nostoc is a genus of filamentous cyanobacteria that can form macroscopic or microscopic colonies and is common in both terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Much of the success of Nostoc in terrestrial habitats is related to its ability to remain desiccated for months or years and fully recover metabolic activity within hours to days after re-hydration with liquid water. Nostoc can also withstand repeated cycles of freezing and thawing and, thus, is an important component of extreme terrestrial habitats in the Arctic and Antarctic. The ability to fix atmospheric N2can provide an advantage in nitrogen-poor environments. Nostoc also has the ability to screen damaging ultraviolet light in terrestrial and shallow benthic habitats. The genus potentially could be important in paddy rice culture because it fixes nitrogen that may later be released and used by plants; it also may play a role in soil formation and may increase nitrogen input to natural aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The abilities to survive in terrestrial habitats and fix N2are important in symbiotic interactions with fungi (lichens), liverworts, hornworts, mosses, ferns, cycads, and the angiosperm Gunnera. Nostoc is somewhat resistant to predation; this probably is related to production of large amounts of sheath material, synthesis of microcystin-like toxins by some strains, and formation of colonies that are too large for many algivores to consume. Some organisms can subsist on Nostoc, although it may not be a preferred food source. Lytic cyanophages also infect Nostoc, but little is known about population control of Nostoc in its natural environment, Late Precambrian fossils resembling Nostoc have been described, and Nostoc possibly has been an important component of many terrestrial and aquatic communities since that time.

Mass production of Spirulina, an edible microalga

Article

Jan 2004

Hidenori Shimamatsu

Spirulina (Arthrospira) is a filamentous cyanobacterium that is grown commercially for food and feed and as a food coloring and additive. Currently there are many companies producing Spirulina in different countries to the tune of 3000 tons a year. This paper attempts to describe the problems of mass culture of Spirulina, deriving information from two commercial facilities: Siam Algae Company (Thailand) and Earthrise Farms (U.S.A.).

Pelletier, N. and P. Tyedmers. 2007. Feeding farmed salmon: Is organic better?

Article

Nov 2007
AQUACULTURE

Feed provision accounts for the majority of material and energetic inputs and emissions associated with net-pen salmon farming. Understanding and reducing the environmental impacts of feed production is therefore central to improving the biophysical sustainability of salmon farming as a whole. We used life cycle assessment (with co-product allocation by gross energy content) to compare the cradle-to-mill gate life cycle energy use, biotic resource use, and global warming, acidifying, eutrophying and aquatic ecotoxiticy impacts associated with producing ingredients for four hypothetical feeds for conventional and organic salmon aquaculture in order to assess the benefits, if any, associated with a transition to organic feed use. Fish and poultry-derived ingredients generated substantially greater impacts than crop-derived ingredients. Despite the fact that organic crop ingredients had markedly lower life cycle impacts compared to equivalent conventional ingredients, substituting organic for conventional crop ingredients therefore resulted in only minor reductions to the total impacts of feed production because the benefits of this substitution were effectively overwhelmed by the much larger impacts associated with animal-derived ingredients. Replacing fish meals/oils from dedicated reduction fisheries with fisheries by-product meals/oils markedly increased the environmental impacts of feed production, largely due to the higher energy intensity of fisheries for human consumption, and low meal/oil yield rates of fisheries by-products. Environmental impacts were considerably lower when feeds contained reduced proportions of fish and poultry-derived ingredients. These results indicate that current standards for organic salmon aquaculture, which stipulate the use of organic crop ingredients and fisheries by-product meals and oils, fail to reduce the environmental impacts of feed production for the suite of impact categories considered in this study. This information should be of interest to feed producers and aquaculturists concerned with improving the biophysical sustainability of their products, and bodies responsible for aquaculture certification, ecolabeling, and consumer awareness programs.

Changes in seasonal evapotranspiration, soil water content, and crop coefficients in sugarcane, cassava, and maize fields in Northeast Thailand

Article

Feb 2004
AGR WATER MANAGE

This study was performed to examine seasonal changes in evapotranspiration (ET), soil water content, and crop coefficients (Kc) for sugarcane, cassava, and maize fields in Northeast Thailand. ET rates during the rainy season varied between 2 and 6 mm per day but remained around 1 mm per day in the dry season. The normal dry season ET was much greater than the water loss from the top 0.5 m of soil, suggesting that capillary rise from deeper soil layers provides significant amounts of water to the upper soil layer. The Kc for sugarcane and cassava reached growing season peaks of approximately 1.10 and 1.20, respectively, in June. The maximum Kc for the maize field was approximately 1.20. Although the ET estimated by the Hargreaves equation exceeded the FAO reference ET value for this region, the values had a high correlation when the Hargreaves ET was calculated using solar radiation measurements.

The analysis on energy and environmental impacts of microalgae-based fuel methanol in China

Article

Apr 2009
ENERG POLICY

The whole life of methanol fuel, produced by microalgae biomass which is a kind of renewable energy, is evaluated by using a method of life cycle assessment (LCA). LCA has been used to identify and quantify the environment emissions and energy efficiency of the system throughout the whole life cycle, including microalgae cultivation, methanol conversion, transport, and end-use. Energy efficiency, defined as the ratio of the energy of methanol produced to the total required energy, is 1.24, the results indicate that it is plausible as an energy producing process. The environmental impact loading of microalgae-based fuel methanol is 0.187mPET2000 in contrast to 0.828mPET2000 for gasoline. The effect of photochemical ozone formation is the highest of all the calculated categorization impacts of the two fuels. Utilization of microalgae an raw material of producing methanol fuel is beneficial to both production of renewable fuels and improvement of the ecological environment. This Fuel methanol is friendly to the environment, which should take an important role in automobile industry development and gasoline fuel substitute.

The Feasibility of industrial production of Spirulina (Arthrospira) in Southern Spain

Article

Mar 2003
AQUACULTURE

The viability of the industrial production of three strains of Spirulina platensis was tested in Malaga, Southern Spain. In a pre-industrial trial using raceway ponds from laboratory-scale to 450 m2, all three strains displayed satisfactory growth. In a 10-month industrial trial in 450 m2 ponds, production was equivalent to 30–32 metric tons of dry powder per hectare per annum. In conclusion, intensive industrial production of Spirulina is viable in certain Mediterranean climates, a region previously thought to be outside its geographic limits.

Environmental analysis of plastic production processes: Comparing petroleum-based polypropylene and polyethylene with biologically-based poly-β-hydroxybutyric acid using life cycle analysis

Article

May 2007
J BIOTECHNOL

Polymers based on olefins have wide commercial applicability. However, they are made from non-renewable resources and are characterised by difficulty in disposal where recycle and re-use is not feasible. Poly-beta-hydroxybutyric acid (PHB) provides one example of a polymer made from renewable resources. Before motivating its widespread use, the advantages of a renewable polymer must be weighed against the environmental aspects of its production. Previous studies relating the environmental impacts of petroleum-based and bio-plastics have centred on the impact categories of global warming and fossil fuel depletion. Cradle-to-grave studies report equivalent or reduced global warming impacts, in comparison to equivalent polyolefin processes. This stems from a perceived CO(2) neutral status of the renewable resource. Indeed, no previous work has reported the results of a life cycle assessment (LCA) giving the environmental impacts in all major categories. This study investigates a cradle-to-gate LCA of PHB production taking into account net CO(2) generation and all major impact categories. It compares the findings with similar studies of polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE). It is found that, in all of the life cycle categories, PHB is superior to PP. Energy requirements are slightly lower than previously observed and significantly lower than those for polyolefin production. PE impacts are lower than PHB values in acidification and eutrophication.

Food: A taste of things to come?

Article

Dec 2010
NATURE

Nicola Jones

Researchers are sure that they can put lab-grown meat on the menu ? if they can just get cultured muscle cells to bulk up.

Comparing environmental impacts for livestock products: A review of life cycle assessments

Article

Mar 2010
LIVEST SCI

Livestock production has a major impact on the environment. Choosing a more environmentally-friendly livestock product in a diet can mitigate environmental impact. The objective of this research was to compare assessments of the environmental impact of livestock products. Twenty-five peer-reviewed studies were found that assessed the impact of production of pork, chicken, beef, milk, and eggs using life cycle analysis (LCA). Only 16 of these studies were reviewed, based on five criteria: study from an OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) country, non-organic production, type of LCA methodology, allocation method used, and definition of system boundary. LCA results of these 16 studies were expressed in three ways: per kg product, per kg protein, and per kg of average daily intake of each product for an OECD country. The review yielded a consistent ranging of results for use of land and energy, and for climate change. No clear pattern was found, however, for eutrophication and acidification. Production of 1 kg of beef used most land and energy, and had highest global warming potential (GWP), followed by production of 1 kg of pork, chicken, eggs, and milk. Differences in environmental impact among pork, chicken, and beef can be explained mainly by 3 factors: differences in feed efficiency, differences in enteric CH4 emission between monogastric animals and ruminants, and differences in reproduction rates. The impact of production of 1 kg of meat (pork, chicken, beef) was high compared with production of 1 kg of milk and eggs because of the relatively high water content of milk and eggs. Production of 1 kg of beef protein also had the highest impact, followed by pork protein, whereas chicken protein had the lowest impact. This result also explained why consumption of beef was responsible for the largest part of the land use and GWP in an average OECD diet. This review did not show consistent differences in environmental impact per kg protein in milk, pork, chicken and eggs. Only one study compared environmental impact of meat versus milk and eggs. Conclusions regarding impact of pork or chicken versus impact of milk or eggs require additional comparative studies and further harmonization of LCA methodology. Interpretation of current LCA results for livestock products, moreover, is hindered because results do not include environmental consequences of competition for land between humans and animals, and consequences of land-use changes. We recommend, therefore, to include these consequences in future LCAs of livestock products

Commentary In Vitro-Cultured Meat Production

Article

May 2005
TISSUE ENG

ALTHOUGH MEAT has enjoyed sustained popularity as a foodstuff, consumers have expressed growing concern over some consequences of meat consumption and production. These include nutrition-related diseases

Photobioreactors for Mass Cultivation of Algae

Article

Aug 2008
BIORESOURCE TECHNOL

Algae have attracted much interest for production of foods, bioactive compounds and also for their usefulness in cleaning the environment. In order to grow and tap the potentials of algae, efficient photobioreactors are required. Although a good number of photobioreactors have been proposed, only a few of them can be practically used for mass production of algae. One of the major factors that limits their practical application in algal mass cultures is mass transfer. Thus, a thorough understanding of mass transfer rates in photobioreactors is necessary for efficient operation of mass algal cultures. In this review article, various photobioreactors that are very promising for mass production of algae are discussed.

Response to Reijnders: Do biofuels from microalgae beat biofuels from terrestrial plants?

Article

Aug 2008
TRENDS BIOTECHNOL

Yusuf Chisti

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Water Footprint Network: Enschede, 2009; (25) Pelletier, N.; Tyedmers, P. Feeding farmed salmon: Is organic better? Aquaculture Photobioreactors for mass cultivation of algae Assessing the environmental impacts of contrasting farming systems

Jan 2007
399-4021

A Y Hoekstra
A Chapagain
C Ugwu
H Aoyagi
H Uchiyama

Hoekstra, A. Y.; Chapagain, A. K.; Aldaya, M. M.; Mekonnen, M. M. Water Footprint Manual -State of the art 2009; Water Footprint Network: Enschede, 2009; (25) Pelletier, N.; Tyedmers, P. Feeding farmed salmon: Is organic better? Aquaculture 2007, 272, 399 (26) Ugwu, C.; Aoyagi, H.; Uchiyama, H. Photobioreactors for mass cultivation of algae. Bioresour. Technol. 2008, 99, 4021. (27) Tuomisto, H. L.; Hodge, I. D.; Riordan, P.; Macdonald, D. W. Assessing the environmental impacts of contrasting farming systems. Aspects of Applied Biology 2009, 93.

Determining the Environmental Burdens and Resource Use in the Production of Agricultural and Horticultural Commodities Reactor design for large scale suspension animal cell culture

Jan 1999
177

A G Williams
E Audsley
D L Sandars
J Varley
J Birch
K Harding
J Dennis
H Blottnitz

Williams, A. G.; Audsley, E.; Sandars, D. L. Determining the Environmental Burdens and Resource Use in the Production of Agricultural and Horticultural Commodities; Bedford, 2006; http://www.silsoe.cranfield. ac.uk, and http://www.defra.gov.uk (19) Varley, J.; Birch, J. Reactor design for large scale suspension animal cell culture. Cytotechnology 1999, 29, 177. (20) Harding, K.; Dennis, J.; von Blottnitz, H.;

Possibilities for an in vitro meat production system Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 2010, 11, 13. (7) ISO14044; Environmental management À Life cycle assessment À Requirements and guidelines. International Organization for Standardi-zation

Jan 2006

I Datar
M Betti

Datar, I.; Betti, M. Possibilities for an in vitro meat production system. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 2010, 11, 13. (7) ISO14044; Environmental management À Life cycle assessment À Requirements and guidelines. International Organization for Standardi-zation: Geneva, 2006.

Sources of variability of evapotranspiration in California Effect of black polyethylene shade covers on the evaporation rate of agricultural reservoirs Mass Culture of Spirulina Outdoors -The Earthrise Farms Experience

Oct 1997
131

H G Hidalgo
D R Cayan
M D Dettinger
V M Alvarez
A Baille
J M Martinez

Hidalgo, H. G.; Cayan, D. R.; Dettinger, M. D. Sources of variability of evapotranspiration in California. Journal of Hydrometeorol-ogy 2005, 6, 3. (16) Alvarez, V. M.; Baille, A.; Martinez, J. M. M.; Gonzalez-Real, M. M. Effect of black polyethylene shade covers on the evaporation rate of agricultural reservoirs. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research 2006, 4, 280. (17) Belay, A. Mass Culture of Spirulina Outdoors -The Earthrise Farms Experience. In Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): Physiology, Cell-Biology and Biotechnology; Vonshak, A., Ed.; Taylor and Francis: 1997, p 131.

Environmental Impacts of Cultured Meat Production

Abstract

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