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Differences in the surface and subsurface reflection characteristics of facial skin by age group
Abstract
The age-dependent changes of facial skin imperfections such as spot or wrinkles have been investigated repeatedly by means of various objective measurements. However, the age-dependent changes in the optical-reflection characteristics that create a perception of a shine or a glow of the skin have received little attention. We evaluated the age dependence of the optical-reflection characteristics of the surface and subsurface facial skin layers of three age groups.
The facial skin of 83 Japanese females ranging in age from 20 to 49 years was examined using a high-resolution digital camera equipped with a linear polarizing filter under polarized illumination. Surface and subsurface reflection components were extracted by means of an image-processing technique. In addition to the reflection characteristics, skin hydration, the melanin index, and the hemoglobin index were also measured.
Significant age-dependent changes were found in the evenness of the surface reflection and in the intensity of the subsurface reflection. In contrast, no difference was observed in the intensity of the surface reflection or in the evenness of the subsurface reflection. The melanin index showed a significant age-dependent difference, with a trend similar to that of the subsurface reflection intensity, but the skin hydration and hemoglobin index showed no difference by age group.
Surface and subsurface reflection characteristics show age-dependent changes. Younger skin has a greater subsurface reflectivity and a more even surface reflectivity. These optical characteristics of the skin might be related to the perception of consumers that younger skin is brighter and more radiant with an internal glow, whereas aged skin is shinier or glossier.
... Various optical methods have been developed for skin translucency measurement, which basically involve shining a light on the skin at an angle and detecting the diffuse and specular light reflection off the skin [13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21]. Image analysis methods became popular in the last decade, which involved correlating colour properties of facial images to panel perception results to describe translucency [22][23][24][25][26][27][28] as well as modelling the subjective results against the ratio of polarized images showing diffuse and specular reflection properties [29][30][31][32][33][34]. It had been reported that skin colour properties, particularly skin brightness and unevenness were primarily the focus when quantitative description of skin translucency was discussed. ...
... The forehead skin was not included in the ROI as we had observed a negative effect of the hair line on the accuracy of skin detection, that is the fine hairs made it difficult to obtain consistent ROIs among different subjects. Multiple visual attributes of skin including colour properties, glossiness, surface smoothness [32,37], subsurface light reflection [29,32], and spot severity were measured from each ROI. Table 3 shows a summary of the objectively measured skin parameters and Figure 2 shows a sample ROI and some examples of the detected skin visual attributes. ...
... The forehead skin was not included in the ROI as we had observed a negative effect of the hair line on the accuracy of skin detection, that is the fine hairs made it difficult to obtain consistent ROIs among different subjects. Multiple visual attributes of skin including colour properties, glossiness, surface smoothness [32,37], subsurface light reflection [29,32], and spot severity were measured from each ROI. Table 3 shows a summary of the objectively measured skin parameters and Figure 2 shows a sample ROI and some examples of the detected skin visual attributes. ...
Objectives:
Translucent skin is an attribute widely appreciated by people in East Asian countries. There have been studies in the literature to describe the phenomenon by means of clinical grading, instrumental measurement, and image analysis. However, due to its subjective and complex nature, skin translucency has not been comprehensively and rigorously characterized and modeled, particularly in the Chinese population. This study is to develop a mathematical model that quantitatively describes skin translucency from visual cues objectively measured from the skin.
Materials and methods:
The study was designed to characterize and model skin translucency by incorporating expert evaluation, panel perception and image analysis of multiple skin visual attributes in one analysis. Faces of 36 Chinese females aged 18-65 years old were evaluated by a dermatologist to obtain clinical translucency scores. Subject pairs were formed with a relatively high and low translucency score in each pair. Their faces were judged in person by 9 panelists in paired-comparison (2-AFC) fashion to pick a "more translucent skin" from each subject pair. Front-view facial images of the subjects were taken, and multiple color and other visually perceivable skin attributes were measured using image analysis. Bradley-Terry analysis and multiple regressions were performed to correlate the panel choices of "more translucent skin" with the objectively measured skin parameters.
Results:
Multiple skin color properties affected the panel choices toward translucent skin. Among them skin tone lightness and skin glossiness had positive effects on skin translucency while the hue, color unevenness, severity of red and dark spots affected it negatively. Subsurface light reflection and skin visual smoothness had some effect but were not statistically significant. A mathematical model was constructed to predict a person's skin translucency from objectively measured skin attributes.
Conclusion:
The subjective property of skin translucency can be characterized and quantified via a comprehensive modeling process involving clinical grading, panel evaluation, image-based measurement of skin attributes and statistical analysis. A novel skin parameter, Skin Translucency Index (STI) was established which provides a way to measure skin translucency, making it possible to assess treatment efficacy before and after product application.
... In most of these countries, a shiny facial skin is often culturally perceived as 'dirty', a perception of important social consequences. Although resulting from an unknown mechanism, scarcely investigated, it seems nevertheless clear that at least two combined elements drive skin shininess: sebum and sweat, the relative roles and relationships of which remain to being determined [1][2][3][4][5]. In addition, the shine of any surface is a rather complex physical phenomenon as integrating various factors, that is light reflection, colour, light intensity, and surface roughness as defined and quantified by the intensity of the reflected light in all directions. ...
... Measuring the reflective properties of a given surface is paramount in many and diverse applications (medical, industrial, photographic etc.) [6][7][8][9]. With regard to skin, reflection of light is additionally influenced by gender and age [4,5]. Technically speaking, shine is more often defined by the more intense reflected light that is detected perpendicularly to the surface, called the specular reflection, that is the major fraction of the total shine. ...
... Vehicle 2% Aerogel Vehicle our in vitro and in vivo experiments suggest a two-phase process with regard to time, post-application. The immediate effect obtained at higher concentrations of Aerogel (1% and 2%), and observed in vivo, suggests a rapid light scattering of the concerned surfaces (contrast plates or facial skin), that is a soft focus that rapidly 'clogs' (in vitro) or mitigate (in vivo) most of the reflective microstructures present at the surface, in agreement with previous works [4,8]. Such rapid light scattering is likely inherent to many particulate matters as Perlite shows a noticeable immediate anti-shine effect, however, a much lower amplitude than the one brought by Aerogel at 2%. ...
Objective:
To explore, in vitro and in vivo, the potential interest of an Aerogel-based formula, in concealing a naturally shiny facial skin.
Methods:
In vitro, various formulae and ingredients were applied as a thin film onto contrast plates and studied through measuring the shine induced following pump spraying of a mixture of oleic acid and mineral water as a sebum/sweat mix model. In such a test, an Aerogel ingredient led to very positive results. In vivo, two different formulae with various concentrations of Aerogel were randomly tested on half side of the face vs. bare side of Chinese women, under some provocative environmental conditions, known to enhance facial shine. These conditions comprised a normal activity under a hot and highly humid summer time followed -or not- by a hamam session. Both studies included comparative evaluations using a half-face procedure (treated/untreated or vehicle. In the first case, evaluations were quantitatively carried out whereas the second one was based on a quantitative self-evaluations from standardized full-face photographs RESULTS: In vitro, the tested Aerogel, incorporated at 1% or 2% concentration in a common O/W cosmetic emulsion, shows an immediate light scattering effect, thereby masking shine. Such effect appears of much higher amplitude than that of two other tested particulate ingredients (Talc and Perlite). A noticeable remanence of anti-shine effect was confirmed in vivo in extreme conditions. The latter was self-perceived by all participants in the second study. This results is likely related to the super hydrophobic behavior of the Aerogel.
Conclusion:
As cosmetic ingredient, this new Aerogel appears as a highly promising ingredient for concealing the facial skin shine, a source of complaint from many consumers living in hot and humid regions. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... Skin characteristics, and the impact of age on them, vary according to geographical location, genetics, lifestyle, and ethnicity. [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10] In Asia, there have been studies from Korea, 11,12 Japan, 13,14 China, 15 multiple Asian cities (China, India, South Korea, Japan, and the Philippines) 7 and India. 9 In this study, we have generated such an understand- ...
... A significant decline in TEWL indicated improvement in skin barrier function with age; the trend was like study with the Asian population in China, India, South Korea, Japan and the Philippines. 7 At 160 µg.cm −2 , sebum content in this study population was significantly higher than that reported in Chinese women 14 although the trend of decline with age was similar. The sebum levels would also be determined by the time-interval from preceding facewash. ...
Background:
Facial skin characteristics and appearance vary according to ethnicity. While much of this knowledge is derived from the Caucasian population, lately there have been efforts to gain such understanding in various regions in Asia. In this paper, we have built an understanding of such features in Indonesia. In Indonesia, a section of females wears a traditional veil (hijab) to cover the scalp and part of face. The influence of the hijab on facial skin attributes was also investigated.
Methods:
In a cross-sectional observational study design involving 419 female volunteers in Jakarta, Indonesia, facial skin attributes (colour, radiance, hydration, trans-epidermal water loss [TEWL], wrinkles, fine lines, pores, and sebum levels) and conditions (melasma, post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation (PIH), solar lentigines/ senile lentigines, seborrheic keratoses and acne) were assessed by trained operators and dermatologists using standard validated instruments and scales.
Results:
With age, facial skin colour showed darkening in cheek; forehead on the other hand showed slight lightening. The skin evenness and radiance decreased, substantially. Aging attributes measured in terms of lines, wrinkles, and under-eye dark circles showed deterioration with age; the decline was progressively faster than colour change. Facial image data analysis corroborated these findings. Skin hydration remained similar across the age groups even though the skin barrier function measured in terms of TEWL improved with age. Sebum levels in the skin were similar up to the age of 50 but declined in the next group of 50-60 year. Pore severity increased with age. Melasma, seborrheic keratosis and PIH showed a high prevalence (>∼50%) at the young age group (20-30 years), itself. Melasma prevalence attained 100% in the age group of 41-50 year and onwards, and its severity similarly showed a steady rise with age. PIH on the other hand showed a steady decline with age. Solar lentigines prevalence (∼30%) did not change much across age groups, and the severity scores were similar in age groups up to 50 year but increased substantially in 51-60-year age groups. Seborrheic keratosis was similar (∼47%) in age groups up 20-40 year but steadily increased in upper age groups. Its severity was similar in the age groups of 20-30 year and 31-40 year but showed a two-fold increase in subsequent age groups. Acne was 10% in the age group of 20-30 year and declined gradually to 0.7% in the 51-60-year age group. Hijab wearers showed slight protection in skin colour darkening and improvement of evenness and radiance but were similar on aging (fine lines and wrinkles on crow's feet, under eye and peri-oral areas) markers to non-wearers. In general, in majority of age-groups, hijab wearers showed a higher prevalence of melasma, solar/senile lentigines, seborrheic keratosis and PIH.
... Thus, the finding was used to evaluate dermatologic diseases. In 2012, the advantages of polarized light were manipulated to classify skin into several age groups [14]. As the results, surface reflection of younger skin is higher compared with older skin. ...
... Polarized image captured under parallel polarization consists both surface and subsurface reflections [14]. Image with only subsurface reflection can be recorded under 90 0 polarization angle. ...
Reflection based analysis has been used in previous research for various objectives. Materials classification is one of them. Basically, each material consists of two types of reflections: surface and sub-surface. To separate these two reflections, polarized light could be applied. Previously, multi-reflections characteristics were analyzed using polarized light to classify objects such as between metals and non-metals. However, no trial has been done using the same method to distinguish real and fake faces that could be used to combat spoofing attempts in face biometric system. Since human skin is multi layers structure, it also produces multi reflections. In this paper, driven by the theory, surface and sub-surface reflections of both genuine human face and paper face mask were statistically examined. In addition, iPad displayed face images were also used as spoofing attempts. Images of genuine and spoofing faces were captured using polarized light under two different polarization angles: 0 and 90 degrees. Each angle captured images with surface and sub-surface reflections, accordingly. Those reflections were analyzed based on the mean, standard deviation, skewness and kurtosis. Modality distribution of each image was also studied using another method called the bimodality coefficient (BC). From the results, it is not possible to distinguish between genuine face and printed photos because of the multi reflections’ similarities. However, iPad displayed face images have been successfully identified as spoofing trials.
... That study, which employed a total of 160 female subjects in their 30s to 40s along with a pairwise comparison method showed that attractiveness increases in the order of faces with matte, oily-shiny, and then radiant skin (Fig. 1). These types of reflection are unique to skin 30,[44][45][46][47][48][49][50] , which has complex internal and external structures 29,30,51 . Such categorization or concepts of skin reflection are becoming pervasive, typically among women in many countries, and are inherently determined by visual impression rather than physical reflectance parameters 30,[44][45][46][47][48][49][50] . ...
... These types of reflection are unique to skin 30,[44][45][46][47][48][49][50] , which has complex internal and external structures 29,30,51 . Such categorization or concepts of skin reflection are becoming pervasive, typically among women in many countries, and are inherently determined by visual impression rather than physical reflectance parameters 30,[44][45][46][47][48][49][50] . Matte skin makes little impression of gloss. ...
Facial attraction has a great influence on our daily social interactions. Previous studies have mainly focused on the attraction from facial shape and expression. We recently found that faces with radiant skin appear to be more attractive than those with oily-shiny or matte skin. In the present study, we conducted functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and psychological experiments to determine the human brain activity that reflects facial attractiveness modulated by these skin reflection types. In the fMRI experiment, female subjects were shown successive images of unfamiliar female faces with matte, oily-shiny, or radiant skin. The subjects compared each face with the immediately preceding face in terms of attractiveness, age, and skin reflection, all based on the skin. The medial part of the orbitofrontal cortex (mOFC) was significantly more active when comparing attractiveness than when comparing skin reflection, suggesting that the mOFC is involved in processing facial attractiveness from skin reflection. In the psychological experiment, attractiveness rating was highest for radiant skin, followed by oily-shiny, and then matte skin. Comparison of the results of these experiments showed that mOFC activation level increased with attractiveness rating. These results suggest that the activation level of the mOFC reflects facial attractiveness from skin reflection.
... Photographs were taken with a skin imaging camera (Reveal Imager, Canfield Scientific, Inc., Fairfield, NJ, USA) (Fig. 3) under non-polarized light and polarized light. The former presents the skin condition when viewed visually, while the latter eliminates the effects of reflections and capture deeper skin images [15]. ...
The skin color of the human face is mainly determined by the content of hemoglobin (in red) and melanin (in brown). RBX image technology transforms full-color images into RBX color space, in which the "Red" component is associated with hemoglobin, and the "Brown" component is associated with melanin. This article presents a skin condition evaluation system based on RBX image technology, which is practically applied to the identification of the severity of rosacea patients, as well as the whiteness of the skin of the patient receiving pulse laser toning. In the research of rosacea grading, we analyze the "Red" component image and establish the R-G index to grade the severity of rosacea. It was found that the value of the R-G index increased with the severity of rosacea. ANOVA test results show significant differences among the four severity groups. In the research on the effect of facial skin toning by pulsed laser, we analyzed the "Brown" component image and established five brightness levels as indicators to evaluate the skin whitening effect. The result shows that the ups and downs of these brightness levels reflect changes in skin tone. These indicators provide a new way for quantification of skin conditions.
... Physically, skin consists of multi layers structure and due to these various layers, skin produces more than one reflections: Surface and subsurface reflections. Polarization imaging technique is one of the methods that could be used to distinguish between the two reflections (Matsubara, 2012;Jacques et al., 2000;Bae et al., 2010;Philp et al., 1987). In addition, the degree of polarization of each polarized image can also be used as the classification parameter. ...
Face spoofing countermeasure is vital to avoid an imposter from gaining access to security biometric systems by using face masks in various forms that mimic a valid user face. Recently, several studies have shown the ability of visible polarized light in distinguishing real and fake faces. In this paper, polarization imaging systems using visible and near infrared (NIR) are proposed to examine the effects on the polarization images as trial to distinguish between genuine face and spoof face presentation attacks: photo paper and iPad face display; based on the optical properties of the materials. The findings from the investigations suggest that in general, NIR light could not be used to distinguish between genuine face and photo paper under a polarization lighting condition. In contrast, the visible light provides significant difference of the Stokes images between the materials. Classification between real face and iPad display can easily be done by manipulating the polarization angle. A new feature fusion formula named as the SDOLP3F is introduced to differentiate between the real and the fake traits. The SDOLP3F results presented in this paper show the highest accuracy rate compared to the individual measures. The results illustrate the robustness of the proposed anti-spoofing algorithm based on a small sample.
... A small portion (~4-7%) of light is reflected off the SC surface, and most of the light (~93-96%) penetrates deeper skin layers where it is back-scattered as subsurface reflected light. 20,21 Hydrated skin has been proposed to enhance skin radiance by reducing surface roughness which promotes deeper penetration of incoming light (1). Surface roughness may be due to structural disorganization of the SC which can lead to optical heterogeneity between subsurface components. ...
Introduction: As skin ages, it loses its ability to retain moisture and becomes rough and dry. This results in a clinically dull appearance with a loss of radiance, firmness, and suppleness. Symptoms can be improved with use of a moisturizer that builds and maintains skin hydration over time; however, most moisturizers that occlude the skin surface are perceived as heavy and greasy and are not consumer preferred.
Methods: A unique, consumer-preferred gel matrix formula was developed by combining liquid crystal structures, which mimic skin barrier lipid assembly, with specific emulsifiers that deliver water deep into skin. Ex vivo studies were conducted to investigate the superior hydrating effects of the gel matrix formula. Confocal Raman microscopy studies assessed the spatial distribution of water in ex vivo skin after application of the gel matrix formula. To determine the effects of the gel matrix formula on dry facial skin, a 12-week clinical study was conducted with subjects with self-perceived skin dryness and dullness.
Results: The formulation significantly increased the relative water content throughout epidermal regions, which was not observed with the application of a competitive gel formula. Instrumental measurements assessed improvements in skin surface moisturization and barrier function. Clinical grading showed significant improvements in hydration-related endpoints including radiance, clarity, and texture. Subject self-agree assessment demonstrated that subjects observed improvements in the appearance of their facial skin.
Conclusion: These studies demonstrated that the gel matrix formula increased skin water content in deeper layers, and resulted in significant clinical improvements in hydration, barrier function, and clinical appearance of radiance.
... In recent years however, the age-dependent changes in the optical-reflection characteristics that create a perception of shine or glow of the skin have only recently received a new focus. Reports have indicated that skin surface and subsurface reflection characteristics will show age-dependent changes [35][36][37] with younger skin having greater subsurface reflectivity and a more even surface reflectivity. Such characteristics might relate to a consumer perception that younger skin is brighter and more radiant with an internal glow, whereas aged skin is duller, shinier and glossier. ...
With the advancement of skin research today's consumer has increased access to an informed understanding of aging skin and its appendages, together with a plethora of targeted products to meet such needs. In recent years increased legislative demands for quality evidential claims support has led not only to the development and validation of clinical methods to measure and quantify aging skin, but also a clearer understanding of the skin aging process ‐ especially the impact of both its internal and external environments ‐ as well as a tougher stance on clearly unjustifiable claims. Traditional testing methods used to research and evaluate anti‐aging products claim to employ sophisticated instruments. Today however, since the term anti‐aging can be considered a misnomer, intelligent use of combined more advanced clinical methods has enabled the development of technologically improved consumer products providing enhanced efficacy and targeted performance. Non‐invasive methods for the assessment and quantification of the causes of aging skin, provides tools to the clinical researcher as defined by key clinically observed aging parameters. Where evidence requires additional support, a number of clinical procedures evaluating aging skin and hair products are combined with invasive procedures, thus enabling an added‐value to product claims. As discussed herein, given the enhanced understanding of aging, we provide an update to our previous reviews of clinical methods used in the assessment of skin aging, to include the wider aspects of environmental exposure; skin pigmentation; microbiome disturbance; surface topography; color, radiance, and pH; and structural integrity — all requiring a disciplined approach to their use in dermatological investigations and product claims evidence.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... Skin with high translucency is perceived by consumers to have a flawless surface appearance, delicate texture, subtle subsurface reflection, and a rosy glow. Matsubara et al. [13] described an image analysis method to quantify facial skin translucency. We employed a modified version of this method by quantifying skin translucency through diffuse reflection, as opposed to specular reflection used in Matsubara's study, and defined a skin translucency index based on the average intensity value and its distribution in each of the RGB channels. ...
A novel skin youthfulness index is intro-duced in this study to establish a mathema-tical model that correlates age with the visual properties of facial skin using an image analysis method. Images of 1,505 Asian female volunteers between the ages of 20 and 60 years were captured using a VISIA-CR® system under five different lighting conditions. Skin properties, such as wrinkles, hyperpigmentation, pores, color, translucency, ITA o , color evenness and surface texture parameters, were objec-tively measured from the images using Amway exclusively developed image analy-sis algorithms. Correlations between the measured parameters and the participants' chronological age were observed with sta-tistical significance. By defining and calcu-lating a set of weight factors five objec-tively measured visual parameters of skin were found to be most relevant to describe skin conditions influenced by the aging process. Combining these parameters in a mathematical model we have established a skin youthfulness index which has a range of 0 to 100 and is inversely correlated to people's chronological age (R 2 = 0.9959). The index allows us to accurately assess a person's apparent skin age based on the measured skin parameters. Of the various age groups tested, the largest difference between the actual and the calculated skin age was 2.4 years with a mean difference of 0.86 years. This model has potential for quantification of skin care product efficacy and thereby substantiation of new product claims.
... Previous research on the age perception of the human skin has found that facial skin color distribution significantly influences the perception of age and attractiveness of female faces, independent of skin surface topography cues (4). However, commonly, the image and colorimetric age-related changes have been analyzed using only first-and second-order statistics, that is, the average and the variance of the colorimetric parameters (5)(6)(7)(8)(9). Indeed, the evaluation of the pattern or distribution of color in the skin is limited to the output of common colorimetric instruments that indicate only an average of the values in the test area (7). ...
Recent research on the age-dependent changes of facial skin has analyzed their correlation with changes in image and colorimetric properties using mainly first- and second-order statistics. The aim of this study is to reveal the importance of third-order statistics and relate those image properties to skin age perception.
Photographs of the faces of 118 Japanese women ranging in age from 13 to 80 years were taken in a controlled environment. Subsequently, 10 Japanese subjects rated the age perception of skin patches from the cheek area of the original facial images.
The age estimation of the skin patches was highly correlated with its chronological age proving that our skin patches contain enough information for age estimation. Also, the perceived age was significantly high correlated to color and lightness statistical values. Specifically, age perception was significantly high correlated with third-order statistics of all channels in CIELAB1976.
Our results reveal the importance of higher order statistics for the development of nonintrusive skin quality assessments of the skin.
Objective:
Skin brightness and spot have a significant impact on youthful and beautiful appearance. One important factor influencing skin brightness is the amount of internal reflected light from the skin. Observers recognize the total surface-reflected light and internal reflected light as skin brightness. The more internal reflected light from the skin, the more attractive and brighter the skin appears. This study aims to identify a new natural cosmetic ingredient that increases the skin's internal reflected light, decreases spot, and provides a youthful and beautiful skin appearance.
Methods:
Lipofuscin in epidermal keratinocytes, the aggregating complex of denatured proteins and peroxidized lipids, is one factor that decreases skin brightness and causes of spot. Aggregates block light transmission, and peroxidized lipids lead to skin yellowness, dullness, and age spot. Lipofuscin is known to accumulate intracellularly with aging. Rapid removal of intracellular denatured proteins prevents lipofuscin formation and accumulation in cells. We focused a proteasome system that efficiently removes intracellular denatured proteins. To identify natural ingredients that increase proteasome activity, we screened 380 extracts derived from natural products. The extract with the desired activity was fractionated and purified to identify active compounds that lead to proteasome activation. Finally, the efficacy of the proteasome-activating extract was evaluated in a human clinical study.
Results:
We discovered that Juniperus communis fruits (Juniper berry) extract (JBE) increases proteasome activity and suppresses lipofuscin accumulation in human epidermal keratinocytes. We found Anthricin and Yatein, which belong to the lignan family, to be major active compounds responsible for the proteasome-activating effect of JBE. In a human clinical study, an emulsion containing 1% JBE was applied to half of the face twice daily for 4 weeks, resulting in increased internal reflected light, brightness improvement (L-value), and reduction in yellowness (b-value) and spot in the cheek area.
Conclusion:
This is the first report demonstrating that JBE containing Anthricin and Yatein decreases lipofuscin accumulation in human epidermal keratinocytes through proteasome activation, increases brightness, and decreases surface spots in human skin. JBE would be an ideal natural cosmetic ingredient for creating a more youthful and beautiful skin appearance with greater brightness and less spot.
Objectives: The purpose of this research was to find out the efficacy of Castanea crenata Inner Shell (CCIS) distilled herbal medicine on the skin by comparing the difference effect between only simple distilled water and the CCIS distilled herbal medicine application after MTS (microneedle therapy system) treatment.Methods: The present author performed once a week and total 4 times of MTS treatment. The treatment time took about 5~10 minutes and the depth of the needle was adjusted according to the participant's skin condition. In the control group, simple distilled water was applied after MTS and in the experimental group, CCIS distilled herbal medicine was applied. One week after each treatment, the change of skin condition was measured. Two weeks after the end of the clinical trial, the skin condition was checked again.Results: In the case of the test group, there was a significant decrease in pore size and there was a significant increase in U-zone oil, skin tone and elasticity. The test group using distilled herbal medicine showed a significant effect on facial skin compared to the control group using only simple distilled water.Conclusion: Distilled herbal medicine showed an effective action on facial skin. In the case of CCIS distilled herbal medicine, it was found to have a significant effect on U-zone oil content, skin tone, pores, and skin elasticity.
In aesthetic dermatology, photographs are valuable tools for patients to help them observe the efficacy of treatments and for medical practitioners to choose the most appropriate treatments. However, to be as close as possible to reality, the quality of the photographs has to be sufficient to ensure adequate sharpness and texture. Selecting the appropriate equipment and controlling settings and lighting are essential conditions to achieve this goal. The process also implies the management and analysis of numerous images whose format and identification are determined for further use, and requires the possibility to compare images easily and/or work on them (cropping/simulations). The objective of this article is to provide guidelines and references of equipment and software to improve the photographical process.
Due to the complex structure and rough surface of human skin, obtaining skin surface reflection is often difficult. To our knowledge, existing methods for measuring skin surface reflection are mostly device dependent. In this paper, we describe an approach that, unlike all previous methods, is able to extract the skin surface reflection component from a single color image without the need for any special device or prior information. First, we introduce a complete model for skin imaging incorporating Lambert-Beer law with the Dichromatic Reflection Mode, followed by extracting a pigment concentration map using the ICA algorithm. Finally we estimate the surface reflectivity in each color channel, and calculate the overall surface reflection component. Experiments are designed to verify the proposed algorithm and show good agreement with the ground truth obtained by special device.
Skin radiance is an important determinant of skin beauty that almost all women desire. However, the optical reflection characteristics that create the perception of skin radiance are not fully established. The skin properties associated with radiance have received little attention. The aim of this study is to examine the optical characteristics of skin radiance and its associations with other skin properties. We established a method for evaluating skin radiance by measuring the intensities of specular and diffuse reflection components and investigated their age dependence. The results indicated high levels of both specular and diffusion reflection in radiant skin. An age-dependent decrease and a slight increase of diffuse and specular reflection, respectively, were found in the group aged 60-79 years. We examined the number of ridges and surface roughness of corneocyte cells. High specular reflectance was associated with low numbers of the ridges and surface roughness values of corneocyte cells. Because well-conditioned skin shows high numbers of ridges, smoothing the corneocyte cell surface effectively enhances the specular skin reflection value.
The marine environment represents an underexploited resource for the discovery of novel products, despite its high level of biological and chemical diversity. With increasing awareness of the harmful effects of chronic ultraviolet exposure, and a universal desire to improve cosmetic appearance, the market for new cosmetic ingredients is growing, and current trends have generated a greater demand for products sourced from the environment. A growing number of novel molecules from marine flora and fauna exhibit potent and effective dermatological activities. Secondary metabolites isolated from macroalgae, including carotenoids and polyphenols, have demonstrated antioxidant, antiaging and anti-inflammatory activities. In addition, marine extremophilic bacteria have recently been shown to produce bioactive exopolymeric molecules, some of which have been commercialised. Available data on their activities show significant antioxidant, moisturising and antiaging activities, but a more focussed investigation into their mechanisms and applications is required. This review surveys the reported biological activities of an emerging and growing portfolio of marine molecules that show promise in the treatment of cosmetic skin problems including ultraviolet damage, aging and cutaneous dryness.
In aesthetic dermatology, photographs are valuable tools for patients to help them observe the efficacy of treatments and for medical practitioners to choose the most appropriate treatments. However, to be as close as possible to reality, the quality of the photographs has to be sufficient to ensure adequate sharpness and texture. Selecting the appropriate equipment and controlling settings and lighting are essential conditions to achieve this goal. The process also implies the management and analysis of numerous images whose format and identification are determined for further use, and requires the possibility to compare images easily and/or work on them (cropping/simulations). The objective of this article is to provide guidelines and references of equipment and software to improve the photographical process.
Skin radiance is a complex parameter that involves the quantity of light reflected from the skin (physical definition), but also it a psychological part and physicals items like skin color and skin relief. These different parameters can be evaluated by clinical scoring and various devices that are presented in this chapter.
In this study, the radiance contribution from formulating various pearlescent effect pigments into a skin cream was modeled using gloss map histograms created from digital photographs of clinical panelists. CIELab color data from the various pearlescent effect pigments applied to simulated skin tone drawdown cards was first collected to screen experimental candidates and to help select the concentration of pigment used in the formula. Optical microscopy was used to develop a simple coverage model to control for the differences in particle size and density of the effect pigments. In the subsequent in vivo study, panelists applied a weighed amount of cream containing various pearlescent effect pigments to the face and high-resolution digital photography images were collected on each panelist for image analysis. Gloss map histograms were developed through the software analysis of gray-scale images, which were used to describe the gloss, whiteness, and/or radiance contribution of each pearlescent effect pigment. The resulting gloss map histograms shared identifiable characteristics useful for statistical analysis and description. This methodology could serve as a novel way to investigate and describe the visual impact and benefit of formulating effect pigments in cosmetic creams intended for application on the skin.
Body fluid has been studied for diverse fields like Ringer`s solutions, artificial joint fluids, cell growth culture media because it plays a crucial role in controlling body temperature and acts as a solvent for diverse metabolite processes in the body and delivery media of mineral, energy source, hormone, signal and drug from and to cell via blood or lymphatic vessel by osmotic pressure or active uptake. Stratum corneum containing extracellular lipids and NMF (natural moisturizing factor) absorbs atmospheric water residing outside of cells and utilize it to hydrate inside of their own. This process is related to skin barrier function. In this study, we conducted the cell viability test with Cell Bio Fluid Sync^{TM}, which mimicks body fluids including amino acids, peptides, and monosaccharides to strengthen skin barrier, and the clinical skin improvement test with cosmetics containing Cell Bio Fluid Sync^{TM}. In the cell viability test, HaCaT cell was treated with PBS for 3 hours, followed by the treatment of a cell culture medium (DMEM) and isotonic solution (PBS) and Cell Bio Fluid Sync^{TM} for 3 hours each. Then, MTT assay and image analysis were conducted. In the clinical skin improvement test, twenty-one healthy women participated. Participants applied cosmetics containing Cell Bio Fluid Sync^{TM} on their face for a week and evaluated the skin hydration, skin roughness, brightness and evenness. All measurements were conducted after they washed off their face and took a rest under the constant temperature (22?2^{\circ}C) and constant humidity conditions (50?5%) for 20 minutes. All the data were analyzed by SPSS (version 21) software program. Results showed that Cell Bio Fluid Sync^{TM} improved both the cell viability and in vivo skin conditions such as skin hydration, roughness, brightness and evenness.
Background/aimsThe age-dependent changes in the optical reflection characteristics have been studied about skin hydration, melanin index, or skin color. However, the age-dependent changes in the optical reflection have little attention on inner skin structures. To control the factors affecting the optical reflection except for dermal matrix, subjects were selected as our guideline and we evaluated the optical reflection of subsurface on skin layers of two age groups. Method
Young and old healthy volunteers were recruited after signing a written informed consent form. Facial skin was measured by means of noninvasive measurements: skin hydration, color, epidermis and dermis thickness, dermal density, subsurface reflectance, and transmittance. ResultCompared to young group, old group showed that dermal density and thickness was decreased significantly although epidermis thickness was not changed. Conclusion
In conclusion, dermal density is one of the major factors which affects the subsurface reflectance in skin.
Objective:
There is an increasing demand for scientifically documented over-the-counter products on the cosmetic market. Salmon eggs are rich in proteins, vitamins and minerals with anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties, as well as free amino acids and lipids documented to be beneficial for skin. Of the fatty acids, several are commonly used as skin penetration enhancers. The unique combination of active substances led us to study whether an extract from salmon eggs could serve as an ingredient for skin care.
Methods:
We conducted a double-blinded, randomized clinical trial with 66 healthy female volunteers. Efficacy of the salmon egg extract was evaluated at concentrations of 1% and 5% in vehicle formulation, and responses after 7, 14, 28 and 56 days of treatment were compared with baseline. Composition of the extract was analysed to improve the understanding of the effects of the extract on skin. The salmon egg extract was safety-tested by repeat insult patch test.
Results:
Treatment of facial skin with the salmon egg extract significantly improved all parameters investigated, wrinkles, pigmentation, redness, brightness and hydration and led to global improvement of the facial skin. Efficacy of the extract was dose dependent and time dependent. There were no adverse reactions noted during the course of the repeat insult patch test, demonstrating that the extract causes neither skin irritation nor sensitization. Furthermore, chemical analyses of the extract revealed the composition of a vast number of active substances, including unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, proteins, minerals, DNA and RNA.
Conclusion:
The salmon egg extract serves as a skin care ingredient that significantly improves characteristics important for perception of skin ageing and health. The efficacy of the treatment is conceivably accounted for by the unique combination of numerous active substances present in the salmon egg extract.
Background/purposeThis multicenter study assessed the impact of two types of extreme seasons (i.e. summer and winter) on the facial skin of female subjects living in different regions of Asia. Methods
Facial skin of female subjects of various Asian ethnicities was characterized during summer and winter using dermatological assessments of the cheek and instrumental evaluations of the forehead and cheek. Approximately, 100 female subjects each from five cities in Asia (Harbin and Shanghai in China; New Delhi, India; Seoul, South Korea; and Sendai, Japan) ranging in age from 14 to 75years were included in this study. ResultsDermatologist assessments revealed a general decrease in severity of roughness, wrinkles, pigmentation, and lentigines during winter compared with summer. Instrumental assessments revealed significant differences in various parameters in winter vs. summer such as reductions in melanin index and skin surface hydration, and increases in transepidermal water loss, skin pH, redness, and sebum production. Conclusion
Facial skin in female subjects living in different Asian cities exhibited a wide range of changes and worsening of various biophysical parameters in response to the low temperature and humidity during the winter season as compared with summer.
Humans perceive the properties of a surface by interpreting visual
input. When estimating gloss and lightness, it seems that neural
discrimination of simple image statistics plays a large part.
The world is full of surfaces, and by looking at them we can judge their material qualities. Properties such as colour or glossiness can help us decide whether a pancake is cooked, or a patch of pavement is icy. Most studies of surface appearance have emphasized textureless matte surfaces, but real-world surfaces, which may have gloss and complex mesostructure, are now receiving increased attention. Their appearance results from a complex interplay of illumination, reflectance and surface geometry, which are difficult to tease apart given an image. If there were simple image statistics that were diagnostic of surface properties it would be sensible to use them. Here we show that the skewness of the luminance histogram and the skewness of sub-band filter outputs are correlated with surface gloss and inversely correlated with surface albedo (diffuse reflectance). We find evidence that human observers use skewness, or a similar measure of histogram asymmetry, in making judgements about surfaces. When the image of a surface has positively skewed statistics, it tends to appear darker and glossier than a similar surface with lower skewness, and this is true whether the skewness is inherent to the original image or is introduced by digital manipulation. We also find a visual after-effect based on skewness: adaptation to patterns with skewed statistics can alter the apparent lightness and glossiness of surfaces that are subsequently viewed. We suggest that there are neural mechanisms sensitive to skewed statistics, and that their outputs can be used in estimating surface properties.
Two types of portable reflectance instruments, tristimulus colorimeters (Chroma Meter CR-200®) and narrow-band spectro-photometers (Dermaspectrometer®), have recently become available for the quantification of skin color. In order to know the difference and the relationship between the different color systems, the CIE L*a*b* system and the erythema melanin (E/M) indices, respectively, adopted by the two, the variations in skin color were measured at 23 different anatomical sites of 10 healthy Caucasian male subjects. The reddish tint of the skin color of the face, palm and sole was readily detected by either of them in the increase in the a* value or in the E index, and a strong linear correlation (r = 0.92, p < 0.001) was noted between the two values. The fair color appearance of the trunk was detected in the high L* value and in the low M index, but the correlation between the two was much less significant (r = -0.56, p < 0.001). Although the mean b* values were highest in the trunk, they are significantly lower on the non-light-exposed side than those on the light-exposed side of the arm. The correlation between the b* value and the M index was weak.
The translucency of skin has long been identified as an important cue for healthy and youthful looking skin. There is currently no universal definition for skin translucency let alone a measurement method. We propose that skin translucency is the light scattering beneath skin surface. We demonstrate the use of polarization gated point spreading imaging for non-invasive, in vivo measurement of the translucency and the reduced scattering coefficient m's of skin.
We developed a polarization-gated point-spread imaging system to measure the spread of the incident pencil-thin laser beam on the skin. Skin translucency was calculated as the spread of the laser beam. From the measurement of the shift of the light diffuse center from the light injection point, the reduced scattering coefficient m's of the skin was calculated. We validated the measurement technique with milk as an in vitro model for skin.
The measured m's of milk solution was found to be linearly proportional to the milk concentration, in agreement with Beer's law. The calculated translucency decreased as the milk concentration increased or as the reduced scattering coefficient m's increased. It was also found that the translucency decreased as the absorption coefficient of the milk solution increased. The measured translucency of a set of custom made clay tiles correlated well with the consumer perception of the incremental ranking of the translucency. In vivo measurement of skin translucency and the reduced scattering coefficient m's were carried out on several volunteers. The measured reduced scattering coefficient m's was in agreement with those in the literature. The measured skin translucency for different skin ethnicities of Caucasian, North Asian, South Asian and African American were in line with the expectation that skin translucency decreases as the skin color gets darker.
There are few available methods that can be used to quantify hyperpigmented spots on a wide area of the face. The objective of this study was to develop such a method through the use of specialized image analysis technologies.
This imaging system was composed of a source of illumination whose light intensity was controlled with a dimmer, a 3-CCD video camera connected to a computer, and a positioning device used to correctly align the subject's face. This system was calibrated by adjusting the light intensity, the camera position, and white balance of the camera in order to acquire reproducible images. Using a specific algorithm for the image analysis, this system enabled us to measure both the total area of hyperpigmented spots (mm2) and the averaged skin colour tone (quasi L*a*b*) excluding the area of those hyperpigmented spots in a wide area of the face. The accuracy and reproducibility of the system was validated using a mannequin head with six standard colour chips obtained from the GretagMacbeth ColorChecker, and brown-coloured patches that simulated hyperpigmented spots whose colour and area were both known. The correlation between CIE L*a*b* and quasi L*a*b* values was examined by conducting simultaneous measurements of the facial skin colour of 187 subjects with a tristimulus colourimeter (Minolta Chromameter) and our imaging system.
The measurement errors in quasi L*a*b* values of colour chips and the area of brown patches were less than 2 and 5%, respectively, unless these chips or patches were located in the peripheral zone of the mannequin head. The variation in quasi L*a*b* values and the area of hyperpigmented spots (mm2) in five repeated measurements performed once every hour was less than 2%. There was an excellent correlation between the CIE L*a*b* and quasi L*a*b* values, and the Pearson's correlation coefficient between CIE L* and quasi L* value, for instance, was 0.908.
: As long as the region to be evaluated is limited to the cheek and periorbital areas, this system enables automatic detection of hyperpigmented spots in a wide area of the face, as well as the correct measurement of those areas and determination of skin colours.
The aim of this study was to develop a new technique enabling visual evaluation in vivo of 'complexion radiance' based on sensory analysis, and to apply this methodology to a practical case.
This evaluation, conducted by trained assessors, was based on a visual analysis in vivo of the following seven descriptors, clearly defined by consensus: a red-pink, olive, beige, and light-pink skin coloring (C), as well as the luminosity (L), brightness (B), and transparency (T) of each subject's facial skin. The scoring of perceived skin descriptor intensity was made possible with the help of structured and analogical scales. Once the assessors were considered to be accurate and repeatable, a method was designed to evaluate a cosmetic product's effect on complexion radiance. The study was conducted on 20 healthy female subjects, between 20 and 35 years of age, who met the 'dull complexion' criteria. Product 'A' (Oligo 25, Laboratoires Vichy, Asnieres, France), formulated to improve 'complexion radiance,' was applied by each subject for 28 days, once a day in the morning, in a homogeneous fashion over the entire face, using a standard quantity and a specific way of massaging the product in. The clinical parameters were evaluated at T0, T+1 h, and at T+28 days. This test was a non-comparative open study and each subject served as her own reference.
One hour after its application, product A produced an immediate significant effect by decreasing the complexion's 'olive' skin cast and improving its 'light-pink' coloring, its 'luminosity,' and 'brightness.' The data concerning the long-term effect of product A following 28 days of application showed that there was significant improvement in these first four descriptors, while the 'beige' skin coloring was ultimately diminished in addition.
This in vivo C.L.B.T. trade mark sensory methodology is a technique enabling the visual evaluation of a product's multi-factorial claim that it improves 'the complexion's radiance.' It made it possible to show, in a reliable and repeatable fashion, the efficacy of a cosmetic product in improving the 'radiance of the complexion' of members of a test panel. This methodology also substantiated the immediate and long-term effects produced by product A, which made the skin pinker and less sallow, more luminous, more uniform (skin coloring), more regular (skin texture), and then lighter. To conclude, five descriptors out of the seven determining complexion radiance were improved.
The aim of this study was to validate an optic device used to measure the quantity of light reflected by the skin, which depends on the brightness of the skin.
This apparatus gives three parameters, called Complexion/diffusion (Cd), Cr (Complexion/reflection) and Complexion/specular position (Csp). Measurements were carried out on the forehead (slightly rounded surface) and the cheekbone (angular surface). To estimate the repeatability and the reproducibility of each parameter, two female subjects (one with a dull complexion and the other with a glowing complexion) and three operators participated in the study. To investigate repeatability, each operator performed 10 consecutive measurements on both zones. To investigate inter-investigator reproducibility, the operators performed the measurements alternately. To investigate day-to-day reproducibility, these measures were achieved during three visits at a 2-day interval, at D1, D3 and D5. To estimate the sensitivity and the specificity, 30 females participated in the study (15 in the dull complexion group and 15 in the glowing complexion group).
Cd was repeatable (variation coefficient <20%), day-to-day reproducible on both sites (generally P>0.05) but not inter-investigators reproducible (generally P<0.05). The sensitivity was 93% on the forehead and 80% on the cheekbone; the specificity was 87% on the forehead and 60% on the cheekbone. Cr was repeatable (variation coefficient <5%), day-to-day reproducible (P>0.05) and not inter-investigators reproducible (generally P<0.05). The sensitivity was 93% on the forehead and 80% on the cheekbone; the specificity was 87% on the forehead and 80% on the cheekbone. Csp was not repeatable (variation coefficient >5%) on both the studied zones and for the three investigators.
The repeatability and the day-to-day reproducibility were satisfying for the Cd and Cr parameters on both the studied sites. The sensitivity and the specificity were satisfying for both parameters on both sites, except for the specificity of the Cd parameter on the cheekbone. Therefore, this apparatus is suitable to follow-up an evolution on both the studied sites, but we recommend: (a) that the same trained investigator always performs the measurements, (b) to privilege the forehead in particular for a classification (dull or glowing).
A gloss on surface properties
- Landy
In vivo quantitative evaluation of gloss
- Clemenceau P