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Water requirements for livestock production: A global perspective
Abstract and Figures
Water is a vital but poorly studied component of livestock production. It is estimated that livestock industries consume 8% of the global water supply, with most of that water being used for intensive, feed-based production. This study takes a broad perspective of livestock production as a component of the human food chain, and considers the efficiency of its water use. Global models are in the early stages of development and do not distinguish between developing and developed countries, or the production systems within them. However, preliminary indications are that, when protein production is adjusted for biological value in the human diet, no plant protein is significantly more efficient at using water than protein produced from eggs, and only soybean is more water efficient than milk and goat and chicken meat. In some regions, especially developing countries, animals are not used solely for food production but also provide draught power, fibre and fertiliser for crops. In addition, animals make use of crop by-products that would otherwise go to waste. The livestock sector is the fastest-growing agricultural sector, which has led to increasing industrialisation and, in some cases, reduced environmental constraints. In emerging economies, increasing involvement in livestock is related to improving rural wealth and increasing consumption of animal protein. Water usage for livestock production should be considered an integral part of agricultural water resource management, taking into account the type of production system (e.g. grain-fed or mixed crop-livestock) and scale (intensive or extensive), the species and breeds of livestock, and the social and cultural aspects of livestock farming in various countries.
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... As a result, less water is used, which lowers performance without endangering animals due to toxicity issues. In other instances, high concentrations might cause toxicity issues, especially with regard to bacteria and trace elements, which can impair function and, in the case of prolonged exposure, result in death (Schlink et al., 2010). ...
In dairy farms, water is crucial for the health, productivity, and welfare of animals. Water is a fundamental component in all biological processes, and insufficient water intake can negatively impact milk production, reproductive health, and overall animal welfare. The water requirement for dairy cattle depends on various factors such as age, weight, milk yield, environmental temperature, and nutritional status. An adult dairy cow can consume approximately 80-150 liters of water per day. This requirement increases in high-yielding cows. Adequate water intake directly affects milk production, as approximately 87% of milk is composed of water. The quality of water is as crucial as its quantity. This study investigates the quality of drinking water in dairy farms within Niğde Province, Turkey, focusing on its implications for livestock health and productivity. Water samples were collected from 11 livestock enterprises, encompassing water tanks and troughs, and analyzed for electrical conductivity (EC), pH, nitrate (NO₃), nitrite (NO₂), and phosphate phosphorus (PO₄) concentrations. Results showed EC values averaging 0.803 dSm⁻¹, within acceptable standards for livestock, although high concentrations in certain tanks raised concerns regarding mineral content and potential health impacts. The pH ranged from 7.27 to 8.20, remaining suitable for all livestock classes. NO₃ concentrations averaged 21.834 mgL⁻¹, with no samples below the 10 mgL⁻¹ threshold, highlighting risks from prolonged exposure. In contrast, NO₂ concentrations averaged 0.251 mgL⁻¹, remaining within safe limits. PO₄ concentrations were minimal, averaging 0.056 mgL⁻¹, and posed no significant risks. The findings underscore the importance of periodic water quality monitoring in livestock farms to mitigate risks of contamination and ensure optimal health and productivity. These findings highlight the necessity for customized water management techniques to fit particular farm settings and advance our understanding of the complex effects of water quality on livestock performance.
... El suministro de agua de calidad es esencial para las funciones vitales, termorregulación y desempeña un papel crucial en el equilibrio nutricional, asegurando un crecimiento adecuado y una producción (Schlink et al. 2010). La mala calidad del agua puede afectar negativamente el rendimiento de las gallinas, incluso cuando se les suministra una dieta bien equilibrada (Chung et al. 2020). ...
El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar la calidad de las aguas utilizadas para la bebida de aves de consumo interno o familiar en granjas de productores de la feria franca de la localidad de San Roque (Corrientes, Argentina). Se utilizaron muestras de agua de perforaciones determinándose in situ: temperatura, pH, conductividad, mientras que en el laboratorio se realizaron determinaciones de Calcio, Magnesio, Sodio, Potasio, Cloruros, Sulfatos y Nitratos. Y para analizar la calidad microbiológica se determinaron bacterias coliformes y aerobios mesófilos totales. Desde el punto de vista físico químico el 100% de las granjas muestreadas presentaron fuentes de agua de calidad intermedia y recomendable para ser usadas como aguas de bebida para las aves. Sin embargo, el pH fue el único parámetro que podría causar inconvenientes ya que sólo un establecimiento tuvo aguas de calidad intermedia en esta variable y el resto presentaron valores no recomendables. En la zona estudiada, los niveles de bacterias totales variaron entre los establecimientos, y se encontró que en el 100% de las granjas los niveles de contaminación superaban los límites tolerables. Los resultados obtenidos nos permiten concluir que el uso de estas aguas no es recomendable para la bebida de aves de consumo interno o familiar en granjas de productores de la feria franca de la Localidad de San Roque debido a que desde el punto de vista bacteriológico no son aptas para el consumo. Desde el punto de vista físico químico, sólo el pH es el parámetro que no se ajusta a los estándares en un 95% de las granjas evaluadas.
... Meat production requires almost 100 times more water than food crops and is also characterized by higher land use, compared to other protein sources. In addition, phosphorus and nitrogen from animal manure pollute surface and ground water, harming water health and human welfare [19,20]. Proteins used to produce meat alternatives have chemical properties similar to animal proteins, which are intended to provide a similar sensory experience. ...
The aim of this research was to develop a technology for the production of plant-based burgers (PBBs) based on potato protein, also containing high content of iron and appropriately selected fats. The produced PBBs were characterized in terms of their nutritional and bioactive properties both before and after the in vitro digestion process. It was found that the produced burger was characterized by high protein content, ranging from 20.80 to 22.16 g/100 g. It was also shown to have a high dietary fiber content, ranging from 8.35 to 9.20 g/100 g. The main fraction of dietary fiber in the tested samples was insoluble fiber, which accounted for approximately 89% of the total fiber content. In addition, noteworthy is the high digestibility of the protein, reaching approximately 95% for the potato fiber used in the formulation, and about 85% for the oat fiber. Produced PBBs also provide significant amounts of iron, with the use of an organic iron source greatly increasing its quantity in the final product. The analyzed antioxidant properties before and after the digestion process showed a tenfold increase in biological activity after digestion, indicating that the examined PBBs may counteract oxidative stress. Analyzing the chemical and biological properties, it is impossible not to assess consumer attractiveness. It has been shown that PBB1, which contains potato fiber and powdered sprouts enriched with ferritin, received the highest attractiveness ratings among respondents.
... Les systèmes d'élevage ont une forte empreinte sur notre planète : en 2006, ils occupaient 33 % des terres émergées, parmi lesquelles 30 % des terres arables étaient utilisées pour la production d'aliments destinés au bétail (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Ce secteur représente 8 % de la consommation d'eau globale, et ses effluents produisent d'importantes pollutions des milieux aquatiques (Steinfeld et al., 2006 ;Schlink et al., 2010). D'après la FAO, les gaz à effet de serre émis par l'élevage, principalement sous la forme de CH 4 et NO 2 , contribueraient à hauteur de 14,5 % (en équivalent CO 2 ) des émissions anthropogéniques (Gerber et al., 2013). ...
La philosophie de l’agriculture biologique implique que les pratiques agricoles s’inspirent des mécanismes naturels de développement du vivant. À ce titre, la déconnexion des productions animales et végétales opérée depuis la deuxième moitié du XXe siècle entrave la fourniture de nombreux services écosystémiques, et fragilise les exploitations qui prennent la décision de renoncer à certains aspects de la « modernisation » agricole. Dans cette optique, l’agroforesterie présente un fort potentiel pour accompagner le développement de l’élevage biologique. Cette pratique agroécologique consiste à faire coexister des arbres avec une ou plusieurs autres productions agricoles : en créant des hétérogénéités à l’échelle de la parcelle et du territoire, l’association arbres/animaux augmente la diversité des plantes fourragères, génère des habitats pour la biodiversité, stimule le fonctionnement des sols, et favorise le bien-être et la santé des animaux. Elle permet aussi de stabiliser les exploitations sur le plan économique, et d’améliorer l’image de l’élevage auprès des citoyens et consommateurs. L’agroforesterie implique une complexification du système productif, multipliant ainsi les éléments qui le constituent et leurs interactions. De ce fait, elle se heurte à certaines difficultés potentielles de conception, pilotage et gestion, nécessitant l’acquisition de connaissances et de compétences, et la production de nouveaux référentiels. À partir d’une synthèse bibliographique, cet article explore les bénéfices et limites de l’agroforesterie dans les systèmes d’élevage en régions tempérées, en adoptant le double point de vue du pâturage en zones arborées, et des cultures pérennes (arbres fruitiers, vignes) ou sylvicoles accueillant des animaux.
... During the entire life cycle of a single broiler, a minimum of 1 liter of water is necessary to maintain homeostasis [90]. However, when temperatures increase, the broiler may require even more water [91][92][93][94][95]. Swine production in confined and dry feeding conditions had a water turnover rate of 120 mL per kilogram during the growth phase and 80 mL per kilogram of body weight for non-lactating adult pigs [96]. Direct water consumption in livestock production is a significant contributor to overall water use. ...
Livestock production, being a long-standing and highly important human endeavor, plays a crucial role in meeting the worldwide need for human sustenance and other animal-derived goods, while also aiding in the alleviation of poverty. Nevertheless, it is crucial to consider the ecological consequences of livestock animals. More than 60% of the biomass extracted from the Earth each year to support human activity is specifically allocated to this sector, which raises questions regarding its long-term viability. Furthermore, the livestock sector is responsible for an estimated 14.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions, in addition to significant water and fertilizer consumption that has been recorded in recent years. Moreover, the escalating quantity of excrement generated by intensive animal agriculture gives rise to apprehensions regarding its proper disposal and the possibility for water contamination. Pasture and rangeland deterioration is a major factor in soil erosion. Various strategies are now being investigated to mitigate the ecological consequences of livestock farming, but one potentially sustainable solution could be found in the realm of forestry. Forests are essential in mitigating livestock emissions as they absorb billions of metric tons of carbon dioxide annually, serving as a critical carbon sink. Moreover, the variety and maturity of forests have an impact on the process of carbon sequestration. Forests play a crucial role in mitigating climate change through their ability to minimize soil erosion and regulate the water cycle. Therefore, sustainable forest management is crucial because forests offer several advantages, such as economic, environmental, and social benefits, while also capturing and storing carbon. This article provides an analysis of the present influence of contemporary livestock production and explores the possibility of reducing its effects using forestry-based approaches.
... Livestock CF Exotic breeds that have been selected for their high production potential are very homogenous genetically and require high input conditions, including water. High levels of water consumption, especially in contexts of drought and water scarcity increase the overuse of water and have effects strictly opposite to buffering [24,[196][197][198]. ...
Most of the attention given to intraspecific crop, livestock, and aquaculture diversity in agricultural production systems has been targeted at their roles in providing provisioning services, such as food and fibre or their cultural services, providing non-material benefits, such as places for recreation and inspiration. The additional role that intraspecific crop, livestock, and aquaculture diversity has in providing regulating and supporting ecosystem services for agricultural productivity and ecosystem resilience has been largely neglected. A literature review was carried out across sectors (crop, livestock, aquaculture), both on the counterfactual, i.e., the lack of intraspecific diversity in the production system and on the direct and indirect roles that intraspecific diversity plays in maintaining seven of the regulating and supporting ecosystem services: (i) regulating pest and diseases; (ii) maintaining and regulating water and soil quality; (iii) regulating and improving the flow of reproductive diversity; (iv) buffering excess or lack of water; (v) regulating soil erosion; (vi) nutrient cycling in water and soil; and (vii) supporting habitat maintenance. Benefits from the use of intraspecific diversity, diversity per se, and adaptive traits include a limited use of chemical inputs and unsustainable practices and their negative impact on livelihoods, ecosystem functioning, and productivity. All sectors (crop, livestock, and aquaculture) should be examined in the agricultural production system to understand the provision of the different ecosystem services by intraspecific diversity. Differences in structure, functioning, and temporal and spatial scales of these sectors should also be considered. Supporting and regulating ecosystem services often have relatively longer-term processes than food provisioning and rely not only on the current diversity but also on its presence over time. The presented regulating and supporting ecosystem services rely on the presence of the diversity from the farm to the landscape and to agroecological zone. Neglecting the additional role that intraspecific crop, livestock, and aquaculture diversity has in providing regulating and supporting ecosystem services is shown in this review to be detrimental to agricultural productivity and landscape resilience.
Context Agriculture is a main driver of decline in wetlands, but in addressing its impact the diversity in agricultural systems and their catchment interactions must be recognised. Aims In this paper, we review the impacts of food production systems on wetlands to seek a better understanding of agriculture–wetland interactions and identify options for increasing sustainability. Methods Eight farming-system types were defined on the basis of natural resource use and farming intensity, and their impact on different wetland types was assessed through their direct drivers of change. Indirect drivers (such as decision-making in food systems, markets and governance) were also summarised. Key results Findings showed that most inland wetlands are influenced by farming directly, through changes in water and nutrient supply and use of pesticides, or indirectly through catchment water, sediment and nutrient pathways. Coastal wetlands are mostly influenced indirectly. Conclusions More sustainable food production can be achieved through continued protection of wetlands, improving efficiency in agricultural resource use generally, but also through more integration within production systems (e.g. crop–livestock–fish integration) or with wetlands (integrated wetland–agriculture). Implications More support for small-scale producers will be needed to ensure a transformation towards balancing the provisioning, regulating and cultural ecosystem services of wetland agroecosystems within catchments.
Climate is a key determinant in agricultural productivity, and climate change is projected to have a significant impact on livestock production systems. Although, the impact of climate change on the livestock sector is a bit controversial because there is a skeptical view that the livestock itself is contributing a share to global climate change. Even if the sector is contributing, we cannot completely stop the production of livestock products due to the increased demand for milk, meat, egg, pork, wool etc., by the increasing population. Thus, there is an emerging need to educate the farming community in regard and encourage them to take up livestock production in a sustainable way. This paper reviews the impacts of changing climate on sustainable livestock production and the ways to produce livestock products in a sustainable way by adapting to climate change. There are various impacts on livestock systems due to climate variability such as increased water consumption, decreased feed intake, ill health, reduced productivity, decreased reproductive efficiency etc. Besides the mentioned, the direct impact on climate change on the sustainable livestock production are broadly reviewed as the effect on animal health, productivity, and wellbeing. The techniques to overcome these obstacles in a sustainable way includes water management, diversification, altered rotation of pastures, modification of grazing times, reducing greenhouse gas emissions from livestock farming, disease control and surveillance, agroforestry, matching of stocking rates with pasture production, changes in cropping calendar, cooling (indoor systems or provide shade) and Increase mobility for resources have also been detailed in the paper.
Human pressures and global change are threatening water resources. Circumstances vary in each location; therefore, finding solutions that address local issues helps achieve comprehensive water management strategies. In the Andean basins, the pre-Inca cultures used nature-based water management techniques to deal with the dry seasons. This knowledge and these techniques have been recognized as a strategy to increase water security. Additionally, they have been unconsciously applied to improve hydrological conditions in areas affected by extreme land-use changes. Water sowing and harvesting techniques have been used to manage territories dedicated to livestock and agriculture. This research evaluates three traditional infiltration ditch systems on two types of land use (páramo and cultivated pastures) in the Andean region of Azuay (Ecuador). The objective was to establish the potential for better management of water resources in dry seasons. Eosin-traced water diverted through channels or ditches, infiltrated into the soil, was retained for an average of 31 days in the páramo soil and from 90 to 111 days in the cultivated pasture soil. Controlled water infiltration contributes to effective water management by retaining water in the soil for extended periods. We conclude that nature-based systems perform better on soils with higher water retention capacity. These techniques are suitable for managing water in areas where land changes have reduced water storage potential.
Soil erosion has been discussed intensively but controversial both as a significant source or a significant sink of atmospheric carbon possibly explaining the gap in the global carbon budget. One of the major points of discussion has been whether or not carbon is degraded and mineralized to CO2 during detachment, transport and deposition of soil material. By combining the caesium-137 (137Cs) approach (quantification of erosion rates) with stable carbon isotope signatures (process indicator of mixing versus degradation of carbon pools) we were able to show that degradation of carbon occurs during soil erosion processes at the investigated mountain grasslands in the central Swiss Alps (Urseren Valley, Canton Uri). Transects from upland (erosion source) to wetland soils (erosion sinks) of sites affected by sheet and land slide erosion were sampled. Analysis of 137Cs yielded an input of 2 and 2.6 t ha−1 yr−1 of soil material into the wetlands sites. Assuming no degradation of soil organic carbon during detachment and transport, carbon isotope signature of soil organic carbon in the wetlands could only be explained with an assumed 800 and 400 years of erosion input into the wetlands. The latter is highly unlikely with alpine peat growth rates indicating that the upper horizons might have an age between 7 and 200 years. While we do not conclude from our data that eroded soil organic carbon is generally degraded during detachment and transport, we propose this method to gain more information on process dynamics during soil erosion from oxic upland to anoxic wetland soils, sediments or water bodies.
Livestock sector plays a multi-faceted role in socio-economic development of rural households. Livestock rearing has significant positive impact on equity in terms of income and employment and poverty reduction in rural areas as distribution of livestock is more egalitarian as compared to land. In India, over 70 percent of the rural households own livestock and a majority of livestock owning households are small, marginal and landless households. Small animals like sheep, goats, pigs and poultry are largely kept by the land scarce poor households for commercial purposes due to their low initial investment and operational costs. In the recent decade, demand for various livestock based products has increased significantly due to increase in per capita income, urbanization, taste and preference and increased awareness about food nutrition. Livestock sector is likely to emerge as an engine for agricultural growth in the coming decades. It is also considered as a potential sector for export earnings. This paper analyses the development of livestock sector in terms of population, production, trade and employment on one hand and the role of livestock sector in reducing rural poverty on the other.
Twelve to seventeen percentage of the European soil is threatened by water erosion and around 13% of Austrian territory is
affected. Only scarce information based on conventional assessment and measurements are available on erosion and sedimentation
rates in Austria. The magnitude of sedimentation processes was evaluated in a small agricultural Austrian watershed using
both nuclear techniques (137Cs and 210Pb) and conventional non-isotopic measurements in runoff erosion plots during the 1994–2006 periods. Using the erosion data
provided by the plots (29.4 t ha–1 year–1 for the conventional tilled plot, 4.2 t ha–1 year–1 for the plot receiving conservation tillage and 2.7 t ha–1 year–1 for the plot receiving direct seeding treatment) and the 137Cs soil profiles content and the conversion model mass balance 2 (MBM 2), a sedimentation rate of 13.2 t–1 ha–1 year–1 (value determined down slope of the runoff plot under direct seeding treatment) to 50.5 t–1 ha–1 year–1 (value determined in the lowest sedimentation area of the watershed under conventional tillage) was estimated. Under the
experimental condition the conservation tillage and direct seeding system were effective in reducing the sedimentation magnitude
by 65%. However, due to a high variability of the initial fallout inventory and a high γ-spectrometry measurement error, information
provided by the 210Pb method was not usable in the study area. The combined use of conventional erosion measurements and nuclear techniques appears
to be a promising and complementary approach to evaluate sedimentation processes.
The aim of the present study was to establish a reference site and its soil characteristics for use of fallout radionuclides in erosion studies in Slovenia. Prior to this study, no reference site and baseline data existed for Slovenia for this purpose. In the agricultural area of Goričko in East Slovenia, an undisturbed forest situated in Šalamenci (46°44'N, 16°7'E), was selected to establish the inventory value of fallout (137)Cs and to establish a baseline level of multi-elemental fingerprint (major, minor, trace elements including heavy metals) and naturally occurring radionuclides in soils. A total of 20 soil profiles were collected at four 10 cm depth increments for evaluation of baseline level of (137)Cs inventory. An exponential distribution for (137)Cs was found and the baseline level inventory was established at 7300 ± 2500 Bq m(-2) with a coefficient of variation of 34%. Of this mean present-day inventory, approximately 45% is due to the Chernobyl contribution. The physical degradation of soils through erosion is linked with biochemical degradation. This study introduces an approach to establishment of the naturally occurring radionuclide and elemental fingerprints baseline levels at a reference site which can provide comparative data to those from neighbouring agricultural fields for assessment of soil redistribution magnitude using fallout radionuclides. In addition, this information will be used to determine the impact of soil erosion processes and agricultural practices on soil quality and redistribution within agricultural landscapes in Slovenia.
Soil erosion is a serious problem in the forest-savanna transition zone or derived savanna of West Africa and Nigeria and needs to be reduced to maintain soil quality and to ensure food security. In 2007, the use of the fallout radionuclide 137Cs as a tracer for estimating the magnitude of medium-term (40–50 years) rates of soil redistribution was tested at a research station in Ibadan, Nigeria, to investigate, for the first time, its applicability in the derived savanna of West Africa.Because of the traditional tillage practice for cassava cultivation of creating downslope oriented ridges and furrows during the annual ploughing, there was a need to adapt the 137Cs approach to these specific condition. The mean inventory was determined for cores collected from both ridges and furrows at different positions down the slope and this value was used to estimate the downslope variation in the longer term soil redistribution rate. The mean 137Cs reference inventory obtained for an undisturbed site was 568±138Bqm−2. The average inventory for the upper slope of the cassava field (423±323Bqm−2) was generally lower than the average inventory for the middle slope (509±166Bqm−2) and for the lower slope (606±245Bqm−2) and these results provided clear evidence of the downslope movement of soil. The mean 137Cs inventory for the study area within the cassava field (496±273Bqm−2) was 13% lower than the reference inventory, indicating that some of the soil mobilised and redistributed by erosion had been exported beyond the field.Using 137Cs data set and the conversion model mass balance model 2 (MBM2), the gross erosion rate from the cultivated site was estimated to be 18.3tha−1year−1 and the net erosion rate 14.4tha−1year−1, providing a sediment delivery ratio of 78%. These estimates are comparable to the rates generated by conventional soil loss measurements made close to the study site. The study demonstrates that the 137Cs technique can be successfully used to obtain data on medium-term soil redistribution in the derived savanna of Nigeria, and that it could be a useful tool for supporting the improvement of soil conservation on farmland in West Africa.