Content uploaded by Debbie Rankin
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Debbie Rankin on Aug 20, 2014
Content may be subject to copyright.
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids augment the muscle
protein anabolic response to hyperaminoacidemia-
hyperinsulinemia in healthy young and middle aged men and
women
Gordon I. Smith1, Philip Atherton2, Dominic N. Reeds1, B. Selma Mohammed1, Debbie
Rankin2, Michael J. Rennie2, and Bettina Mittendorfer1
1Washington University, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
2University of Nottingham, School of Graduate Entry Medicine and Health, Derby, DE22 3DT, UK
Abstract
Increased dietary long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (LCn-3PUFA) intake stimulates
muscle protein anabolism in individuals who experience muscle loss due to aging or cancer
cachexia. However, it is not known whether LCn-3PUFA elicit similar anabolic effects in healthy
individuals. To answer this question we evaluated the effect of 8 weeks of LCn-3PUFA
supplementation (4 g·d−1 of Lovaza®) in nine 25–45 y old healthy subjects on the rate of muscle
protein synthesis (by using stable isotope labelled tracer techniques) and the activation
(phosphorylation) of elements of the mTOR-p70s6k pathway during basal, postabsorptive
conditions and during a hyperinsulinemic-hyperaminoacidemic clamp. We also measured the
concentrations of protein, RNA, and DNA in muscle to obtain indices of the protein synthetic
capacity, translational efficiency and cell size. Neither the basal muscle protein fractional
synthesis rate nor basal signalling element phosphorylation changed in response to LCn-3PUFA
supplementation but the anabolic response to insulin and amino acid infusion was greater after
LCn-3PUFA (i.e., the muscle protein fractional synthesis rate during insulin and amino acid
infusion increased from 0.062 ± 0.004 to 0.083 ± 0.007 %·h−1 and the phospho mTORSer2448 and
p70s6kThr389 concentrations increased by ~50%; all P < 0.05). In addition, the muscle protein
concentration and the protein-to-DNA ratio (i.e., muscle cell size) were both greater (P < 0.05)
after LCn-3PUFA supplementation. We conclude that LCn-3PUFA have anabolic properties in
healthy young and middle aged adults.
Keywords
n-3 PUFA; fish oil; muscle protein synthesis
Corresponding author: Bettina Mittendorfer, PhD, Division of Geriatrics and Nutritional Science, Washington University School of
Medicine, 660 South Euclid Avenue; Campus Box 8031, Saint Louis, MO 63110, Phone: (314) 362 8450, Fax: (314) 362 8230,
mittendb@wustl.edu.
Author contributions
GIS was involved in conducting the study, processing the study samples, collecting data, performing the final data analyses, and
writing the manuscript. PA and MJR were involved in processing the study samples, collecting data, and writing the manuscript. DNR
and BSM were involved in conducting the study. DR was involved in sample processing and sample analyses. BM was involved in
designing and conducting the study, processing the study samples, collecting data, performing the final data analyses, and writing the
manuscript.
NIH Public Access
Author Manuscript
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
Published in final edited form as:
Clin Sci (Lond)
. 2011 September ; 121(6): 267–278. doi:10.1042/CS20100597.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
Introduction
Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCn-3PUFA) are essential nutrients with many
potential health benefits. The general consensus appears to be that LCn-3PUFA, particularly
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; C20:5 n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; C22:6 n-3), have
anti-inflammatory properties [1] and reduce the risk for cardiovascular disease [1].
Furthermore, there is good evidence from studies in animals that LCn-3PUFA improve the
sensitivity of whole body and muscle glucose metabolism to insulin [2–5]; although the
results from studies in human subjects are equivocal (reviewed by Fedor and Kelley [6]).
There is also emerging evidence for a muscle anabolic effect of LCn-3PUFA. For example,
low-dose LCn-3PUFA supplementation (i.e., 1 – 2% of total daily energy intake - as in our
study), alone or in combination with amino acid supplementation, has been reported to help
maintain whole-body protein synthesis, whole-body protein net balance, and muscle mass in
burned rats and tumour-bearing mice [7, 8]. Furthermore, we have recently demonstrated
that LCn-3PUFA supplementation (4 g·d−1 of Lovaza®) in older adults (≥65 y) significantly
increased the rate of muscle protein synthesis during hyperinsulinemia-hyperaminoacidemia,
most likely because of greater activation of the mTOR-p70s6k signalling pathway [9], and
Ryan et al. [10] reported that increased LCn-3PUFA intake blunted the loss of total body
and limb fat-free masses in patients with resectable, non-metastatic oesophageal cancer
undergoing oesophageal cancer surgery. The exact mechanisms responsible for the
beneficial effect of LCn-3PUFA on muscle protein metabolism are unknown but one might
speculate that they are related to the anti-inflammatory properties of LCn-3PUFA [1]
because burn injury, cancer and aging are all associated with increased inflammatory
activity [11–14], which is known to induce muscle loss [15, 16]. On the other hand, it is
possible that LCn-3PUFA have intrinsic muscle protein anabolic properties, in which case
they should also stimulate muscle protein synthesis in healthy, young subjects. In fact, feed
enriched in menhaden oil, a fish oil rich in EPA and DHA, doubled the insulin-stimulated
non-oxidative whole-body disposal of amino acids (a marker of increased whole-body
protein synthesis) and increased the activation of the mTOR-p70s6k signalling pathway in
muscle of young and still growing steers [5] suggesting this may be the case. The effect of
LCn-3PUFA intake on muscle protein metabolism in healthy young adults, however, has not
been studied to date.
The purpose of the present study therefore was to determine the effect of LCn-3PUFA
supplementation for 8 weeks on indices of muscle protein anabolism in human muscle in
young/middle aged adults. To this end, we measured the fractional rate of muscle protein
synthesis (by using stable isotope labelled tracer techniques) during basal, post-absorptive
conditions and during hyperinsulinemia-hyperaminoacidemia (within the range normally
seen after meal consumption [17, 18]), the concentrations of protein, RNA, and DNA in
muscle (to obtain indices of the protein synthetic capacity, translational efficiency [19, 20]
and cell size [21]), and the activation (as phosphorylation) of elements of intracellular
signalling pathways involved in the regulation of muscle protein synthesis (Akt; mTOR;
p70s6k; eEF2) [22, 23] in healthy men and women. We also measured markers of
inflammation in plasma (C-reactive protein [CRP], interleukin 6 [IL-6], tumour necrosis
factor alpha [TNF-α]) and the rate of appearance of glucose into plasma (an index of
endogenous glucose production) and the rate of whole-body glucose uptake (glucose rate of
disappearance) to gauge the relationship between the effect of LCn-3PUFA on glucose and
muscle protein metabolism.
Smith et al. Page 2
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
Methods
Subjects
Nine healthy individuals (5 men and 4 women; age: 39.7 ± 1.7 y; BMI 25.9 ± 1.0 kg/m2;
body fat determined by dual X-ray absorptiometry: 25 ± 3 %; means ± SEM) participated in
this study. All subjects were considered to be in good health after completing a
comprehensive medical evaluation, which included a history and physical examination and
standard blood tests. None of the subjects engaged in regular physical activities (i.e., they
exercised ≤1.5 h·wk−1), consumed fish oil supplements, or took any medications; none
reported excessive alcohol intake or consumed tobacco products. Written, informed consent
was obtained from all subjects before their participation in the study, which was approved
by the Human Subjects Research Protection Office and the Clinical Research Unit Advisory
Committee at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, MO.
Experimental protocol
Each subject completed two stable isotope labelled tracer infusion studies to determine the
effect of LCn-3PUFA supplementation on the rate of muscle protein synthesis and anabolic
signalling during basal, postabsorptive conditions and during insulin and amino acid
infusion. The first study was performed within 1–3 weeks of screening (before the
intervention); the second one took place after 8 weeks of dietary supplementation with 4
g·d−1 of Lovaza® (GlaxoSmithKline, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA)
containing 1.86 and 1.50 g·d−1, respectively of the ethylesters of eicosapentaenoic acid
[EPA; 20:5n-3] and docosahexaenoic acid [DHA; 22:6n-3]). Compliance was evaluated by
pill count and changes in the muscle phospholipid fatty acid composition. We gave each
subject an excess number of pills and asked them to return any remaining pills at the end of
the study.
Before each muscle protein metabolism study, subjects were instructed to adhere to their
usual diet and to refrain from vigorous physical activities for three days. The evening before
the study, subjects were admitted to the Clinical Research Unit at Washington University
School of Medicine. At 2000 h, they consumed a standard meal providing 50.2 kJ per kg
body weight (15% as protein, 55% as carbohydrates and 30% as fat). Subjects then rested in
bed and fasted (except for water) until completion of the study the next day. At ~0600 h on
the following morning, a cannula was inserted into an antecubital vein for the infusion of
stable isotope labelled tracers (i.e., a phenylalanine tracer to measure the rate of muscle
protein synthesis and a glucose tracer to measure the glucose rate of appearance in the
systemic circulation); another cannula was inserted into a vein of the contralateral hand,
which was warmed to 55 oC for blood sampling. At ~0800 h, primed, constant infusions of
[ring-2H5]phenylalanine (priming dose: 2.8 μmol·kg fat-free mass [FFM]−1, infusion rate:
0.08 μmol·kg FFM−1·min−1) and [6,6-2H2]glucose (priming dose: 18 μmol·kg body wt−1,
infusion rate: 0.22 μmol·kg body wt−1·min−1), all purchased from Cambridge Isotope
Laboratories Inc. (Andover, MA, USA), were started and maintained for seven hours. Four
hours after the start of the tracer infusions, a hyperinsulinemic-hyperaminoacidemic clamp
was started and maintained for three hours. Human insulin (Novolin R, Novo Nordisk,
Princeton, NJ) was infused at a rate of 20 mU·m−2 body surface area (BSA)·min−1 (initiated
with two priming doses of 80 mU·m−2 BSA·min−1 for 5 minutes and then 40 mU·m−2
BSA·min−1 for additional 5 minutes). Plasma amino acid availability was increased by
providing an intravenous amino acid mixture (Travasol 10%, Baxter, Deerfield, IL, USA) at
a rate of 105 mg amino acids·kg FFM−1·h−1 (priming dose: 35 mg amino acids·kg FFM−1).
Euglycemia (blood glucose concentration of ~5.5 mM) was maintained during the clamp
procedure by variable rate infusion of 20% dextrose (Baxter, Deerfield, IL, USA) enriched
to 2.5% with [6,6-2H2]glucose. To adjust for the increased plasma amino acid availability
Smith et al. Page 3
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
and reduced hepatic glucose production during the clamp procedure, the
[ring-2H5]phenylalanine infusion rate was increased to 0.12 μmol·kg FFM−1·min−1 and the
[6,6-2H2]glucose infusion rate was decreased to 0.11 μmol·kg body wt−1·min−1.
Blood samples (4 ml) were obtained before beginning the tracer infusions and then at 60, 90,
180, 210, 220, 230, 240, 270, 300, 330, 360, 390, 400, 410, and 420 min to determine the
labelling of phenylalanine and glucose in plasma and plasma substrate, hormone and
cytokine concentrations. Additional blood (~1 ml) was obtained every 10 minutes during the
clamp to monitor plasma glucose concentration. Muscle tissue (~100 mg) was obtained
under local anaesthesia (lidocaine, 2%) from the quadriceps femoris by using a Tilley-
Henkel forceps [24] at 60 min and 240 min to determine the basal rate of muscle protein
synthesis (labelled phenylalanine incorporation into muscle protein; see
Calculations
) and
the basal concentrations of phosphorylated elements of intramuscular signal transduction
proteins (Akt; mTOR; p70s6k; and eEF2) involved in the regulation of muscle protein
synthesis. A third muscle biopsy was obtained at 420 min (i.e., 3 h after starting the clamp
procedure) to determine both the rate of muscle protein synthesis and the intracellular
signalling responses to hyperinsulinemia-hyperaminoacidemia. The second and third
biopsies were obtained from the same incision on the leg contralateral to that biopsied first;
the forceps was directed in proximal and distal direction so that the two biopsies were
collected ~5–10 cm apart.
Sample processing and analyses
One millilitre of blood was collected in pre-chilled tubes containing heparin, plasma was
separated immediately by centrifugation and glucose concentration measured immediately.
The remaining blood (~3 ml) was collected in pre-chilled tubes containing EDTA, plasma
was separated by centrifugation within 30 min of collection and then stored at −80 °C until
final analyses. Muscle samples were rinsed in ice-cold saline immediately after collection,
cleared of visible fat and connective tissue, frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at −80 °C
until final analysis.
Plasma glucose concentration was measured on an automated glucose analyzer (Yellow
Spring Instruments, Yellow Springs, OH). Plasma insulin concentration was determined by
radioimmunoassay (Linco Research, St. Louis, MO). Commercially available ELISA kits
(R&D Systems Inc, Minneapolis, MN) were used to determine plasma concentrations of
CRP, TNF-α and IL-6.
Muscle phospholipid fatty acid composition was determined after extracting lipids from ~30
mg of muscle tissue with 2 ml chloroform/methanol (2:1, v/v) containing 0.01% butylated
hydroxytoluene. Phospholipids were then isolated by using thin layer chromatography
(Whatman TLC LK 6D, Fischer Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA), fatty acids were converted to
their methyl esters by reacting with 10% acetyl chloride in methanol and their peak areas
measured by using GC-MS (MSD 5973 System, Hewlett-Packard).
To determine the labelling of plasma glucose, plasma proteins were precipitatedwith ice-
cold acetone, and hexane was used to extract plasma lipids. The aqueous phase, containing
glucose, was driedby speed-vac centrifugation (Savant Instruments, Farmingdale, NY),
glucose was derivatised with heptafluorobutyric acid and the tracer-to-tracee ratio (TTR)
was determined by using gas-chromatography/mass-spectrometry (GC-MS, Hewlett-
Packard MSD 5973 system with capillary column) as previously described [25].
To determine the plasma concentrations of phenylalanine and leucine (thought to be a major
regulator of muscle protein synthesis [26]) and the labelling of phenylalanine in plasma,
known amounts of [1-13C]phenylalanine and nor-leucine were added to an aliquot of each
Smith et al. Page 4
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
plasma sample, plasma proteins were precipitated, and the supernatant, containing free
amino acids, was collected to prepare the
t
-butyldimethylsilyl (
t
-BDMS) derivatives of
phenylalanine and leucine to determine their TTRs by GC-MS (MSD 5973 System, Hewlett-
Packard) [27, 28]. To determine phenylalanine labelling in muscle proteins and in tissue
fluid, samples (~20 mg) were homogenised in 1 ml trichloroacetic acid solution (3 % w/v),
proteins precipitated by centrifugation, and the supernatant, containing free amino acids,
collected. The pellet containing muscle proteins was washed and then hydrolysed in 6 N
HCl at 110 °C for 24 h. Amino acids in the protein hydrolysate and supernatant samples
were purified on cation-exchange columns (Dowex 50W-X8–200, Bio-Rad Laboratories,
Richmond, CA), and the t-BDMS derivative of phenylalanine prepared to determine its TTR
by GC-MS (MSD 5973 System, Hewlett-Packard) analysis [27, 28]. The extent of
phenylalanine labelling in plasma, muscle tissue fluid, and muscle protein was calculated
based on the simultaneously measured TTR of standards of known isotope labelling.
Western analysis was used to measure the phosphorylation of Akt, mTOR, p70s6k, and
eEF2. Briefly, frozen muscle tissue (~20 mg) was rapidly homogenised in ice-cold buffer
(50 mM Tris-HCL pH 7.5, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM EGTA, 10 mM glycerophosphate, 50 mM
NaF, 0.1 % Triton-X, 0.1 % 2-mercaptoethanol, 1 protease and 1 phosphatase inhibitor
tablet [Roche Diagnostics Ltd, Burgess Hill, UK]) at 10 μl·mg−1 tissue. Proteins were
extracted by shaking for 15 min at 4°C and samples were then centrifuged at 13000 ×
g
for
10 min at 4 oC and the supernatant, containing the proteins, was collected. The protein
concentration in the supernatant was determined by the Bradford method with a commercial
reagent (B6916, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) and adjusted to 3 mg·ml−1 in 3 × Laemmli
buffer. Fifty micrograms of protein from each sample were loaded onto 12 % XT-Bis Tris
gels, separated by SDS PAGE, and transferred on ice at 100 V for 45 min to methanol pre-
wetted 0.2 μm PVDF membranes. Blots were then incubated sequentially with 5% (w/v)
non-fat milk for 1 h, primary antibodies overnight at 4 °C, and then secondary antibody
(1:2000 anti-rabbit; New England Biolabs, Ipswich, MA) for 1 h. The following primary
antibodies were used at a concentration of 1:2000: AktThr308, mTORSer2448, p70s6kThr389,
and eEF2Thr56 with pan-actin (as a loading control), all purchased from New England
Biolabs. Membranes were developed using Immobilon Western Chemiluminescent HRP
substrate (Millipore, Billerica, MA) and the protein bands were visualized and quantified by
densitometry on a Chemidoc XRS (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc. Hercules, CA) ensuring no
pixel saturation. Data were expressed in relation to GAPDH.
To determine the muscle protein concentration (per mg of wet weight), the protein-to-DNA
ratio (an estimate of cell size), the RNA-to-protein ratio (an index of the ribosomal capacity
for protein synthesis) and the RNA-to-DNA ratio (the cell capacity for protein synthesis) in
muscle, tissue (~15 mg) was snipped before homogenisation in 0.2 M PCA. After
centrifugation at 2,800
g
, and washing with 0.2 M PCA, the pellet was resuspended in 0.3 M
NaOH to quantify alkali soluble proteins using the Bradford assay and spectrophotometry.
Next, proteins were precipitated out with 1M PCA before centrifugation and removal of the
supernatant for RNA quantification by spectrophotometry. The remaining pellet was
resuspended in 2 M PCA and incubated at 70 °C for 1 h before centrifugation and removal
of the supernatant for DNA quantification by spectrophotometry.
Calculations
The fractional synthesis rate (FSR) of mixed muscle protein was calculated from the rate of
incorporation of [ring-2H5]phenylalanine into muscle protein, using a standard precursor-
product model as follows: FSR = ΔEp/Eic × 1/
t
× 100; where ΔEp is the change between
two consecutive biopsies in extent of labelling (TTR) of protein-bound phenylalanine. Eic is
the mean labelling over time of the precursor for protein synthesis and
t
is the time between
biopsies. The free phenylalanine labelling in muscle tissue fluid was chosen to represent the
Smith et al. Page 5
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
immediate precursor for muscle protein synthesis (i.e., aminoacyl-
t
-RNA) [29]. In addition,
we calculated the muscle protein FSR by using the average plasma phenylalanine
enrichments between 60 min and 240 min (basal) and between 270 min and 420 min
(clamp).
The translation efficiency (mg protein produced per μg RNA per hour) was calculated by
dividing the product of the muscle protein FSR (in %·h−1) and the muscle protein
concentration (in mg per g wet tissue) by the muscle total RNA concentration (in μg per g
wet tissue) [19, 20].
Glucose rate of appearance in plasma during basal conditions and the clamp procedure was
calculated by dividing the glucose tracer infusion rate by the average plasma glucose TTR
during the last 30 min of the basal period and the last 30 min of the clamp. Glucose rate of
appearance during basal conditions equals glucose rate of disappearance and represents
endogenous glucose production whereas during the clamp procedure, glucose rate of
appearance represents the sum of endogenous glucose production and the rate of infused
glucose. Endogenous glucose production rate during the clamp was therefore calculated by
subtracting the glucose infusion rate from the glucose rate of appearance; glucose rate of
disappearance was assumed to be equal to the glucose rate of appearance plus the tracer
infusion rate.
Statistical analysis
All data sets were tested for normality and skewed data sets were log-transformed for
statistical analysis. Differences before and after LCn-3PUFA supplementation in single
time-point measurements (e.g., systemic inflammatory markers, muscle phospholipid fatty
acid composition) were evaluated by using Student’s t-test. Repeated measures analysis of
variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s post-hoc procedure was used to evaluate differences before
and after LCn-3PUFA supplementation in plasma glucose, insulin, phenylalanine and
leucine concentrations, mixed muscle protein FSR and muscle intracellular signalling
elements during basal, post-absorptive conditions and during the clamp procedure. A
P
-
value of ≤0.05 was considered statistically significant. Data are presented as means ± SEM
or median with 25th and 75th percentiles in brackets for skewed data sets.
Results
Compliance with LCn-3PUFA supplementation and muscle phospholipid fatty acid
composition
All subjects consumed ≥160 of the 224 pills assigned to them. Average compliance, as
judged by the left-over pill count, was 94 ± 3%. This was confirmed by analysis of the
muscle phospholipid fatty acid profile, which demonstrated a doubling of the proportion of
LCn-3PUFA at the expense of n-6 PUFA and mono-unsaturated fatty acids with no changes
in saturated fatty acid concentrations (Table 1).
Plasma substrate, insulin and cytokine concentrations
Plasma glucose, insulin, phenylalanine and leucine concentrations were not affected by
LCn-3PUFA supplementation, neither during basal, postabsorptive conditions nor during the
hyperinsulinemic-hyperaminoacidemic clamp (Table 2 and Supplement Table 1S). During
the clamp, plasma glucose concentration was successfully maintained at ~5.4 mM and
plasma insulin, phenylalanine and leucine concentrations rose by ~four-fold, 80% and 40%
above basal values, respectively (all P < 0.001) both before and after LCn-3PUFA
supplementation (Table 2).
Smith et al. Page 6
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
As expected, the concentration of inflammatory markers in plasma was low in this healthy
cohort of subjects and there were no differences (all P ≥0.33) before and after LCn-3PUFA
supplementation in the plasma concentrations of CRP (0.61 [0.39, 1.03] vs. 0.73 [0.17, 1.23]
mg·l−1, respectively), TNF-α (0.30 ± 0.02 vs. 0.31 ± 0.02 pg·ml−1, respectively) and IL-6
(1.49 [1.05, 3.25] vs. 1.34 [0.98, 1.47] pg·ml−1, respectively).
Plasma phenylalanine and glucose and muscle free phenylalanine enrichments
Plasma phenylalanine TTR was steady between 60 min and 420 min and plasma glucose
TTR was steady between 210 and 240 min of the basal period and 390 and 420 min during
the hyperinsulinemic-hyperaminoacidemic clamp, both before and after LCn-3PUFA
supplementation (Supplement Table 1S). The muscle free phenylalanine enrichments before
and after LCn-3PUFA supplementation were 0.066 ± 0.004 and 0.062 ± 0.004, respectively
at the end of the basal, postabsorptive period and 0.074 ± 0.003 and 0.072 ± 0.004,
respectively at the end of the hyperinsulinemic-hyperaminoacidemic clamp.
Muscle protein concentration and synthesis
Both, the alkali soluble protein concentration and the protein-to-DNA ratio, a measure of
cell size [21], increased (P ≤0.04) after LCn-3PUFA supplementation (Figure 1). However,
neither the muscle RNA concentration (0.62 ± 0.07 vs. 0.68 ± 0.04 μg RNA·mg muscle wet
weight −1; P = 0.45) nor the RNA-to-protein ratio, an index of the ribosomal capacity for
protein synthesis, (5.8 ± 0.9 vs. 5.3 ± 0.5 μg RNA·mg protein−1; P = 0.65) in muscle were
affected by LCn-3PUFA supplementation. There was a trend for an increase in the RNA-to-
DNA ratio, the cell capacity for protein synthesis (Figure 1), but the difference did not reach
statistical significance (P = 0.13).
The basal muscle protein FSR (calculated by using the muscle free phenylalanine
enrichment as the precursor enrichment) was not different before and after LCn-3PUFA
supplementation, (Figure 2). Insulin and amino acid infusion led to a marked increase in the
muscle protein FSR (P < 0.001) and the anabolic response (i.e., the increase from basal
values) was ~50% greater after LCn-3PUFA supplementation (0.042 ± 0.005 %·h−1 vs.
0.027 ± 0.005 %·h−1; P = 0.01). Consequently, the muscle protein FSR during insulin and
amino acid infusion was significantly greater (P < 0.01) after than before LCn-3PUFA
supplementation (Figure 2). Using the plasma phenylalanine enrichment as the precursor
enrichment in the muscle protein FSR calculation did not affect the results. The basal muscle
protein FSR was not different before and after LCn-3PUFA supplementation (0.022 ± 0.002
%·h−1 vs. 0.025 ± 0.003 %·h−1, respectively; P = 0.18). Insulin and amino acid infusion led
to a marked increase in the muscle protein FSR (P < 0.001) and the anabolic response (i.e.,
the increase from basal values) was ~50% greater after LCn-3PUFA supplementation (0.038
± 0.005 %·h−1 vs. 0.025 ± 0.004 %·h−1; P = 0.04).
LCn-3PUFA supplementation did not affect the translational efficiency during basal
conditions (0.0068 ± 0.0008 vs. 0.0079 ± 0.0009 mg protein·μg RNA−1·h−1 before and after
supplementation, respectively; P = 0.42); however, during insulin-amino acid infusion the
translational efficiency was ~35% greater after than before LCn-3PUFA supplementation
(0.0234 ± 0.0018 vs. 0.0174 ± 0.0012 mg protein·μg RNA−1·h−1, respectively; P < 0.01).
Phosphorylation of anabolic signalling transduction proteins
The concentration of AktThr308 in muscle was greater during insulin-amino acid infusion
than during basal conditions (P = 0.042 for main effect of clamp) and was greater (although
the difference was small) after than before LCn-3PUFA supplementation (P = 0.023). There
was, however, no difference (P = 0.976) before and after LCn-3PUFA supplementation in
the extent of the hyperinsulinemia-hyperaminoacidemia induced increase in AktThr308
Smith et al. Page 7
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
phosphorylation (Figure 3A). The basal concentrations of mTORSer2448 and p70s6kThr389 in
muscle were not different before and after LCn-3PUFA supplementation; ANOVA revealed
a significant stimulatory effect of hyperinsulinemia-hyperaminoacidemia (P < 0.01 for main
effect of clamp) and a significant hyperinsulinemia-hyperaminoacidema x time (pre-post
intervention) interaction (P < 0.05). Tukey’s post-hoc analysis indicated that this was due to
increased mTORSer2448 and p70s6kThr389 activation after LCn-3PUFA supplementation
(Figures 3B and 3C). Neither hyperinsulinemia-hyperaminoacidemia (P = 0.27) nor
LCn-3PUFA supplementation (P = 0.21) had an effect on the concentration of eEF2Thr56 in
muscle (Figure 3D).
Glucose kinetics
LCn-3PUFA supplementation had no effect on whole-body glucose kinetics. Basal glucose
rate of appearance was 9.4 ± 0.3 μmol·kg body weight−1·min−1 before and 9.4 ± 0.3
μmol·kg body weight1·min−1 after LCn-3PUFA supplementation (P = 0.90). During the
clamp, endogenous glucose rate of appearance decreased by ~70% from basal values (P <
0.001) to 2.7 ± 0.4 μmol·kg body weight−1·min−1 before and to 2.6 ± 0.5 μmol·kg body
weight−1·min−1 after LCn-3PUFA supplementation (no difference in the extent of decrease
before and after supplementation, P = 0.74). Glucose rate of disappearance during the clamp
was 25.9 ± 2.3 μmol·kg body weight−1·min−1 before and 27.4 ± 2.8 μmol·kg body
weight−1·min−1 after LCn-3PUFA supplementation (P = 0.46).
Discussion
We provide evidence that LCn-3PUFA supplementation causes a considerable increase in
the muscle protein anabolic response to hyperinsulinemia-hyperaminoacidemia in healthy
young and middle-aged adults. These data compliment and extend the results we recently
obtained in older adults [9] and demonstrate that LCn-3PUFA supplementation not only
alleviates the muscle protein anabolic resistance associated with old age [9, 30–32] but can
actually boost the anabolic response to nutritional stimuli in healthy muscle from young and
middle-aged adults.
The specific mechanism(s) by which LCn-3PUFA act on the muscle protein synthesis
process remain mostly unknown. Our results indicate that LCn-3PUFA alone are not
sufficient to elicit an anabolic effect (because the basal rate of muscle protein synthesis was
not affected by LCn-3PUFA supplementation) but that they require additional anabolic
stimuli such as amino acids and augment their anabolic effect by increasing the activation of
the mTOR-p70s6k signalling pathway (which is considered an integral control point for
muscle protein anabolism [33] and muscle cell growth [34–36]) and translational efficiency.
What caused the greater activation of the mTOR-p70s6k signalling pathway after
LCn-3PUFA supplementation remains unclear. It most likely was not increased Akt
signalling because although LCn-3PUFA increased the concentration of AktThr308, the
increase occurred both during basal conditions and during hyperinsulinema-
hyperaminoacidemia whereas the stimulatory effect of hyperinsulinemia-
hyperaminoacademia was the same before and after LCn-3PUFA supplementation. Thus,
the effect was probably mediated via one or more alternative pathway(s), which have yet to
be determined (but may include e.g., Rheb or vps34 [37, 38]). Considering the observed
changes in skeletal muscle phospholipid composition, it is also possible that LCn-3PUFA
supplementation modulated key substrates along the anabolic signalling cascades by
affecting membrane lipid composition and/or fluidity [39, 40]. For example, increased
membrane DHA content activates PKC [39], which stimulates translational activity [41]. It
is unlikely that the beneficial effect of LCn-3PUFA on muscle protein synthesis was related
to their anti-inflammatory properties [42, 43] because our subjects were young and healthy
and we did not detect any treatment-induced changes in inflammatory cytokine
Smith et al. Page 8
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
concentrations in plasma – most likely because the concentrations were very low to begin
with.
The increases in Akt, mTOR and p70s6k phosphorylation during the hyperinsulinemic-
hyperaminoacidemic clamp in our study were small and did not always reach statistical
significance at the p<0.05 level before intervention. This was most likely the result of a
type-2 error associated with Tukey’s post-hoc analysis; in fact, when we applied Student’s t-
test to evaluate the clamp-induced increases in mTOR and p70s6k phosphorylation before
LCn-3PUFA supplementation, we obtained p-values of 0.01 and 0.06, respectively. It is
unlikely that the small increase in signalling activation was due to the timing of the muscle
biopsy (i.e., 3 h after the start of the insulin, amino acid and glucose infusion) because the
phosphorylation of IRS-1, PI3K, Akt and mTOR
in vivo
in human muscle increases quickly
and then remains steady (and elevated above basal values) for at least 180 min during
constant insulin infusion and increased amino acid delivery to the muscle [44–46]. The
small increases in anabolic signalling element phosphorylation were most likely due to the
relatively low insulin and amino acid infusion rate, which we chose to avoid a potential
“ceiling effect”. Specifically we infused amino acids and insulin at rates close to those used
to achieve the half-maximal amino acid induced increase in muscle protein synthesis [47]
and insulin mediated increase in Akt phopshorylation [48]. In fact, our results are well in
line with the results obtained by other investigators [31], who found that during low-dose
insulin infusion (similar to the one used in the present study) in conjunction with a high dose
amino acid infusion (double the one used in this protocol) Akt, mTOR and p70s6k
phosphorylation increased by ~30%, ~30% and ~90% respectively. The respective values in
our study were ~25%, ~25% and ~50%. Furthermore, although it may seem as if there was a
dissociation between mTOR and p70s6k activation because the magnitude of change in the
phosphorylation of the two appeared to be different, the apparent discrepancy in signal
activation is not surprising. The activation of mTOR and downstream signalling is known to
be complex, involving not only phosphorylation but also regulation of interactions with
many of its binding partners such as PRAS40, RAPTOR, DEPTOR, etc. [15, 49, 50].
Furthermore, although early work showed that the p70s6k was downstream of mTOR, it is
now known that mTOR and p70s6k phosphorylate one another and the phosphorylation of
mTOR on Ser2448 is mediated by p70s6k [51]. Thus, one cannot expect a simple 1:1
relationship in the extent of mTOR and p70s6k phosphorylation. However, we can be fairly
sure on the basis of our data that mTOR-p70s6k signalling was increased by LCn-3PUFA
supplementation.
We made our measurements of muscle protein synthesis during a 3-h infusion of insulin,
amino acids and glucose because the rate of muscle protein synthesis rises quickly (within
<30 min) in response to increased amino acid availability but then returns to basal values
after ~2.5–3.0 h [52]. Therefore, we assume that the increase in the anabolic response after
LCn-3PUFA supplementation was due to an increase in the magnitude of the anabolic
response. However, we cannot rule out the possibility that the effect was due to an increase
in the duration of the anabolic effect of nutritional stimuli. Similarly, it is possible, but
unlikely, that the greater mTOR and p70s6k phosphorylation after LCn-3PUFA
supplementation was due to prolonged activation rather than greater peak magnitude of
activation because, as pointed out above, the phosphorylation of anabolic signalling
elements increases quickly and then remains steady (and elevated above basal values) for at
least 180 min during constant insulin infusion and increased amino acid delivery to the
muscle [44–46].
The stimulation of the muscle protein anabolic response to hyperinsulinemia-
hyperaminoacidemia by LCn-3PUFA supplementation occurred in the absence of significant
changes in whole-body insulin-mediated glucose disposal. This is consistent with the lack of
Smith et al. Page 9
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
an effect of LCn-3PUFA on insulin-mediated Akt phosphorylation in muscle but contradicts
the results from studies in animals [2–5] and also some studies in human subjects [53, 54].
For example, Delarue et al. [53] demonstrated that 1.8 g·d−1 of fish oil, which is rich in
LCn-3PUFA, given for three weeks, diminished the insulin resistance of glucose metabolism
as a consequence of dexamethasone treatment in healthy subjects. Also, Popp-Snijders et al.
[54] demonstrated that 3 g·d−1 of fish oil, given for eight weeks, improved insulin sensitivity
in subjects with type-2 diabetes mellitus. However, most studies in human subjects failed to
discover a beneficial effect of LCn-3PUFA on insulin sensitivity (reviewed in detail by
Fedor and Kelley [6]). It is possible that the simultaneous administration of glucose and
amino acids and the increased mTOR signalling after LCn-3PUFA supplementation in our
study masked a potential beneficial effect of LCn-3PUFA on glucose metabolism. There is
evidence that increased amino acid-induced mTOR signalling inhibits insulin sensitivity [55,
56] and administration of rapamycin, a known inhibitor of mTOR, increases glucose uptake
during a hyperaminoacidemic-hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp in healthy men [57].
Nevertheless, protein/amino acids have a glucose lowering effect because co-ingestion of
glucose and protein/amino acids increases plasma insulin concentration to a greater extent
than glucose ingestion alone [58]. It is also possible that because our subjects were young
and healthy, and had no signs of insulin resistance, LCn-3PUFA supplementation could not
further increase their insulin sensitivity.
We elected to not measure potential changes in muscle mass during the eight weeks of
LCn-3PUFA supplementation in our study because to do so would have required a much
bigger sample size and most likely a longer duration of the intervention; changes in muscle
protein metabolism, on the other hand, precede the corresponding changes in muscle mass
and therefore ought to occur sooner after the start of the intervention. We also expected the
effect of LCn-3PUFA on muscle protein synthesis to be greater (and thus more easily
detectable with a small number of subjects) than their effect on muscle mass because the
changes in muscle protein metabolism persist for only a few hours a day in sedentary
individuals (during increased amino acid and insulin availability). In fact, with nine subjects
we were able to demonstrate significant changes (in the order of ~30%) in the rate of muscle
protein synthesis and the concentration of phosphorylated signaling elements in muscle
during hyperinsulinemia-hyperaminoacidemia. Furthermore, we measured significant
increases in both the muscle protein-to-DNA ratio (an index of muscle cell size [21]) and the
muscle protein concentration (per mg wet weight of muscle) which suggest that
LCn-3PUFA may have exerted an overall muscle anabolic effect in the order of 1–2% of
muscle mass gain (i.e., the appendicular skeletal muscle mass in our subjects at the
beginning of the study was 24 kg, the alkali soluble protein concentration in muscle was
~11% and increased by ~15% equivalent to a protein gain of ~0.4 kg). Therefore, it is
unlikely that we would have obtained meaningful data, had we measured FFM or thigh
muscle volume in our study. However, if confirmed in future studies, changes in muscle
mass of this magnitude over such a short period of time would certainly be of clinical
importance considering that the decline in muscle mass, which starts at about age 50 y is
0.2–0.5 % per year in healthy subjects [59, 60] and increased morbidity is demonstrable with
as little as 5 % loss of muscle mass [61]. Improvements in muscle mass of this magnitude
will also be clinically important in other muscle wasting conditions such as cancer cachexia
and there is some evidence in the literature already that LCn-3PUFA supplementation may
spare lean body mass in this population [62].
In summary, we have shown that LCn-3PUFA supplementation in healthy 25 – 45 y old
individuals increases mTOR signalling and the anabolic response of muscle protein
synthesis to hyperinsulinemia-hyperaminoacidemia, which resulted in increased muscle cell
size (protein-to-DNA ratio) and protein concentration. These results confirm and expand
upon our previous data obtained in older adults and support the notion of a direct muscle
Smith et al. Page 10
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
protein anabolic effect of LCn-3PUFA. Furthermore, these data provide a good basis for
future research concerning the interaction between muscle protein and lipid metabolism.
Supplementary Material
Refer to Web version on PubMed Central for supplementary material.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Hadia Jaffery and Rachel Burrows for help in subject recruitment, the staff of the Center
for Applied Research Services for technical assistance, and the study subjects for their participation.
Funding
This publication was made possible by grant number UL1 RR024992 from the National Center for Research
Resources (NCRR), a component of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), NIH grants AR 49869, RR 00954
(Biomedical Mass Spectrometry Resource), and DK 56341 (Clinical Nutrition Research Unit), a grant from the
Longer Life Foundation, the University of Nottingham, the UK Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research
Council grants BB/XX510697/1 and BB/C516779/1, and a European Union EXEGENESIS program grant. Gordon
Smith was supported by an Ellison Medical Foundation/American Federation for Aging Research Postdoctoral
Fellowship. Philip Atherton is a designated Research Councils UK fellow. Dominic Reeds was supported by an
American Society of Nutrition Physician Nutrition Support Specialist Award.
Abbreviations
ANOVA analysis of variance
BMI body mass index
BSA body surface area
CRP C-reactive protein
DHA docosahexaenoic acid
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
eEF2 eukaryotic translation elongation factor 2
EPA eicosapentaenoic acid
FFM fat free mass
FSR fractional synthesis rate
GC-MS gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
IL-6 interleukin 6
LCn-3PUFA long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
mTOR mammalian target of rapamycin
PUFA polyunsaturated fatty acids
p70s6k p70s6 kinase
PKC protein kinase C
PRAS40 proline-rich Akt substrate of 40 kilodaltons
Rheb Ras homolog enriched in brain
RNA ribonucleic acid
SDS PAGE sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
Smith et al. Page 11
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
t-BDMS tertiary-butyldimethylsilyl
TNF-αtumour necrosis factor alpha
TTR tracer tracee ratio
References
1. Fetterman JW Jr, Zdanowicz MM. Therapeutic potential of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in
disease. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2009; 66:1169–79. [PubMed: 19535655]
2. Storlien LH, Kraegen EW, Chisholm DJ, Ford GL, Bruce DG, Pascoe WS. Fish oil prevents insulin
resistance induced by high-fat feeding in rats. Science. 1987; 237:885–8. [PubMed: 3303333]
3. Taouis M, Dagou C, Ster C, Durand G, Pinault M, Delarue J. N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
prevent the defect of insulin receptor signaling in muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2002;
282:E664–71. [PubMed: 11832371]
4. Storlien LH, Jenkins AB, Chisholm DJ, Pascoe WS, Khouri S, Kraegen EW. Influence of dietary fat
composition on development of insulin resistance in rats. Relationship to muscle triglyceride and
omega-3 fatty acids in muscle phospholipid. Diabetes. 1991; 40:280–9. [PubMed: 1991575]
5. Gingras AA, White PJ, Chouinard PY, Julien P, Davis TA, Dombrowski L, Couture Y, Dubreuil P,
Myre A, Bergeron K, Marette A, Thivierge MC. Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids regulate bovine
whole-body protein metabolism by promoting muscle insulin signalling to the Akt-mTOR-S6K1
pathway and insulin sensitivity. J Physiol. 2007; 579:269–84. [PubMed: 17158167]
6. Fedor D, Kelley DS. Prevention of insulin resistance by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Curr Opin
Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2009; 12:138–46. [PubMed: 19202385]
7. van Norren K, Kegler D, Argiles JM, Luiking Y, Gorselink M, Laviano A, Arts K, Faber J, Jansen
H, van der Beek EM, van Helvoort A. Dietary supplementation with a specific combination of high
protein, leucine, and fish oil improves muscle function and daily activity in tumour-bearing
cachectic mice. Br J Cancer. 2009; 100:713–22. [PubMed: 19259092]
8. Hayashi N, Tashiro T, Yamamori H, Takagi K, Morishima Y, Otsubo Y, Sugiura T, Furukawa K,
Nitta H, Nakajima N, Suzuki N, Ito I. Effect of intravenous omega-6 and omega-3 fat emulsions on
nitrogen retention and protein kinetics in burned rats. Nutrition. 1999; 15:135–9. [PubMed:
9990578]
9. Smith GI, Atherton P, Reeds DN, Mohammed BS, Rankin D, Rennie MJ, Mittendorfer B. Dietary
omega-3 fatty acid supplementation increases the rate of muscle protein synthesis in older adults: a
randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011; 93:402–412. [PubMed: 21159787]
10. Ryan AM, Reynolds JV, Healy L, Byrne M, Moore J, Brannelly N, McHugh A, McCormack D,
Flood P. Enteral nutrition enriched with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) preserves lean body mass
following esophageal cancer surgery: results of a double-blinded randomized controlled trial. Ann
Surg. 2009; 249:355–63. [PubMed: 19247018]
11. McMillan DC. Systemic inflammation, nutritional status and survival in patients with cancer. Curr
Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2009; 12:223–6. [PubMed: 19318937]
12. Gordon JN, Green SR, Goggin PM. Cancer cachexia. Q J M. 2005; 98:779–88.
13. Degens H. The role of systemic inflammation in age-related muscle weakness and wasting. Scand J
Med Sci Sports. 2010; 20:28–38. [PubMed: 19804579]
14. Jeschke MG, Mlcak RP, Finnerty CC, Norbury WB, Gauglitz GG, Kulp GA, Herndon DN. Burn
size determines the inflammatory and hypermetabolic response. Crit Care. 2007; 11:R90.
[PubMed: 17716366]
15. Lang CH, Frost RA, Vary TC. Regulation of muscle protein synthesis during sepsis and
inflammation. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2007; 293:E453–9. [PubMed: 17505052]
16. Rieu I, Magne H, Savary-Auzeloux I, Averous J, Bos C, Peyron MA, Combaret L, Dardevet D.
Reduction of low grade inflammation restores blunting of postprandial muscle anabolism and
limits sarcopenia in old rats. J Physiol. 2009; 587:5483–5492. [PubMed: 19752122]
Smith et al. Page 12
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
17. Symons TB, Schutzler SE, Cocke TL, Chinkes DL, Wolfe RR, Paddon-Jones D. Aging does not
impair the anabolic response to a protein-rich meal. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007; 86:451–6. [PubMed:
17684218]
18. Boirie Y, Dangin M, Gachon P, Vasson MP, Maubois JL, Beaufrere B. Slow and fast dietary
proteins differently modulate postprandial protein accretion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997;
94:14930–5. [PubMed: 9405716]
19. Vary TC, Jefferson LS, Kimball SR. Amino acid-induced stimulation of translation initiation in rat
skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol. 1999; 277:E1077–86. [PubMed: 10600798]
20. Millward DJ, Garlick PJ, James WP, Nnanyelugo DO, Ryatt JS. Relationship between protein
synthesis and RNA content in skeletal muscle. Nature. 1973; 241:204–5. [PubMed: 4700888]
21. Forsberg AM, Nilsson E, Werneman J, Bergstrom J, Hultman E. Muscle composition in relation to
age and sex. Clin Sci. 1991; 81:249–56. [PubMed: 1716189]
22. Drummond MJ, Dreyer HC, Fry CS, Glynn EL, Rasmussen BB. Nutritional and contractile
regulation of human skeletal muscle protein synthesis and mTORC1 signaling. J Appl Physiol.
2009; 106:1374–84. [PubMed: 19150856]
23. Rennie MJ, Wackerhage H, Spangenburg EE, Booth FW. Control of the size of the human muscle
mass. Annu Rev Physiol. 2004; 66:799–828. [PubMed: 14977422]
24. Dietrichson P, Coakley J, Smith PE, Griffiths RD, Helliwell TR, Edwards RH. Conchotome and
needle percutaneous biopsy of skeletal muscle. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1987; 50:1461–7.
[PubMed: 3694206]
25. Mittendorfer B, Horowitz JF, Klein S. Gender differences in lipid and glucose kinetics during
short-term fasting. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2001; 281:E1333–9. [PubMed: 11701450]
26. Rieu I, Balage M, Sornet C, Giraudet C, Pujos E, Grizard J, Mosoni L, Dardevet D. Leucine
supplementation improves muscle protein synthesis in elderly men independently of
hyperaminoacidaemia. J Physiol. 2006; 575:305–15. [PubMed: 16777941]
27. Smith GI, Villareal DT, Mittendorfer B. Measurement of human mixed muscle protein fractional
synthesis rate depends on the choice of amino acid tracer. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2007;
293:E666–71. [PubMed: 17535855]
28. Patterson BW, Zhang XJ, Chen Y, Klein S, Wolfe RR. Measurement of very low stable isotope
enrichments by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry: application to measurement of muscle
protein synthesis. Metabolism. 1997; 46:943–8. [PubMed: 9258279]
29. Watt PW, Lindsay Y, Scrimgeour CM, Chien PA, Gibson JN, Taylor DJ, Rennie MJ. Isolation of
aminoacyl-tRNA and its labeling with stable-isotope tracers: Use in studies of human tissue
protein synthesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991; 88:5892–6. [PubMed: 2062866]
30. Cuthbertson D, Smith K, Babraj J, Leese G, Waddell T, Atherton P, Wackerhage H, Taylor PM,
Rennie MJ. Anabolic signaling deficits underlie amino acid resistance of wasting, aging muscle.
FASEB J. 2005; 19:422–4. [PubMed: 15596483]
31. Guillet C, Prod’homme M, Balage M, Gachon P, Giraudet C, Morin L, Grizard J, Boirie Y.
Impaired anabolic response of muscle protein synthesis is associated with S6K1 dysregulation in
elderly humans. FASEB J. 2004; 18:1586–7. [PubMed: 15319361]
32. Rasmussen BB, Fujita S, Wolfe RR, Mittendorfer B, Roy M, Rowe VL, Volpi E. Insulin resistance
of muscle protein metabolism in aging. FASEB J. 2006; 20:768–9. [PubMed: 16464955]
33. Drummond MJ, Fry CS, Glynn EL, Dreyer HC, Dhanani S, Timmerman KL, Volpi E, Rasmussen
BB. Rapamycin administration in humans blocks the contraction-induced increase in skeletal
muscle protein synthesis. J Physiol. 2009; 587:1535–46. [PubMed: 19188252]
34. Baar K, Esser K. Phosphorylation of p70(S6k) correlates with increased skeletal muscle mass
following resistance exercise. Am J Physiol. 1999; 276:C120–7. [PubMed: 9886927]
35. O’Neil TK, Duffy LR, Frey JW, Hornberger TA. The role of phosphoinositide 3-kinase and
phosphatidic acid in the regulation of mammalian target of rapamycin following eccentric
contractions. J Physiol. 2009; 587:3691–701. [PubMed: 19470781]
36. Bodine SC, Stitt TN, Gonzalez M, Kline WO, Stover GL, Bauerlein R, Zlotchenko E, Scrimgeour
A, Lawrence JC, Glass DJ, Yancopoulos GD. Akt/mTOR pathway is a crucial regulator of skeletal
muscle hypertrophy and can prevent muscle atrophy in vivo. Nat Cell Biol. 2001; 3:1014–9.
[PubMed: 11715023]
Smith et al. Page 13
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
37. Goodman CA, Miu MH, Frey JW, Mabrey DM, Lincoln HC, Ge Y, Chen J, Hornberger TA. A
phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B-independent activation of mammalian target of
rapamycin signaling is sufficient to induce skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Mol Biol Cell. 2010;
21:3258–68. [PubMed: 20668162]
38. Byfield MP, Murray JT, Backer JM. hVps34 is a nutrient-regulated lipid kinase required for
activation of p70 S6 kinase. J Biol Chem. 2005; 280:33076–82. [PubMed: 16049009]
39. Stillwell W, Wassall SR. Docosahexaenoic acid: membrane properties of a unique fatty acid. Chem
Phys Lipids. 2003; 126:1–27. [PubMed: 14580707]
40. Mansilla MC, Banchio CE, de Mendoza D. Signalling pathways controlling fatty acid desaturation.
Subcell Biochem. 2008; 49:71–99. [PubMed: 18751908]
41. Grosso S, Volta V, Sala LA, Vietri M, Marchisio PC, Ron D, Biffo S. PKCbetaII modulates
translation independently from mTOR and through RACK1. Biochem J. 2008; 415:77–85.
[PubMed: 18557705]
42. Browning LM. n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation and obesity-related disease. Proc
Nutr Soc. 2003; 62:447–53. [PubMed: 14506893]
43. Mori TA, Beilin LJ. Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammation. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2004; 6:461–7.
[PubMed: 15485592]
44. Timmerman KL, Lee JL, Dreyer HC, Dhanani S, Glynn EL, Fry CS, Drummond MJ, Sheffield-
Moore M, Rasmussen BB, Volpi E. Insulin stimulates human skeletal muscle protein synthesis via
an indirect mechanism involving endothelial-dependent vasodilation and mammalian target of
rapamycin complex 1 signaling. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010; 95:3848–57. [PubMed:
20484484]
45. Wojtaszewski JF, Hansen BF, Kiens B, Richter EA. Insulin signaling in human skeletal muscle:
time course and effect of exercise. Diabetes. 1997; 46:1775–81. [PubMed: 9356025]
46. Plomgaard P, Bouzakri K, Krogh-Madsen R, Mittendorfer B, Zierath JR, Pedersen BK. Tumor
necrosis factor-alpha induces skeletal muscle insulin resistance in healthy human subjects via
inhibition of Akt substrate 160 phosphorylation. Diabetes. 2005; 54:2939–45. [PubMed:
16186396]
47. Bohe J, Low A, Wolfe RR, Rennie MJ. Human muscle protein synthesis is modulated by
extracellular, not intramuscular amino acid availability: a dose-response study. J Physiol. 2003;
552:315–24. [PubMed: 12909668]
48. Greenhaff PL, Karagounis LG, Peirce N, Simpson EJ, Hazell M, Layfield R, Wackerhage H, Smith
K, Atherton P, Selby A, Rennie MJ. Disassociation between the effects of amino acids and insulin
on signaling, ubiquitin ligases, and protein turnover in human muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol
Metab. 2008; 295:E595–604. [PubMed: 18577697]
49. Peterson TR, Laplante M, Thoreen CC, Sancak Y, Kang SA, Kuehl WM, Gray NS, Sabatini DM.
DEPTOR is an mTOR inhibitor frequently overexpressed in multiple myeloma cells and required
for their survival. Cell. 2009; 137:873–86. [PubMed: 19446321]
50. Sancak Y, Thoreen CC, Peterson TR, Lindquist RA, Kang SA, Spooner E, Carr SA, Sabatini DM.
PRAS40 is an insulin-regulated inhibitor of the mTORC1 protein kinase. Mol Cell. 2007; 25:903–
15. [PubMed: 17386266]
51. Chiang GG, Abraham RT. Phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) at
Ser-2448 is mediated by p70S6 kinase. J Biol Chem. 2005; 280:25485–90. [PubMed: 15899889]
52. Bohe J, Low JF, Wolfe RR, Rennie MJ. Latency and duration of stimulation of human muscle
protein synthesis during continuous infusion of amino acids. J Physiol. 2001; 532:575–9.
[PubMed: 11306673]
53. Delarue J, Li CH, Cohen R, Corporeau C, Simon B. Interaction of fish oil and a glucocorticoid on
metabolic responses to an oral glucose load in healthy human subjects. Br J Nutr. 2006; 95:267–
72. [PubMed: 16469141]
54. Popp-Snijders C, Schouten JA, Heine RJ, van der Meer J, van der Veen EA. Dietary
supplementation of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids improves insulin sensitivity in non-
insulin-dependent diabetes. Diabetes Res. 1987; 4:141–7. [PubMed: 3038454]
55. Newgard CB, An J, Bain JR, Muehlbauer MJ, Stevens RD, Lien LF, Haqq AM, Shah SH, Arlotto
M, Slentz CA, Rochon J, Gallup D, Ilkayeva O, Wenner BR, Yancy WS Jr, Eisenson H, Musante
Smith et al. Page 14
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
G, Surwit RS, Millington DS, Butler MD, Svetkey LP. A branched-chain amino acid-related
metabolic signature that differentiates obese and lean humans and contributes to insulin resistance.
Cell Metab. 2009; 9:311–26. [PubMed: 19356713]
56. Tremblay F, Marette A. Amino acid and insulin signaling via the mTOR/p70 S6 kinase pathway. A
negative feedback mechanism leading to insulin resistance in skeletal muscle cells. J Biol Chem.
2001; 276:38052–60. [PubMed: 11498541]
57. Krebs M, Brunmair B, Brehm A, Artwohl M, Szendroedi J, Nowotny P, Roth E, Furnsinn C,
Promintzer M, Anderwald C, Bischof M, Roden M. The Mammalian target of rapamycin pathway
regulates nutrient-sensitive glucose uptake in man. Diabetes. 2007; 56:1600–7. [PubMed:
17329620]
58. Manders RJ, Wagenmakers AJ, Koopman R, Zorenc AH, Menheere PP, Schaper NC, Saris WH,
van Loon LJ. Co-ingestion of a protein hydrolysate and amino acid mixture with carbohydrate
improves plasma glucose disposal in patients with type 2 diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005; 82:76–
83. [PubMed: 16002803]
59. Kyle UG, Genton L, Hans D, Karsegard L, Slosman DO, Pichard C. Age-related differences in fat-
free mass, skeletal muscle, body cell mass and fat mass between 18 and 94 years. Eur J Clin Nutr.
2001; 55:663–72. [PubMed: 11477465]
60. Gallagher D, Visser M, De Meersman RE, Sepulveda D, Baumgartner RN, Pierson RN, Harris T,
Heymsfield SB. Appendicular skeletal muscle mass: effects of age, gender, and ethnicity. J Appl
Physiol. 1997; 83:229–39. [PubMed: 9216968]
61. Roubenoff R. Catabolism of aging: is it an inflammatory process? Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab
Care. 2003; 6:295–9. [PubMed: 12690262]
62. Ryan AM, Reynolds JV, Healy L, Byrne M, Moore J, Brannelly N, McHugh A, McCormack D,
Flood P. Enteral nutrition enriched with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) preserves lean body mass
following esophageal cancer surgery: results of a double-blinded randomized controlled trial. Ann
Surg. 2009; 249:355–63. [PubMed: 19247018]
Smith et al. Page 15
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
Figure 1. Muscle protein concentration, cell size, and capacity for protein synthesis
Muscle alkali soluble protein concentration (A), the protein-to-DNA ratio in muscle (an
index of cell size; B), and the RNA-to-DNA ratio (an index for the cell capacity for protein
synthesis; C) before and after eight weeks of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid
(LCn-3PUFA) supplementation. Values are means ± SEM. a Value significantly (P < 0.05)
different from corresponding value before LCn-3PUFA supplementation. The difference in
the RNA-to-DNA ratio did not reach statistical significance (P = 0.13).
Smith et al. Page 16
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
Figure 2. Muscle protein fractional synthesis rates
Muscle protein fractional synthesis rates (FSR) during basal, post-absorptive conditions and
during the hyperinsulinemic-hyperaminoacidemic clamp procedure before and after eight
weeks of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (LCn-3PUFA) supplementation. Values
are means ± SEM. ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of hyperinsulinemia-
hyperaminoacidemia (P < 0.001) and a hyperinsulinemia-hyperaminoacidemia x
LCn-3PUFA interaction (P = 0.01). a Value significantly different (P < 0.01) from
corresponding basal value. b Value significantly (P < 0.01) different from corresponding
value before LCn-3PUFA supplementation.
Smith et al. Page 17
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
Figure 3. Skeletal muscle anabolic signalling responses
Concentrations (arbitrary units) of phosphorylated AktThr308 (A), mTORSer2448 (B),
p70s6kThr389 (C), and eEF2Thr56 (D) during basal, postabsorptive conditions and during the
hyperinsulinemic-hyperaminoacidemic clamp procedure before and after eight weeks of
long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (LCn-3PUFA) supplementation. Values are means
± SEM or medians (horizontal lines) with quartiles (boxes) and minimum and maximum
values (vertical lines). a,b For AktThr308, ANOVA revealed a main effect of
hyperinsulinemia-hyperaminoacidemia (P = 0.042) and LCn-3PUFA (P = 0.023) but no
interaction (P = 0.976). For mTORSer2448 and p70s6kThr389, ANOVA revealed a main effect
of hyperinsulinemia-hyperaminoacidemia (P < 0.01) and a significant interaction (P < 0.05);
Tukey post-hoc analysis located the specific differences as follows: c value significantly
different from corresponding basal value (P < 0.01); d value significantly different from
corresponding value before LCn-3PUFA supplementation (P < 0.05). e value significantly
different from corresponding basal value (P < 0.05).
Smith et al. Page 18
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
Smith et al. Page 19
Table 1
Muscle phospholipid fatty acid profile before and after eight weeks of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty
acid supplementation
Before After P value
Saturated FA
C14:0 0.48 ± 0.05 0.42 ± 0.03
C16:0 17.39 ± 0.53 17.69 ± 0.48
C18:0 18.35 ± 0.77 19.82 ± 0.70
Total 36.22 ± 0.76 37.93 ± 0.96 0.21
Mono-unsaturated FA
C16:1 n-7 0.58 ± 0.15 0.39 ± 0.05
C18:1 n-9 8.21 ± 1.13 6.35 ± 0.44
Total 8.79 ± 1.27 6.74 ± 0.48 0.08
n-6 PUFA
C18:2 n-6 32.09 ± 0.79 29.98 ± 0.71
C20:3 n-6 1.33 ± 0.10 1.27 ± 0.10
C20:4 n-6 17.19 ± 0.73 15.16 ± 0.48
Total 50.61 ± 0.95 46.41 ± 0.59 0.01
n-3 PUFA
C20:5 n-3 0.66 ± 0.11 2.57 ± 0.31
C22:5 n-3 1.81 ± 0.09 2.30 ± 0.08
C22:6 n-3 1.91 ± 0.17 4.05 ± 0.35
Total 4.38 ± 0.33 8.93 ± 0.67 <0.001
Values (percent of total fatty acids) are mean ± SEM. FA: fatty acid; PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acid.
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
$watermark-text $watermark-text $watermark-text
Smith et al. Page 20
Table 2
Plasma glucose, insulin, leucine, and phenylalanine concentrations during basal, postabsorptive conditions and
during the hyperinsulinemic-hyperaminoacidemic clamp procedure before and after eight weeks of long-chain
n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation
Before After
Basal Clamp Basal Clamp
Glucose (mM) 4.9 ± 0.1 5.4 ± 0.1
a
4.9 ± 0.1 5.4 ± 0.1
a
Insulin (μU·ml−1)5.2 ± 0.8 28.9 ± 1.8
a
5.6 ± 0.7 31.4 ± 2.2
a
Phenylalanine (μM) 56 ± 5 98 ± 8
a
56 ± 3 100 ± 6
a
Leucine (μM) 113 ± 5 162 ± 7
a
113 ± 5 165 ± 9
a
Values are mean ± SEM.
a
Value significantly different from corresponding basal value (P < 0.001).
Clin Sci (Lond)
. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2012 November 16.
