An Introduction to The Principles of Morals and Legislation
... In moral philosophy, value theory plays a crucial role in deontological ethics (Kant, 1785), utilitarianism (Bentham, 1781;Singer, 1975), and virtue ethics (Aristotle, 350 BCE). Kantian ethics emphasizes rationality and autonomy as the underlying basis for moral worth, whereas utilitarianism assesses value based on the capacity to experience pleasure and pain (Bentham, 1781). ...
... In moral philosophy, value theory plays a crucial role in deontological ethics (Kant, 1785), utilitarianism (Bentham, 1781;Singer, 1975), and virtue ethics (Aristotle, 350 BCE). Kantian ethics emphasizes rationality and autonomy as the underlying basis for moral worth, whereas utilitarianism assesses value based on the capacity to experience pleasure and pain (Bentham, 1781). Conversely, biocentric and environmental ethics assert that all living organisms have intrinsic worth, extending moral consideration beyond humans (Callicott, 1992;Taylor, 1986). ...
... The utilitarian framework, especially as developed by Jeremy Bentham (1781) and Peter Singer (1975), bases moral considerability on the ability to suffer rather than rationality. Bentham famously stated: "The question is not, Can they reason? ...
The ethical considerability of nonhuman animals remains a central debate in moral philosophy, often constrained by anthropocentric frameworks that prioritize human interests and rationality. Traditional ethical theories, particularly Kantian deontology and classical utilitarianism, have historically relegated animals to mere instrumental value, denying them intrinsic worth. This paper addresses a critical gap in value theory—the absence of a rigorous philosophical foundation for recognizing nonhuman animals as moral subjects in their own right. Employing the conceptual analysis method, this study critically examines the distinction between intrinsic/inherent and extrinsic value, exploring how a value-theoretic approach can redefine our ethical obligations toward animals. Drawing on the works of Tom Regan, Peter Singer, and Paul Taylor, the paper challenges speciesist assumptions and advocates for an ethical model that extends moral status beyond human boundaries. Through insights from environmental ethics, virtue ethics, and contemporary debates on sentience, this study highlights the philosophical and practical implications of acknowledging nonhuman animals as ends in themselves. The paper concludes that embracing a non-anthropocentric perspective in moral philosophy is essential for fostering a more inclusive and just ethical order.
... The algorithmic implementation of expected utility theory is found in the Reinforcement Learning literature [3]. While seemingly disparate, practically all expected utility accounts of agency depict an agent making decisions in a probabilistic setting to attain optimal reward -to pursue utility [5]. ...
... Combining the preference distribution and the objective function results in the divergence objective [21], which can then be compared with the active inference objective function. In an MDP, the resultant agency is the exact same (5). However, in a POMDP, the objective functions differ (16). ...
... Solve (8) Which is the divergence objective for MDPs (5). In a POMDP setting, the derivation proceeds analogously to obtain the Free Energy of the Expected Future (10). ...
As a unified theory of sentient behaviour, active inference is formally intertwined with multiple normative theories of optimal behaviour. Specifically, we address what we call the subsumption thesis: The claim that expected utility from economics, as an account of agency, is subsumed by active inference. To investigate this claim, we present multiple examples that challenge the subsumption thesis. To formally compare these two accounts of agency, we analyze the objective functions for MDPs and POMDPs. By imposing information-theoretic rationality bounds (ITBR) on the expected utility agent, we find that the resultant agency is equivalent to that of active inference in MDPs, but slightly different in POMDPs. Rather than being strictly resolved, the subsumption thesis motivates the construction of a formal bridge between active inference and expected utility. This highlights the necessary formal assumptions and frameworks to make these disparate accounts of agency commensurable.
... Das Protokoll etabliert einen strukturierten Prozess zur Identifikation und Bewertung solcher Konflikte, etwa wenn eine algorithmische Prädiktion die Autonomie des Patienten (Recht auf Nicht-Wissen) mit dem Fürsorgeprinzip (bestmögliche Behandlung) in Konflikt bringt. Die rechtliche Implementation dieses Protokolls erfolgt durch seine Integration in medizinrechtliche Standards und Haftungsregime, die nicht nur formale Compliance, sondern substantielle Prinzipientreue verlangen.2.5.3 Utilitaristische Ansätze und kollektiver Nutzen: Rechtliche Operationalisierung konsequentialistischer Ethik im HFT-KontextDie utilitaristische Ethik, wie sie vonBentham (1789/1996) und Mill (1861 entwickelt wurde, bewertet Handlungen nach ihren Konsequenzen für das Wohlbefinden oder den Nutzen aller Betroffenen. Dieser konsequentialistische Ansatz erscheint zunächst kompatibel mit algorithmischen Optimierungslogiken, die oft auf Nutzenmaximierung ausgerichtet sind. ...
... Das Protokoll etabliert einen strukturierten Prozess zur Identifikation und Bewertung solcher Konflikte, etwa wenn eine algorithmische Prädiktion die Autonomie des Patienten (Recht auf Nicht-Wissen) mit dem Fürsorgeprinzip (bestmögliche Behandlung) in Konflikt bringt. Die rechtliche Implementation dieses Protokolls erfolgt durch seine Integration in medizinrechtliche Standards und Haftungsregime, die nicht nur formale Compliance, sondern substantielle Prinzipientreue verlangen.2.5.3 Utilitaristische Ansätze und kollektiver Nutzen: Rechtliche Operationalisierung konsequentialistischer Ethik im HFT-KontextDie utilitaristische Ethik, wie sie vonBentham (1789/1996) und Mill (1861 entwickelt wurde, bewertet Handlungen nach ihren Konsequenzen für das Wohlbefinden oder den Nutzen aller Betroffenen. Dieser konsequentialistische Ansatz erscheint zunächst kompatibel mit algorithmischen Optimierungslogiken, die oft auf Nutzenmaximierung ausgerichtet sind. ...
Dieser Beitrag entwickelt eine rechtstheoretische Integration von Resonanztheorie und Systemtheorie zur Konzeptualisierung hybrider Mensch-Algorithmus-Systeme. Angesichts der Erosion traditioneller rechtlicher Zurechnungspunkte durch digitale Transformationsprozesse wird untersucht, wie die Personifizierung emergenter Welten als rechtliches Konzept präzisiert werden kann. Durch die systematische Verbindung der Resonanzkriterien (affektive Berührung, transformative Wirkung, Unverfügbarkeit und Eigenfrequenz) mit systemtheoretischen Konzepten (Irritation, Interpenetration, operative Geschlossenheit und Personifizierung) wird ein rechtstheoretisches Modell entwickelt, das die Emergenz hybrider Systeme erfasst. Die empirischen Analysen zu autonomen Fahrsystemen, medizinischen Diagnosesystemen und algorithmischer Finanzmarktsteuerung demonstrieren, wie sich an den Schnittstellen menschlicher und algorithmischer Operativität neue Formen kollektiver Akteure konstituieren, die normative Adressierbarkeit erfordern. Darauf aufbauend werden rechtliche Instrumente wie Resonanzprotokolle, Interface-Audits und Ko-Existenz-Verträge konzipiert, die zur Personifizierung hybrider Systeme beitragen und eine stabilisierende Infrastruktur für ihre Ko-Evolution bilden können. Die Arbeit schließt mit einer kritischen Reflexion der praktischen Implementierungsherausforderungen und einer Diskussion der Grenzen des vorgeschlagenen Ansatzes.
... The Floating Press. 43 Bentham, J. (1823). An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. ...
... The Qur'an, for instance, states: "And do not kill the soul which Allah has forbidden, except by right" 86 and reinforces the absolute prohibition against unjustified killing 87 . This principle is 83 Bentham, 182384 Mill, 200985 Muhammad et al., 2016 Qur'an 17:33 87 Ayuba, 2016 central to Islamic perspectives on euthanasia and abortion, both of which are largely prohibited unless an overriding necessity, such as saving the mother's life, justifies them 88 . Despite this absolutism, Islamic ethics also emphasize compassion and the minimization of harm, which coincides with a key tenet of utilitarianism. ...
This paper explores the ethical tension between the sanctity of life doctrine and the quality of life perspective, particularly in the context of abortion and euthanasia. Drawing on utilitarian ethics, it challenges the absolutist nature of the sanctity of life principle by emphasizing autonomy, well-being, and the reduction of suffering. While the sanctity of life is deeply rooted in religious traditions—especially within Islamic bioethics—it is shown to be more context-sensitive than often assumed, particularly through concepts like ensoulment and the principle of necessity (darura). Utilitarianism, though often presented as incompatible with religious ethics, is examined here not merely as a rival framework but as a potential bridge that can accommodate certain religious concerns through case-sensitive reasoning. The paper argues that, rather than being irreconcilable, both approaches share a fundamental concern with minimizing harm and preserving moral dignity. This convergence opens the door to more nuanced, inclusive approaches to medical and social ethics.
... In doing so, Mill subscribed to the already established tradition of utilitarianism. Earlier British thinkers including Hobbes and Hume were proto-utilitarians although the movement relies later on Bentham's (2007Bentham's ( , 1789 Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation when he proposes the "principle of utility" that he also later calls the "greatest happiness" principle, as the desirable basis for individual and collective decision-making. In addition, arguably Kant represents a bourgeois conception of justice, which is protested by Marx andEngels (2015, 1848) in their Communist Manifesto. ...
Social justice is often theorized as fairness and expressed in equity as part of public administration and associated budgeting practices. Whereas much literature contrasted deontological positions, emphasizing a procedural justice with fairness based on rules, with consequentialist theory that emphasizes a distributional justice based on outcomes, this paper addresses lack of social justice research into practices. As politics of the budget process is fundamental to who gets what, calling upon practice theory, this paper's theorization of “a practice of fairness” is anchored and operationalized in Social Equity Budgeting (SEB) in context of austerity‐localism in English local government from 2010 to 2024 under Conservative led coalition and Conservative Governments, with specific examples from a longitudinal case study of Newcastle City Council (NCC). The paper suggests social justice needs a practice focus embracing interactions for practical intelligibility and understanding, alongside procedural and distributional aspects found in deontological and consequentialist approaches to justice.
... Oleh karena itu, pendekatan sosiolegal dapat berfungsi untuk menelaah efektivitas hukum sebagai kontrol sosial dengan membandingkan ideal hukum terhadap realitas hukum yang terjadi di masyarakat (Amiruddin, 2021). Ideal hukum sebagaimana dimaksud dalam hal ini mengacu pada prinsip utilitas (principle of utility) Jeremy Bentham bahwa hukum yang ideal harus didasarkan pada hasil praktis dan kemampuannya untuk berkontribusi pada kesejahteraan sosial secara keseluruhan sehingga hukum harus dibuat untuk memberikan kebahagiaan terbesar bagi jumlah orang yang terbesar pula (Bentham, 2000). ...
Konsep hukum sebagai kontrol sosial merujuk pada peran hukum dalam mengatur dan mengendalikan perilaku masyarakat sehinga terwujud ketertiban yang diimplementasikan sebagian besar melalui aturan hukum tertulis. Salah satu contoh upaya kontrol sosial melalui hukum dapat ditelaah pada kendala pemberlakuan larangan impor pakaian bekas (ballpress). Meskipun telah terdapat larangan impor pakaian bekas melalui Permendag No. 40/2022, perdagangan dan permintaan pakaian bekas masih tinggi, didorong oleh faktor ekonomi dan preferensi konsumen terhadap tren berbusana dengan harga terjangkau. Dalam penelitian ini, digunakan metode penelitian hukum normatif-empiris dan pendekatan sosiolegal untuk menjelaskan kesenjangan antara idealitas hukum (sollen) dan realitas sosial (sein). Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa penegakan hukum yang tidak efektif dan pengaruh sosial ekonomi, seperti keterbatasan lapangan kerja dan rendahnya daya beli, menghambat efektivitas implementasi peraturan tersebut. Oleh karena itu, diperlukan evaluasi kebijakan dalam rangka menciptakan kerangka hukum yang mampu berfungsi sebagai kontrol sosial sekaligus memberikan keadilan dan kemanfaatan hukum bagi masyarakat.
... З'явилося розуміння, що держава та суспільство мають створити особливі механізми соціальної реабілітації злочинця, до яких, по-перше, належать інститути, які забезпечують набуття професійних навичок, по-друге, має відбутися зміна соціальних стереотипів, що стосуються особистості злочинця та злочину. Отже, наслідком стало те, що під час винесення вироку варварські методи покарання були практично скасовані та призначалося рівне покарання всім, хто вчинив один і той самий злочин.Саме за такої світоглядної ситуації сформувалася концепція покарання Джеремі Бентама[7]. ального тіла. ...
... Bentham were pioneers of this theory, emphasizing that the fear of punishment can deter criminal behavior (Beccaria, 1963;Bentham, 1948). This framework laid the foundation for modern criminal justice systems, advocating for fair and proportionate punishment to prevent crime. ...
In recent years, Bangladesh has experienced a significant transformation in its socio-economic landscape, accompanied by the emergence of new and complex crime patterns. The role of the police in addressing these evolving challenges is pivotal to maintaining law and order, ensuring public safety, and fostering a secure environment conducive to development. This abstract explores the multifaceted role of the police in tackling emerging crime patterns in Bangladesh, focusing on the adaptation and modernization of policing strategies, the implementation of technology-driven
solutions, community engagement, and inter-agency collaboration. The study highlights how traditional crime-fighting methods are increasingly inadequate in
addressing crimes such as cybercrime, human trafficking, drug smuggling, and terrorism. To combat these sophisticated crimes, the Bangladesh Police have undertaken significant reforms, incorporating advanced technology and data analytics to enhance their investigative capabilities and predictive policing. The establishment of specialized units, such as the Cyber Crime Investigation Cell and the Anti-Human Trafficking Unit, demonstrates a targeted approach to addressing specific crime categories. Furthermore, the abstract emphasizes the importance of community policing initiatives that foster trust and cooperation between the police and the public. Engaging local communities in crime prevention efforts, awareness campaigns, and reporting mechanisms has proven effective in deterring criminal activities and ensuring a collaborative approach to public safety. This study also examines the current landscape of crime, the effectiveness of police interventions, and the challenges faced by law enforcement agencies. It also provides recommendations for enhancing police capabilities to manage and mitigate emerging crime trends effectively.
... This tension compelled Adam Smith (1776Smith ( /1991, for example, to champion not only the idea of free markets in The Wealth of Nations but also the idea of "moral sentiments," which was penned in The Theory of Moral Sentiments and which stipulated that "the private interests of men are desirable only when these interests [enhance] the interests of the whole society" (Smith, 1759(Smith, /2000. Jeremy Bentham, James Mill, and David Ricardo espoused similar sentiments in their utilitarian forms of liberalism that sought to maximize the greatest happiness of the greatest numbers through freedom and self-restraint (Bentham, 1789(Bentham, /1948. And it is this line of thinking that allowed John Stuart Mill (1859Mill ( /1982) to make a case for "social interests," which are "different from self-interests." ...
p>More than 40 years of neoliberal globalization have led to a democratic deficit that necessitates urgent redress. Democracy otherwise —which is grounded in decoloniality and its accompanying epistemologies of the South—provides urban and regional planners with an opportunity to learn from the diverse democratic practices emerging in the Global South, practices that are deliberately delinked from the state and capitalism. One such example is found on communal landholdings in South Africa, where residents deploy multiple principles of legitimacy to foster an emplaced democracy. But given the entwined relationship between planning and the state, and the state’s support of market rationalities, decoloniality urges us to question whether alternative democratic practices are possible beyond local settings. Findings presented in this article suggest that place dependency diminishes transferability and scalability. Nevertheless, herein lies the power of an otherwise democracy to counter coloniality, while keeping alive Derrida’s “always to come” narrative, which challenges the liberal tradition of democracy as the only and most profitable outcome. This perspective enables planners to learn from the South—not to replicate its rich diversity, but to appreciate multiple democratic possibilities that acknowledge pluriversality, relationality, popular knowledges, local experiences, and situated worldviews, while nurturing “polities of difference” and “becoming in place,” in tandem with “idioms of autonomy and community.”</p
... Unlike the trolley problem, where decisions were presented as final and instant, "Unspoken Commitment' was imposed upon digital colonialism. Bentham (1996) recognized secondary consequences or intentionality where a mischievous act is worse if it was calculated. ...
The progress of digital infrastructure comes at an uneven price; those bearing the greatest burdens gain the least. Digital industries disproportionately harm marginalized communities, where land is cheaper and resistance is weaker. For example, data centers in indigenous territories often lead to environmental degradation and community displacement. This analysis critiques classical utilitarianism and proposes sustainable alternatives. Through Bentham’s utilitarianism, indigenous sacrifices are reduced to mere statistics for the ‘greater good,’ denying communities access to the facilities they enable. Deception is prioritized to maintain the majority’s comfort, and the privileged decide whose prosperity matters. The voices of the community are excluded through neglect or feigned ignorance. There is no endpoint in classical utilitarianism because each decision has cascading consequences. Unlike instant sacrifice in trolley problems, digital colonialism imposes an ongoing “Unspoken Commitment.” Elites make deliberate choices and keep marginalized groups expendable. Harm becomes justifiable once marginalized groups are destined to suffer. In contrast, Mill’s utilitarianism advocates a more humane stance through the harm principle to prevent exploitation. As suggested by Mill’s framework, the technology industry perpetuates psychological trauma through ambient oppression. They and the government owe inhabitants ‘social debt’—legally entitled compensation covering environmental restoration, social support, digital equity, and sustainable
development. Ultimately, classical utilitarianism falls short by prioritizing common benefits while overlooking harm. The text concludes by exploring more practical utilitarianism, such as Singer’s principle of equal consideration of interests, which promotes harm reduction over profits, and calls on policymakers to address social debt — a necessary shift for a more sustainable and just solution. This analysis aligns with SDGs 10, 13, and 16, which promote reduced inequality, environmental sustainability, and institutional justice.
... La valoración de la felicidad como medición en el sentido de satisfacción con la vida o de sentirse bien (en un sentido hedonista), la podemos encontrar desde el siglo XVIII y XIX con Bentham, padre del utilitarismo. Su obra se titula: Introducción a los principios de moral y legislación, en ella establece que los actos humanos, así como las cuestiones legales, políticas, sociales y económicas, o bien, las decisiones, basadas en lo que determinaran las normas o instituciones deberían de ser valorados o juzgados, en función de la utilidad o el placer que les producen a las personas (Bentham, 1779). Walras (s. ...
Nadie puede llamarse a la sorpresa cuando se afirma que el modelo de desarrollo neoliberal promueve y genera un conjunto de desigualdades que tienen como punto de partida el acceso a salarios justos y dignos. Aunado a esto, el proceso de eliminación de los derechos sociales ha profundizado las inequidades.
A la par, han caminado dos factores que inciden en lo anterior. Por un lado, el planteamiento axiológico del neoliberalismo según el cual la colectividad debe entenderse como un conjunto de individuos y no como una entidad jurídico-social, por ello, el ideal es la formación de sujetos que aprehendan las reglas del mercado y ajusten su bienestar subjetivo a estas, de tal suerte que su capacidad de agencia determinará su valor social en correspondencia con su valor económico.
Por otro lado, el conjunto de medidas política y burocráticas para apropiarse de las ciudades y que, en correspondencia, pierdan su valor social a través de una planeación urbana que privilegia la mercantilización del suelo, lo que deriva en una sociedad organizada a partir de los derechos individuales que son mediados por la capacidad de consumo, y no por la calidad política de los sujetos y los derechos colectivos. Por ello, los pobres son entendidos y tratados como vidas desechables, fugas del sistema que mantiene y sostiene al mercado, que deben ser eliminados, no a través de medidas para integrarlos a la ciudad y sociedad consolidada, sino a través del olvido y la desatención, de su segregación de los beneficios del desarrollo.
En este marco de ideas, ¿cómo se entiende el bienestar y el acceso a la salud? ¿Qué recursos echan a andar para costear sus enfermedades? ¿Cuáles son los efectos de su exclusión y segregación en el bienestar subjetivo?
Para ellos, proponemos analizar el caso de San Juan de Abajo, en León, Guanajuato, México.
... Classical liberalism is closely associated with the work of Immanuel Kant and Jeremy Bentham, both of whom criticized the international situation as barbaric. They believed that understanding and solidarity between states are possible alongside protecting the interests and economies of countries (Bentham, 2001). ...
The concept or factor of power has been given great importance in the social sciences in general and in the fields of political science and international relations in particular. However, the concept of power is a vague and controversial concept and has been defined in various ways, despite being mixed with other concepts and terms such as authority, purpose, ability, oppression, influence and other concepts close to the meaning of power. Due to its significance, the concept of power has been explored through numerous studies and theories since ancient times. Above all, both realism and liberalism have interpreted the concept of power and its importance in the international arena. Realism and its thinkers emphasize military strength and strategic alliances for the survival and hegemony of the state, while liberalism and its thinkers emphasize economic dependence, institutional cooperation and adherence to international norms and values in order to achieve state security and influence. Based on the perspectives of the two major schools of international relations and political science, this study aims to interpret the concept and types of power in international relations. Simultaneously, it compares the perspectives of both schools and their thinkers and theorists on the concept of power and its significance in international politics.
... b. Utility Utility demands that every governmental policy or action should provide optimal benefits to society and organisations (Bentham, 1789 This regulatory overlap also reflects a tension between two different approaches: adaptability and stringency. PP 94/2021 places greater emphasis on deterrence through strict sanctions, aligning with the deterrence theory in criminal law. ...
This study aims to analyse the synchronisation of regulations concerning the dismissal and reinstatement of Civil Servants (PNS) involved in narcotics-related criminal offences, by examining the alignment between Government Regulation (PP) Number 94 of 2021 on Civil Servant Discipline and the Regulation of the Head of the National Civil Service Agency (BKN) Number 3 of 2020 on Technical Guidelines for the Dismissal of Civil Servants. The study employs a normative legal research method with a statutory approach and the general principles of good governance (AUPB). The findings reveal a lack of harmony between these two regulations, as PP 94/2021 stipulates dismissal as a severe disciplinary sanction for civil servants involved in drug abuse, whereas BKN Regulation 3/2020 allows for reinstatement under certain conditions. This inconsistency has the potential to create legal uncertainty and opens the door for subjectivity in the implementation of civil service policies. To ensure legal certainty, this study recommends regulatory harmonisation through a revision of BKN Regulation 3/2020 to align more closely with PP 94/2021. Furthermore, there is a need for stricter standard operating procedures (SOPs), a transparent oversight mechanism, and enhanced capacity-building for personnel management officials in applying the principles of good governance. These measures are expected to ensure legal certainty while supporting a more professional and integrity-driven bureaucratic reform.
... Ideias sobre pobreza e estigmas associados, como a "preguiça" promovida pela assistência, persistem, refletindo preconceitos históricos (Bentham, 2012;Malthus, 2018). No senso comum, essa visão permeia o imaginário, reforçando a associação entre pobreza e criminalidade e justificando vigilância estatal em zonas periféricas. ...
Este trabalho apresenta resultados preliminares de um estudo que buscou analisar a rejeição aos pobres-aporofobia-impregnada no pensamento econômico contemporâneo. Mais especificamente, busca-se: 1) analisar a relação entre crenças e atitudes de rejeição aos pobres entre estudantes de economia e; 2) verificar se estas relações diferem em função da identificação dos estudantes com as diversas correntes de pensamento econômico. Para realização do estudo foram coletados dados primários com a utilização de um questionário e foram entrevistados 280 alunos dos cursos de economia de 15 Instituições de Ensino Superior do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Os dados foram analisados por modelagem de equação estrutural. Os resultados indicam que a rejeição aos pobres, observada desde a economia clássica, persiste nas correntes contemporâneas, especialmente na oposição a políticas de transferência de renda. Além disso, foram identificadas diferenças significativas entre grupos mais conservadores, tanto na rejeição direta aos pobres quanto na oposição a direitos civis e sociais.
... Para comenzar, una de las primeras teorías modernas que ha abordado el comportamiento de las personas es el utilitarismo clásico. En el siglo XIX emerge como una visión filosóficamoral de la vida con sus dos máximos exponentes: Bentham (2012) y Mill (2009) que sintetizan las ideas de ese período histórico 11 . Este enfoque sostiene que la felicidad de los individuos, entendida como la presencia de placer y ausencia de dolor, es lo único bueno en 11 En pocas palabras, esta escuela sostiene la acción de las personas en la búsqueda del máximo bienestar al menor costo posible, es decir, un bienestar óptimo. ...
In 1996, with the introduction of the first GM soya resistant to the herbicide Roundup Ready, a new production scheme was inaugurated in the Pampas region, which has been used by most farmers to this day. This scheme, based on agro-industrial practices, has dominated agricultural activity for the last 30 years, generating high levels of production and profitability for some producers. However, the downside of this situation has been a growing and accelerated deterioration of the environment, a persistent process of concentration of land ownership and a drop in productivity. Faced with this situation, at different times during this period, some producers have changed their way of producing and have turned to agroecological practices. All these producers are neighbours of each other and belong to families that have shared production histories for generations, yet they make very different decisions. Therefore, the research question pursued by this thesis is: why do agricultural producers in the same region make very different production decisions? From this, the general objective is to understand the decisions that agricultural producers make about the way they produce in rural settlements in the Pampean region between 1996 and 2023. The argument is that producers make very different decisions based on different environmental valuations. Agro-industrial producers make decisions associated with an instrumental environmental valuation and agro-ecological producers make productive decisions associated with an inherent environmental valuation. These valuations express different ways of appreciating the qualities of the environment, which can be valued as a means or as an end in itself. Although all producers seek economic profitability, the decisions they make to achieve it are different because they are associated with different environmental valuations. In order to answer the question posed and test the proposed argument, this paper analyses the productive decisions made by agro-industrial and agro-ecological producers in the Pampean region through a comparative study. To this end, on the one hand, a comprehensive methodological design is proposed, consisting of 37 semi-structured interviews with both types of producers and the construction of a data matrix of all the qualitative information that allows for an in-depth understanding of the study phenomenon and empirical corroboration of the proposed argument. On the other hand, the completion of a questionnaire answered by 47 producers and the carrying out of a Principal Component Analysis that allows understanding the variation of producers' valuations regarding environmental sustainability and economic profitability. The completeness of the data presented allows us to corroborate the robustness of the argument compared to other alternatives (mainly an instrumentalist approach).
... Defenders of views of this kind includeBentham (1789),Singer (1990),Shepherd (2018) andChalmers (2022). 4 Note that these two terms are sometimes used to draw distinctions other than this one, such as the distinction between the capacity for subjective feelings ('sentience') and the capacity for reflection on one's own mental states ('consciousness'). ...
Recent research suggests that it may be possible to build conscious AI systems now or in the near future. Conscious AI systems would arguably deserve moral consideration, and it may be the case that large numbers of conscious systems could be created and caused to suffer. Furthermore, AI systems or AI-generated characters may increasingly give the impression of being conscious, leading to debate about their moral status. Organisations involved in AI research must establish principles and policies to guide research and deployment choices and public communication concerning consciousness. Even if an organisation chooses not to study AI consciousness as such, it will still need policies in place, as those developing advanced AI systems risk inadvertently creating conscious entities. Responsible research and deployment practices are essential to address this possibility. We propose five principles for responsible research and argue that research organisations should make voluntary, public commitments to principles on these lines. Our principles concern research objectives and procedures, knowledge sharing and public communications. This article appears in the AI & Society track.
... La aportación de Easton (1953; fue básica en la medida en que proporcionó el modelo sistémico que influyó de forma importante en la manera como, a partir de entonces, se conceptualizaron las En concreto, el enfoque pluralista se mostró especialmente adecuado a un análisis de este tipo en la medida en que las políticas públicas serían el resultado de la negociación, reflejando, por tanto, la situación de equilibrio entre los grupos y los intereses de los grupos dominantes. Otro modelo interpretativo que podría denominarse Economía del bienestar derivaría de los estudios utilitaristas de Mill (1892) y Bentham (1780). Por su parte, Simón (1962) proporcionó al enfoque una de sus herramientas básicas: la consideración del análisis de la toma de decisiones como un proceso a través de las sucesivas etapas marcadas por la racionalidad. ...
Este libro ofrece una visión integral y crítica sobre la evolución, teorías y enfoques de la ciencia política, especialmente desde una perspectiva latinoamericana. Está estructurado en tres grandes partes:
Teorías y enfoques de la ciencia política: Se analizan los orígenes, el desarrollo histórico y los debates metodológicos de la disciplina. Se destacan autores como Almond, Sartori, Easton, Weber y Maquiavelo, explorando conceptos como poder, legitimidad, Estado, democracia y biopolítica. También se hace una revisión de las escuelas teóricas y del desarrollo de la ciencia política en América Latina y México, donde se observa una creciente institucionalización de la disciplina, aunque aún con retos en su autonomía frente a otras ciencias sociales.
Sistemas políticos: Se exploran los elementos que componen los sistemas políticos —sistemas de partidos, gobiernos y elecciones— y sus interrelaciones. Se explica cómo estos configuran estructuras de poder y representación, y cómo afectan la gobernanza democrática en la región.
Estado moderno, biopolítica y tecnología: Se examinan los desafíos contemporáneos que enfrentan los Estados modernos ante el auge de las tecnologías de la información, el gobierno electrónico y los cambios inducidos por la pandemia. Se plantea la necesidad de actualizar el rol del Estado en entornos digitales, garantizando derechos humanos y cerrando brechas de desigualdad.
En conjunto, la obra proporciona herramientas conceptuales, históricas y analíticas para entender los fenómenos políticos contemporáneos desde una ciencia política crítica, empírica y con compromiso democrático.
... Consider a concrete example of how distinct normative theories may offer divergent prescriptions in the same scenario. Certain forms of utilitarianism [24,159]-a a fully-autonomous vehicle must 'choose' between killing five pedestrians or swerving into a barrier, killing the driver in the process. Functionally, this scenario is equivalent to a trolley problem, in that an actor must make a choice, the consequences of which will involve one death or several. ...
Benchmarks are seen as the cornerstone for measuring technical progress in artificial intelligence (AI) research and have been developed for a variety of tasks ranging from question answering to emotion recognition. An increasingly prominent research area in AI is ethics, which currently has no set of benchmarks nor commonly accepted way for measuring the ‘ethicality’ of an AI system. In this paper, drawing upon research in moral philosophy and metaethics, we argue that it is impossible to develop such a benchmark. As such, alternative mechanisms are necessary for evaluating whether an AI system is ‘ethical’. This is especially pressing in light of the prevalence of applied, industrial AI research. We argue that it makes more sense to talk about ‘values’ (and ‘value alignment’) rather than ‘ethics’ when considering the possible actions of present and future AI systems. We further highlight that, because values are unambiguously relative, focusing on values forces us to consider explicitly what the values are and whose values they are. Shifting the emphasis from ethics to values therefore gives rise to several new ways of understanding how researchers might advance research programmes for robustly safe or beneficial AI.
... Since Beccaria (1764) and Bentham (1781), one of the main justifications for the penal system punishing people has been that fear of punishment should deter crime. Implicitly, this argument is based on expected utility: if individuals balance costs and benefits, authorities could prevent crime by imposing sanctions harsh enough to make the payoff negative on average (Becker, 1968). ...
The impacts of poverty and material scarcity on human decision making appear paradoxical. One set of findings associates poverty with risk aversion, whilst another set associates it with risk taking. We present an idealized general model, the ‘desperation threshold model’ (DTM), that explains how both these accounts can be correct. The DTM assumes a utility function with two features: a threshold or ‘cliff’, a point where utility declines steeply with a small loss of resources because basic needs can no longer be met; and a ‘rock bottom’, a point where utility is not made any worse by further loss of resources because basic needs are not being met anyway. Just above the threshold, people’s main concern is not falling below, and they are predicted to avoid risk. Below the threshold, they have little left to lose, their most important concern is jumping above, and they are predicted to take risks that would otherwise be avoided. Versions of the DTM have been proposed under various names across biology, anthropology, economics and psychology. We review a broad range of relevant empirical evidence from a variety of societal contexts. Though the model primarily concerns individual decision making, it connects to a range of population-scale and societal issues such as: the consequences of economic inequality; the deterrence of crime; and the optimal design and behavioural consequences of the welfare state. We discuss a number of interpretative issues and offer an agenda for future DTM research that bridges disciplines.
... They argue that the French civil law system responded more effectively to evolving economic conditions than the US common law system. Finally, Bentham (1789) noted that the common law's lack of coherence hinders its ability to evolve efficiently. ...
This chapter reviews the finance and law literature, which focuses on the role of legal institutions in shaping financial development. Considerable research finds that (1) in legal systems that enforce private property rights, support private contractual arrangements, and protect investors’ legal rights, savers are more willing to finance firms, and financial markets more efficiently allocate capital, and (2) the different legal traditions that emerged in Europe over previous centuries and were spread internationally through conquest, colonization, and imitation help explain cross-economy differences in investor protection, the contracting environment, and financial development. We discuss alternative explanations of financial development and weigh the evidence.
... Utility theory in neoclassical economics was developed by Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, and Karl Menger. For example, Jeremy Bentham (2020) believed that consumers try to maximise utility by choosing actions that bring them the most satisfaction. He also analysed the mechanisms used by people to make decisions regarding the consumption of goods and services; in particular, he examined the issues of motivation and formation of individual preferences. ...
The results of this research are to summarise theoretical approaches to the study of behavioural strategies in consumption and to allocate and describe an approach based on assessing the impact of consumer behaviour strategies on current and future quality of life. In the context of this approach, the most important factors in shaping consumer behaviour (income level, changes in income and prices for goods and services, employment parameters, demographic characteristics, social context, place of residence, attitude to the emergence of new goods and services, consumption culture, life experience) and behavioural options within each factor are identified. Authors have proposed and empirically proven a hypothesis about the dominance of three strategies of consumer behaviour in Ukrainian society (focus on current consumption, using both own and credit resources; minimisation of current consumption; limitation of current consumption in favour of investment in the future), assessed the impact of each strategy on quality of life and other social aspects; substantiated factors of each strategy's spread. Transformations in consumption under the influence of war have been described, and new consumer patterns that formed among different population groups have been identified.
Dipahami bahwa Advokat merupakan salah satu aparat penegak hukum di Indonesia diharapkan memiliki profesionalitas dan integritas, kadang-kadang diuji dengan suap dan gratifikasi yang nota bene demi kepentingan kliennya, namun diharapkan tidak tergoda dengan hal tersebut dan tidak melakukannya. Suap dan gratifikasi bisa saja melibatkan seorang Advokat, bertindak menerima atau sebagai pemberi, atau sebagai perantara untuk mewujudkan gratifikasi. Kedua jenis perbuatan ini masuk dalam kategori perbuatan yang dilarang dalam UU Anti Korupsi. Advokat dalam usaha mewujudkan prinsip-prinsip negara hukum dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat dan bernegara, peran dan fungsinya sebagai profesi yang bebas, mandiri dan bertanggungjawab merupakan hal yang pent, Profesionaling, di samping lembaga peradilan dan instansi penegak hukum seperti kepolisian dan kejaksaan. Jasa hukum yang diberikan Advokat dalam menjalankan tugas profesinya demi tegaknya keadilan berdasarkan hukum untuk kepentingan masyarakat pencari keadilan, termasuk usaha memberdayakan masyarakat dalam menyadari hak-hak fundamental mereka di depan hukum. Advokat sebagai salah satu unsur system peradilan merupakan salah satu pilar dalam menegakkan supremasi hukum dan hak asasi manusia.
Industri kelapa sawit memiliki kontribusi ekonomi yang signifikan bagi perekonomian nasional dan daerah, namun menghadapi tantangan etis terkait keberlanjutan lingkungan dan keadilan sosial. Pengembangan industri ini sering kali dikaitkan dengan deforestasi, eksploitasi tenaga kerja, serta konflik agraria yang berdampak pada masyarakat adat dan petani kecil. Studi ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis peran aksiologi dalam pengembangan kelapa sawit berkelanjutan, dengan menyoroti keseimbangan antara nilai ekonomi, sosial, dan lingkungan. Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif melalui studi literatur dan analisis filsafat aksiologi, dengan mengacu pada pemikiran para filsuf seperti Immanuel Kant, Martin Heidegger, Hans Jonas, dan Friedrich Nietzsche. Pendekatan hermeneutika diterapkan untuk menafsirkan konsep aksiologi dalam kebijakan dan praktik industri sawit. Selain itu, analisis isi digunakan untuk mengevaluasi kebijakan yang berkaitan dengan keberlanjutan. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa industri kelapa sawit masih didominasi oleh paradigma eksploitatif, di mana nilai ekonomi lebih diutamakan dibandingkan dengan keseimbangan sosial dan lingkungan. Dari perspektif aksiologi, industri ini memerlukan transendensi nilai, yakni pergeseran menuju model berbasis keberlanjutan. Reformasi kebijakan diperlukan untuk memperbaiki tata kelola lahan, memperkuat perlindungan sosial bagi pekerja dan petani kecil, serta menerapkan ekonomi regeneratif untuk memulihkan ekosistem. Kesimpulan dari penelitian ini menegaskan bahwa industri sawit harus mengadopsi pendekatan etis yang menyeimbangkan nilai ekonomi dengan tanggung jawab sosial dan ekologis guna mencapai keberlanjutan yang lebih adil dan inklusif.
Purpose: The aim of the work was to prove the thesis that the economic imperialism (imperialism of economics) has its limits. These limits were marked within the economic analysis of criminal law, as a manifestation of the imperialism of economics, using the example of the critique of economic arguments for the legalization of drugs. Design/Methodology/Approach: The first part of the work defines the key concepts of imperialism of economics and the economic analysis of law as a manifestation of this imperialism. The second part presents the theoretical background of the economic arguments for legalizing drugs (presented and criticized in the third part of the article) in the form of a characteristic of the economic analysis of criminal law. Findings: The theoretical part shows the limitations of the two main pillars of the economic analysis of law: the instrumental (calculational) rationality of an individual and the economic (utilitarian) effectiveness of the law, against the background of the traditional theory of criminal law (retributivism). Then, in the practical part, the economically motivated postulate of legalizing drugs was opposed, demonstrating the weaknesses of such arguments and presenting an alternative, although also economically well-grounded, scenario of negative social and economic consequences of the end of drug prohibition. Practical Implications: The article draws attention to the theoretical foundations of drug policy. It shows the weaknesses of economic arguments for drug legalization. Originality/Value: The connection between the economic arguments for legalizing drugs and the phenomenon of economic imperialism is rarely seen in the literature. The issue of the limits of economic imperialism is also rarely discussed. This article does not exhaust this topic by any means, but it does show that this problem is worth taking up.
The trait-consistent, affect regulation hypothesis states that people seek to create affective experiences that are consistent with their traits. The state-consistent, affect regulation hypothesis states that people seek to create affect which is consistent with their mood situation. The social explanation of these hypotheses is that people seek feedback from others which produces trait and state-consistent affect which validates the person’s self-concept/world view. Two specific hypotheses were tested. First, trait positive people would seek out people who are feeling positive affect and that trait negative people would seek out people who are feeling negative affect. Second, as people find themselves in situations that cause their mood to change from positive to negative, they would decreasingly seek out people who are experiencing positive affect and increasingly seek out people who are experiencing negative affect. Participants filled out trait measures of positive and negative affect and measures of the extent to which they would seek out associates experiencing positive and negative affect, under mood conditions ranging from positive (ecstatic) to negative (black). Support was found for trait-affect consistency for positive and negative affect and state-affect consistency for positive affect. Neurotics and people in a black mood seek people experiencing negative affect.
Avanços científicos confirmaram a senciência dos animais não humanos, gerando uma conscientização global sobre a necessidade de evitar a crueldade contra eles. A mudança de paradigma do antropocentrismo para o biocentrismo marca uma transição significativa de um olhar puramente instrumental sobre esses seres para uma abordagem que prioriza a proteção à dignidade de todas as espécies, além da humana. O presente trabalho tem por objetivo analisar em que medida a proteção constitucional à dignidade animal vem sendo efetivada no Brasil, utilizando como parâmetro os julgamentos do STF. Utilizou-se como metodologia a revisão narrativa bibliográfica e a análise documental. A pesquisa empregou a técnica de revisão narrativa de literatura e a técnica de análise de conteúdo, para interpretar criticamente as decisões do STF que abordaram aspectos da dignidade animal. Buscou-se evidenciar com o presente estudo que, apesar do viés antropocêntrico da CF/88, o cenário atual do mundo contemporâneo está evoluindo para transcender esse paradigma, tornando-se perceptível a construção de um novo modelo orientado pelo biocentrismo, que visa aumentar a efetividade na proteção dos direitos dos animais.
Focusing on famine novels by William Carleton and Anthony Trollope and drawing upon Sianne Ngai's account of aesthetic categories, this article questions how the “interesting,” as an aesthetic category, accommodates cultural difference and distance, on one hand, and demonstrates how material interests shape and delimit the expansion of the public sphere, on the other. It argues that Irish novels present Ireland as aesthetically interesting insofar as it differs from England—suggesting strangeness, peculiarity, unpredictability. Yet including Ireland in a vision of a shared public tends to require the opposite—the assimilation of Irish people into British interests—rendering Ireland conventional and familiar. In other words, the strangeness or novelty that makes Ireland aesthetically interesting is the very thing that prevents Irish people from being incorporated into the liberal idea of a public or a vision of British public interest.
The prospect of designing whole brain emulations (WBEs) capable of replicating the phenomenological effects of human brains presents a compelling argument for granting robots that implement such technology a human-like moral status. While deontological and utilitarian perspectives struggle to refute this notion—potentially paving the way for recognizing a utility monster—the article proposes that naturalistic virtue ethics offers a more skeptical stance. Drawing on the metaethical and ontological tenets of neo-Aristotelian naturalism, as articulated by Philippa Foot and Michael Thompson, this article challenges the view that WBEs are ontologically and morally largely equivalent to humans. Instead, it argues that WBEs should be regarded as artifacts designed to serve human purposes. The discussion begins by examining analogous cases, such as the status of swamp beings as discussed by Thompson. The analysis is further informed by insights from Thomas Aquinas and contemporary virtue-ethical approaches to the ethics of technology. Ultimately, while the autonomous moral status of WBEs is refuted, the article emphasizes that they occupy a unique position among inanimate representational objects. Since the mental properties of WBEs signify human thoughts and inner experiences, their treatment and use require higher sensitivity and caution from virtuous agents than the treatment of other representational objects, such as virtual characters in video games, that primarily signify the outer appearance and behavior of human beings.
Human well-being is one of the global aspirations that underpins the United Nations Ocean Decade. In the context of the expanding literature on well-being and the blue economy, this chapter explores well-being discourses in Ocean Decade publications by UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (UNESCO-IOC). The discourse analysis illustrates how human well-being is at risk and that improving the relationship between humans and the ocean will be mutually beneficial. The relationship between the ocean and human well-being is conceptualized based on three perspectives: (1) ocean as a provider of ecosystem services, (2) ocean as a contributor to global economic development, and (3) ocean offering aesthetic, cultural and recreational services. In addition to a collective and human-rights approach to well-being, the documents draw attention to ocean and planetary well-being. Embracing ocean literacy as a strategy for behavioral change, the Ocean Decade publications seek to elevate human’s emotional connection with the ocean. Despite the Ocean Decade’s discursive commitment to well-being, and an impressive list of completed actions towards that goal, there are no metrics identified to evaluate progress of human well-being. The second half of the chapter contextualizes these findings through two lenses, public policy and strategic communication. Through a detailed discussion of the literature on happiness, well-being policies, and systems of measurement, the chapter explores the potential operationalization of the well-being promise. Lastly, the chapter reflects on the strategic use of emotion discourse to achieve an elevated human emotional connection to the ocean.
Di era digital yang serba cepat, di mana informasi melintasi batas geografis hanya dalam hitungan detik, etika komunikasi menjadi lebih relevan dari sebelumnya. Namun, kemajuan teknologi juga membawa tantangan besar: disinformasi, pelanggaran privasi, polarisasi sosial, hingga ancaman bias algoritma.
"Communication Ethics: Etika Komunikasi Modern di Era Digital" menawarkan panduan komprehensif yang menjembatani teori klasik dan tantangan kontemporer. Melalui pembahasan yang sistematis dan studi kasus yang relevan, buku ini menyelami dasar-dasar etika komunikasi, serta penerapannya dalam berbagai konteks—seperti komunikasi digital, media sosial, pemasaran, dan politik—serta masa depan etika di era kecerdasan buatan dan situasi krisis.
Buku ini menggarisbawahi pentingnya komunikasi etis di era yang semakin terhubung, dengan prinsip-prinsip seperti kejujuran, tanggung jawab, dan keadilan. Sebagaimana ditegaskan dalam buku, "Komunikasi etis di era digital menjadi landasan penting dalam menciptakan interaksi yang sehat dan berkelanjutan."
The standard of living is a conceptual object of great concern to governments, social scientists, and the public. How people lived in the past is likewise of much interest to historians. There is wide (if not universal) agreement that a higher standard of living is preferable to a lower one. Congruence ends there, however, as what constitutes the appropriate measure of people’s well-being is subject to a wide range of parallel, overlapping, and sometimes even conflicting opinions. How to collect the evidence necessary to calculate whatever measure we settle on, from both the contemporary world and the historical record, is equally contested. Indeed, in the case of efforts to measure well-being in the past, the evidence we might want may not exist at all. The question is too important though to settle for narrow and often misleading metrics that capture material wealth alone. Measures of our lifespan, the expansion of our mental capabilities, and our ability to feel secure and to participate in our collective governance make essential contributions. Finally, we need measures that are sensitive to the requirements for shared human sociability in different historical contexts. The insights of historians and other observers of human societies will be essential to complement the theorizing of social scientists.
The concept or factor of power has been given great importance in the social sciences in general and in the fields of political science and international relations in particular. However, the concept of power is a vague and controversial concept and has been defined in various ways, despite being mixed with other concepts and terms such as authority, purpose, ability, oppression, influence and other concepts close to the meaning of power. Due to its significance, the concept of power has been explored through numerous studies and theories since ancient times. Above all, both realism and liberalism have interpreted the concept of power and its importance in the international arena. Realism and its thinkers emphasize military strength and strategic alliances for the survival and hegemony of the state, while liberalism and its thinkers emphasize economic dependence, institutional cooperation and adherence to international norms and values in order to achieve state security and influence. Based on the perspectives of the two major schools of international relations and political science, this study aims to interpret the concept and types of power in international relations. Simultaneously, it compares the perspectives of both schools and their thinkers and theorists on the concept of power and its significance in international politics.
In this paper, we propose an analysis of how the subjective interpretation of a fictional text is brought about on the basis of combining the formal approach to the pragmatics of fiction with literary analysis. Our corpus is the anonymously published horse autobiography Memoirs of Dick, the Little Poney from 1799/1800. In the autodiegetic narrative, Dick the pony speaks as a hurt animal, critically observes human behaviour with satiric intent, and inscribes himself into an abolitionist discourse. We will show how the co-existence of several possibilities to read and understand the text or, more formally, how Meanings for the Reader (MfR) is foregrounded by the genre of animal autobiography and aims at the (self-)recognition on behalf of the reader.
A Very Old Man With Enormous Wings is published by the Nobel laureate novelist Gabriel García Márquez and The Ones Who Walk Away From Omelas is authored by Ursula Le Guin who is known primarily for her works of science fiction. While the genres and the tones of the sample works chosen and discussed in this study markedly differ, their thematic trajectories and the way they criticize society and public morality is argued to resemble considerably. In the fictional world of the stories, both Márquez’s winged-man and Le Guin’s miserable child are mistreated by the members of their societies the fact of which relates us the stories’ undercurrent concerns of the critique of society, moral complexity, complacency and mediocrity. While the winged-man is abused as he is unfamiliar and does not comply with the cultural and religious expectations of the society, the child is exploited and degraded for the selfish prosperity of an entire community. In bringing together two different generic and unsettling fictions and reading them critically, this study aims to demonstrate and argue how complacency, mediocrity, thought patterns of society, folk wisdom and superstition are entangled with far-reaching variables of culture, politics, economics and even religious-capitalist theodicy.
This chapter was created to be used as a basis for understanding this enquiry in its totality. Every idea presented in the following chapters will be built according to the premises introduced and developed within these pages. In short, this is an introductory note that will work as a lens, providing the reader with a perspective on why we interact and on how we interact. I chose to address these questions because, if it were not for the interactions within and between humans, the line of thought would not exist and this enquiry would not be a possibility. In order to address a problem properly, it is imperative to understand where it comes from and what it entails. Hence the lens, which sets the tone for what will come next, contextualizing the reader within the reading.
To provide an answer to the questions mentioned above (why we interact and how we interact), we will interpret and develop theories on human nature and human evolution (Mainly (Aristotle, Politics, Hackett Publishing Company, Cambridge, 1998; Plato, A República. Introdução, tradução e notas de Maria Helena da Rocha Pereira, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisboa, 1949; Frith and Frith, What makes us social?, MIT Press, Cambridge, 2023), interpreted in the light of (Damásio, A Estranha Ordem das Coisas: A Vida, os Sentimentos e as Culturas Humanas, Temas & Debates, Lisboa, 2019)), together with utilitarianism (Bentham, Plan of parliamentary reform, in the form of catechism, with reasons for each article, with an introduction, showing the necessity of radical, and the inadequacy of moderate, reform, Printed for R. Hunter, successor to Mr. Johnson, London, 1817; Bentham, An introduction to the principles of morals and legislation, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1907) and theories on human security (Davies, Psychological Bulletin 116:387–411, 1994; Tanaka, Toward a theory of human security, 2015a; Tanaka, Human Security: A stronger framework for a more secure future 2015b), articulating the formulated thoughts with the general system theory (von Bertalanffy, General system theory: Foundations, development, applications, George Brazillier, New York, 1968) and a theory on the evolution of complex technological systems (Hughes, The social construction of large technological systems: New directions in the sociology and the history of technology, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1987). It is possible to articulate these theories for two reasons: first, even though the general system theory was initially developed for natural sciences, the author stated that it should also be used for the purpose of studying social sciences; second, although the evolutional theory was designed for technological systems, the author seems to broaden the definition of technological system in a way that every social construction may be perceived as being one. Since the systems that will be addressed throughout this book are socially constructed, they can fall within the evolutionary theory’s scope.
У статті досліджується концепція «предикат морального закону» в контексті доктрини прав людини. Особлива увага приділена поняттю моралі в якості етично-правової категорії. Встановлено, що трансформація моралі відбувається протягом всієї історії людства, адже на кожному етапі розвитку людства наступає певне переосмислення моральних цінностей. Проведено аналіз впливу моральних принципів на правову систему. Основна теза статті полягає в тому, що сучасне правове суспільство не має єдиного розуміння моралі, а законодавство часто стикається з проблемою узгодження моральних імперативів із правовими нормами. Розглянуто сучасні виклики, пов’язані з трансформацією моральних цінностей під впливом новітніх технологій. З одного боку, спостерігається тенденція до розширення прав людини, а з іншого – виникає ризик викривлення моральних постулатів, які були вироблені протягом історії людства. Доведено, що предикат морального закону є ключовим критерієм оцінки законодавчих норм, оскільки будь-який закон має ґрунтуватися на принципах справедливості та гуманізму. Окрему увагу приділено аналізу рішень Європейського суду з прав людини, який у своїй практиці керується моральними імперативами. Серед основних предикатів морального закону розглядаються заборони вбивства, тортур, рабства, дискримінації, примусової праці, порушення приватного життя та свободи переконань. Обґрунтовано, що моральні засади виступають фундаментом правової держави, а їхнє ігнорування може призвести до втрати легітимності правових норм. Наукова новизна статті полягає у введенні концепції предиката морального закону як обов’язкової складової правової доктрини. У статті використано філософські та юридичні підходи, зокрема аналізуються ідеї стародавніх мислителів та сучасних дослідників прав людини. Робиться висновок, що мораль є інтегральною частиною права, а будь-які правові суперечності повинні вирішуватися через моральні категорії.
Copyright is often perceived solely through its legal and regulatory dimensions, but its role extends far beyond ownership rights. This paper explores the often-overlooked emotional and psychological pulse that copyright elicits through creative works. While copyright law serves as a crucial tool for protecting intellectual property, its broader impact lies in how it shapes both the creator’s intent and the audience’s emotional connection. I was shocked to discover that despite its significant potential, the Kenya Copyright Board (KECOBO) generates minimal revenue while sitting on what could be considered a gold mine. A closer look at KECOBO's revenue sources reveals a complex and volatile landscape: the mean revenue from Collective Management Organizations (CMOs) licenses is KES 1.70 million with a high standard deviation of KES 0.79 million, indicating notable fluctuations. The trend in copyright registrations, however, has been notably positive, with the number of registrations increasing by 231% from 24,000 in 2021 to 79,400 in 2022. Furthermore, sales from copyright stickers grew by 29.73%, from KES 37,000 in 2021 to KES 48,000 in 2022, although KECOBO's total income remains unpredictable, with a standard deviation of KES 6.78 million
Professional ethics form the backbone of any legal system, ensuring fairness, justice, and integrity within the legal profession. In modern workplaces, ethical challenges are particularly pronounced within the legal sector, where attorneys, judges, corporate legal advisors, and government lawyers navigate complex professional and moral dilemmas. This research paper examines the role of professional ethics in different legal sectors, including corporate law, criminal law, judiciary, legal academia, and government legal services.
Now in an expanded and revised second edition, this book offers clear, penetrating examination of the central questions of ethics through study of the most important ethical theories in Western philosophy. Readers are introduced not only to the main ideas of each theory but also to contemporary developments and defenses of those ideas. Among theories the book covers are egoism, the eudaimonism of Plato and Aristotle, act and rule utilitarianism, modern natural law theory, Kant's moral theory, and existentialist ethics. Two new chapters add to this coverage expositions of Hume's ethics, Sidgwick's program for defending utilitarianism, and Rawls's hypothetical contractarianism. The discussions throughout draw the reader into philosophical inquiry through argument and criticism that illuminate the profundity of the questions under examination. Students will find this book to be a helpful guide to how philosophical inquiry is undertaken as well as to what the major theories of ethics hold.
Proportionality is a fundamental principle of criminal law. The issue whether the application of criminal liability to patients and doctors for participating in illegal gift “transactions” with the use of descriptive, analytical, logical, and comparative methods was examined. Focusing on utilitarianism and retributivism, the content of proportionality was presented: the balance between benefit to society and harm to the offender, the effectiveness of punishment, the implementation of justice as retribution, and the dangerousness of the offence and the offender. The conclusion was made that the criminal liability for gratitude gifts in the healthcare system is not proportionate. Consequently, recommendations were made for the establishment of disciplinary or administrative liability for symbolic gifts of gratitude in the healthcare sector of Lithuania.
A presentation delivered at a workshop organized by German Institute for Japanese Studies (DIJ Tokyo) and German Center for Research and Innovation (DWIH) Tokyo
Western jurisprudence is replete with several but seasoned debates concerning what the precise relationship is between law and morality. In those discussions, durable notes and deeds of intellectual antagonisms exist between legal naturalism that affirms a relationship of inseparability and legal positivism that affirms a relationship of separation. Given these hordes of controversial conversations, the objective of this paper consists of establishing the contribution that Yoruba cultural jurisprudence, a non-western narrative, presents concerning this substantive but serious and significant subject matter of mainstream, conventional and orthodox jurisprudence. The methodology adopted in this paper consists of textual analysis, hermeneutical reflection and philosophical argumentation. The paper findings show that law-morality relationship represents something controversial in jurisprudence thereby necessitating revisions away from the existing narrative. This necessity is informed by the availability of non-western narratives. The existing narratives in Yoruba jurisprudence, for example, did not assert but only assumed cultural bases concerning law-morality connection. A truly cultural base necessarily affirms a conceptual complementary connection between law and morality. The endorsement of a conceptual complementary connection within Yoruba cultural jurisprudence suggests inseparability although both are not the same concepts. Moreover, Yoruba cultural practice of judicial cross-examination represents an illuminating and enlightened authentication of a conceptual complimentary connection between law and morality. The paper concludes that law and morality are products and properties of culture thereby necessitating the recourse towards a Yoruba cultural jurisprudence perspective.
Utilitarianism is a theory of morality and law that aims for the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. The two names that come to mind when utilitarianism is mentioned in Western thought are Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, the founders of the theory. Although this theory emerged in Western philosophy, theories that appeal to the concept of utility as the standard of rightness of moral and legal actions can be found in almost every tradition of thought. One of these traditions is Islamic philosophy. In particular, the theory of maṣlaḥa, which is one of the most important legal theories of Islamic legal thought, is a theory that accepts the concept of utility as a fundamental principle. In this article, we focus on the theory of maṣlaḥa of Abū Isḥāq al-Shāṭibī, one of the most prominent thinkers of the theory of maṣlaḥa. Our aim in this article is to point out the similarities and differences between maṣlaḥa theory and utilitarianism, thereby drawing attention to the functionality of the concept of utility as a standard of right or wrong for ethics and law, regardless of society and period.
Purpose: This study aims to analyze the philosophical foundation, regulatory challenges, and the ideal framework for Justice Collaborator (JC) regulation in Indonesia’s criminal law system. The significance of JC lies in its crucial role in uncovering major crimes such as corruption, narcotics, and organized crime, yet its legal framework remains ambiguous and faces numerous challenges. Methodology: This research employs a normative juridical method with statutory, case-based, and conceptual approaches. Data analysis is conducted through a qualitative descriptive-analytical method. Findings: The study finds that JC regulation in Indonesia is grounded in restorative justice, utilitarianism, law enforcement effectiveness, and Pancasila values. However, key challenges include the absence of lex specialis, legal uncertainty, and inadequate legal protection for JCs. The ideal regulatory framework should establish a strong legal foundation, ensure clear and transparent criteria and procedures, and provide comprehensive protection, including physical, legal, and psychological safeguards for JCs and their families. Research Implications: This study contributes to the strengthening of criminal justice systems and supports Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 16: Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions, by advocating for legal clarity, enhanced witness protection, and more effective law enforcement mechanisms. Originality/Value: This research highlights the urgent need for a structured and protective legal framework for Justice Collaborators, reinforcing accountability and fairness in criminal justice, particularly in combating high-impact crimes.
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