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Effect of forest bathing on physiological and psychological responses in young Japanese male subjects
Abstract
To provide scientific evidence supporting the efficacy of forest bathing as a natural therapy by investigating its physiological benefits using biological indicators in outdoor settings.
Within-group comparisons were used to examine psychological and physiological responses to exposure to real forest and urban environments.
Young Japanese male adults participated in a 3-day, 2-night field experiment. Physiological responses as well as self-reported psychological responses to forest and urban environmental stimuli were measured in real settings. The results of each indicator were compared against each environmental stimulus.
Heart rate variability analysis indicated that the forest environment significantly increased parasympathetic nervous activity and significantly suppressed sympathetic activity of participants compared with the urban environment. Salivary cortisol level and pulse rate decreased markedly in the forest setting compared with the urban setting. In psychological tests, forest bathing significantly increased scores of positive feelings and significantly decreased scores of negative feelings after stimuli compared with the urban stimuli.
Physiological data from this field experiment provide important scientific evidence on the health benefits of forest bathing. The results support the concept that forest bathing has positive effects on physical and mental health, indicating that it can be effective for health promotion. Despite the small sample size in this study, a very clear tendency towards positive physiological and psychological outcomes in forests was observed.
... 1. Forest bathing/shinrin-yoku acted on the central nervous system (brain) to increase vitality and significantly reduced symptoms such as tension, anxiety, depression, hostility, anger, confusion, and fatigue, making it effective in improving depressive states and is expected to have a preventive effect against depression [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. It has been reported that forest bathing/shinrin-yoku showed the following physical and mental benefits: ...
... Forest bathing/shinrin-yoku acted on the central nervous system (brain) to increase vitality and significantly reduced symptoms such as tension, anxiety, depression, hostility, anger, confusion, and fatigue, making it effective in improving depressive states and is expected to have a preventive effect against depression [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. ...
... Forest bathing/shinrin-yoku acted on the autonomic nervous system to suppress sympathetic nervous activity and increase parasympathetic nervous activity, resulting in a relaxing effect [9,10,[15][16][17]. ...
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a group of disorders of the heart and blood vessels and include coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, rheumatic heart disease, and other conditions, which are leading causes of global morbidity and mortality. It is very important to establish preventive measures against CVDs, including hypertension. Against this background, forest bathing/shinrin-yoku is attracting attention as a new method of health promotion and disease prevention. Forest bathing/shinrin-yoku is an activity that utilizes the healing effects of forests to promote people’s health and prevent disease by stimulating the five senses, including sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch, through forest visits. Since 2004, many scientific studies on the psychological and physiological effects of forest bathing/shinrin-yoku have been conducted, and many original scientific articles have been published. It has been reported that forest bathing/shinrin-yoku boosted immune system by increasing human natural killer activity and anticancer proteins in natural killer, lowered blood pressure and pulse rate, reduced stress hormones including adrenaline, noradrenaline in urine and cortisol in serum and saliva, increased the parasympathetic nervous activity and decreased the sympathetic nervous activity, improved sleep, reduced the negative emotions and increased positive feelings. In this article, the author reviewed the preventive effects of forest bathing/shinrin-yoku on CVDs from the perspectives of the effects of forest bathing/shinrin-yoku on stress hormones, parasympathetic nervous and sympathetic nervous systems, sleep, blood pressure and heart/pulse rate, and other mechanisms based on the published scientific evidence.
... FHW experience activities significantly improved the mood of middle-aged participants. This is completely consistent with the previous research conclusions of many scholars (17)(18)(19). FHW of middle-aged people has the same effect on improving emotions of young and older adults, and the effect of reducing fatigue and confusion of female is better than that of male. ...
... It has been reported that a higher ambient temperature reduces blood pressure, whereas a lower ambient temperature raises blood pressure (20-23). Several studies have determined that participants walking in a forest environment have lower pulse rates and diastolic and systolic blood pressures than in urban settings (17,(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30)(31). However there was no significant difference in blood pressure between the forest and urban area walking groups because of the big difference in ambient temperature between the forest (lower temperature) and urban (higher temperature) environments (2). ...
... The POMS test is a well-accepted quantitative means of evaluating mood, widely used in psychological investigations (3). The POMS measurements in the current study confirm previous findings that forest environments can relieve human psychological tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion (27), suggesting that the subjects were physiologically relaxed during the forest bathing trips (17,27,30,(32)(33)(34)(35)(36)(37)(38)(39)(40). Some studies have also reported that forest environments can lead to improvements in other psychological responses, including anxiety and depression (29,(41)(42)(43)(44)(45). ...
In order to explore the impact of experience in forest-based health and wellness (FHW) on the stress of middle-aged people, 12 participants aged 35–39 were selected to conduct a 3-day/2-night study on FHW experience in Wencheng, Wenzhou. Huawei bracelets were used to monitor participants’ movement, pulse and blood pressure and their mood state was measured before and after the health care experience using the Profile of Mood States (POMS) scale. After the FHW experience, the lowest value of bracelet stress appeared on the second day of the experience for men and women. The total mood disturbance (TMD) decreased by 38.8 points on average, which significantly improved the positive mood and relieved the stress. The decompression effect of the FHW experience showed some variability among individuals. Furthermore, there were gender differences in alleviation of fatigue and puzzlement, which was greater for females than males.
... Physiologically, forest bathing has been shown to lower blood pressure, enhance heart rate variability [11,12], reduce salivary cortisol levels, and decrease systolic blood pressure [13,14], with benefits lasting up to five days post-experience [15]. The underlying mechanisms are thought to include a reduction in stress hormone levels, a decrease in sympathetic nervous system activity, enhancement of parasympathetic nervous system functioning, and suppression of the adrenaline-angiotensin system [16][17][18]. ...
... The selection criteria for these segments encompassed representativeness, accessibility and convenience for visitors, landscape and vegetation diversity, and the viability of experimental designs. In each of these eight segments, one experimental plot (S1-S8) was established, as detailed in Figures 2 and 3. Following methodologies from prior studies [11,18,28], a control group (CG) was established in urban streets, detailed in Figure 4. ...
... The selection criteria for these segments encompassed representativeness, accessibility and convenience for visitors, landscape and vegetation diversity, and the viability of experimental designs. In each of these eight segments, one experimental plot (S1-S8) was established, as detailed in Figures 2 and 3. Following methodologies from prior studies [11,18,28], a control group (CG) was established in urban streets, detailed in Figure 4. In this investigation, the KEC900+II Air Negative Ion Monitor (Shenzhen Wanyi Technology Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China) was employed for quantifying air negative ion concentrations. ...
Amidst the challenges of global environmental change and urbanization, the salutary effects of natural environments on public health are increasingly being recognized. This study investigates the specific effects of varied forest environments in China’s Wuyishan National Park on physiological and psychological health. Eight distinct forest environments were carefully selected, and a repeated-measures ANOVA approach was used to evaluate 41 participants over three days. Physiological assessments included Heart Rate Variability, Skin Conductance Level, and surface Electromyography, complemented by psychological evaluations using the Profile of Mood States. The key findings include the following: (1) Notable variations in physiological indicators were observed among different forest types. In valley tea gardens and broadleaf forest streamside, significant changes in heart rate indicators highlighted the influence of these settings on autonomic nervous activities. Skin Conductance Level and surface Electromyography also indicated varying emotional arousal and pleasure across the forests. The mixed broadleaf and coniferous forest valley, along with the rock-bedded streamscape, elicited emotions of low arousal but high pleasure, inducing feelings of calmness and pleasure. The valley’s tea gardens were associated with low arousal and pleasure, suggesting tranquility without positive emotional induction, while the broadleaf ridge forest induced high arousal and pleasure, reflecting an exciting and joyful environment. (2) The study found that different forest environments had a notable impact on participants’ mood states, indicating reductions in tension, anger, fatigue, and depression, along with an increase in vigor levels. In summary, forest environments offer unique psychological and physiological health benefits compared to urban settings. These findings underscore the importance of integrating forest environments into urban development and public health frameworks, and the need to further explore their impact on the health of diverse populations.
... According to the pioneering work of Haider (2005), health indicators such as blood pressure, heart rate, or stress hormones have been used to assess the positive effects provided by the above ES. In addition, the time spent in a natural environment has proved beneficial to human health, such as the stabilization of heart rate (Lee et al. 2011, Li et al. 2008, Schobersberger et al. 2010, the reduction of the production of stress hormones (Lee et al. 2011); the reduction of blood pressure, heart rate, and stress hormones, such as urinary adrenaline and noradrenaline and salivary cortisol (Li 2010), and the increasing of human natural killer (NK) activity, number of NK cells, and intracellular levels of anti-cancer proteins, suggesting a preventive effect on cancers (Li et al. 2008;Li et al. 2008, Li 2010. ...
... According to the pioneering work of Haider (2005), health indicators such as blood pressure, heart rate, or stress hormones have been used to assess the positive effects provided by the above ES. In addition, the time spent in a natural environment has proved beneficial to human health, such as the stabilization of heart rate (Lee et al. 2011, Li et al. 2008, Schobersberger et al. 2010, the reduction of the production of stress hormones (Lee et al. 2011); the reduction of blood pressure, heart rate, and stress hormones, such as urinary adrenaline and noradrenaline and salivary cortisol (Li 2010), and the increasing of human natural killer (NK) activity, number of NK cells, and intracellular levels of anti-cancer proteins, suggesting a preventive effect on cancers (Li et al. 2008;Li et al. 2008, Li 2010. ...
Ecosystem services (ES) are defined as “the direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human wellbeing” The release of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) established the groundwork for research in this field. Subsequently, there has been a remarkable increasing in interest in ecosystem services (ES) valuation, leading to the advancement, enhancement, and dissemination of various qualitative and quantitative methodologies. The investigation of the economic value of these services/benefits and its drivers, is crucial to the scientific debate, particularly to allow an estimate of the monetary value. As a consequence, support for the decision maker is provided to improve policy to the drivers that potentially have a positive effect on these ES. Considering the significance of ecosystem services (ES) for the sustainable advancement of contemporary society, this study endeavors to explore potential factors influencing ES values related to recreational and touristic opportunities on a global scale using meta-regression analysis. The investigation spans the years 1975 to 2021. Data for this study were sourced from the Ecosystem Service Valuation Database (ESVD), renowned as one of the most extensively utilized databases for ecosystem service valuation (ESV). Main findings show the existence of a difference in the assessment of the ES value for recreational and touristic opportunities in favor of the latter. This difference is more evident in Southern American countries, in which the number of studies published in the field appears low. Furthermore, the degree of protection of the study area is another relevant factor providing a positive effect on the economic value of ES. This result could be supported by the increasing number, over time, of protected areas across the globe. The findings of the present study would help policy makers to develop ad-hoc policies (e.g. financial incentives to increase the number of protected areas) and implement appropriate spatial strategies tailored to the geographical features and territorial characteristics of the area under investigation.
... Living in contact with nature has also been shown to protect against hypertension, especially in older adults (Bauwelinck et al., 2020). Lee et al. (2011) found reductions in cortisol levels and increases in HRV, indicating decreased sympathetic activity in individuals engaging in forest bathing. Several authors have broadly discussed the positive psychophysiological effects of forest bathing (Lee et al., 2011;Park et al., 2010). ...
... Lee et al. (2011) found reductions in cortisol levels and increases in HRV, indicating decreased sympathetic activity in individuals engaging in forest bathing. Several authors have broadly discussed the positive psychophysiological effects of forest bathing (Lee et al., 2011;Park et al., 2010). ...
Aim
This study aims to explore the physiological effect of forest bathing on stress management.
Methods
A total of 29 volunteers participated in this pre-post design, which lacked a control group. Several physiological parameters were recorded, including heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), electrodermal activity (EDA), blood pressure (BP), immunoglobulin A (IGA), and salivary cortisol (sCort). Additionally, the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) was administered before forest exposure. Measurements were taken before and after participants spent 2 days fully immersed in a forest environment. To further assess stress management, participants completed a Mental Arithmetic Task (MAT) before and after forest immersion, during which EDA, HRV, and HR were monitored using an Empatica E4 wristband. Measurements were taken at baseline, during MAT, and afterward (recovery).
Results
Participants exhibited moderate perceived stress levels before forest immersion (mean PSS-10 = 21.22, SD = 3.78). Post-forest exposure, there was a significant decrease in sCort (p < 0.05) and EDA (p < 0.001), while HRV increased (p < 0.001), and diastolic blood pressure rose (p < 0.05). ANOVA results from the MAT showed a significant increase in parasympathetic activity across all conditions post-immersion (p < 0.05), except during recovery, while EDA decreased in all conditions post-forest exposure (p < 0.05).
Conclusion
Shinrin-yoku significantly improved stress management at a physiological level and could be a valuable intervention for individuals experiencing stress. However, longitudinal studies with a control group are necessary to determine whether these effects are sustained over time. Nonetheless, this study highlights the potential benefits of forest immersion for stress reduction by enhancing sympathovagal balance and the adaptability of the stress response system.
... Jimenez et al. (2021) found evidence for associations between nature exposure and improved cognitive function, brain activity (mainly related to emotion regulation), blood pressure, mental health, physical activity, and sleep. At least some of the health-promoting effects of forest bathing may be due to various features of forest landscapes (e.g., plants, flowers, trees, various woods, water bodies; Dayawansa et al. 2003;Glass et al., 2014;Olson et al., 2020;Schuh & Immich, 2022), including the effects of phytoncides (the essential wood oils contained in coniferous forest aerosols) which have been shown to modulate immunological, cardiovascular, pulmonary and psychological processes (Cheng et al., 2009;Donelli et al., 2023;Ideno et al., 2017;Kawakami et al., 2004;Komori et al., 2017;Lee et al., 2011;Lee & Lee, 2014;Li, 2010;Li et al., 2006Li et al., , 2009Li et al., , 2011Oh et al., 2017;Song et al., 2015;Tsunetsugu et al., 2010;Wen et al., 2019). Overall, on-site forest bathing is suggested to be an appropriate treatment for respiratory or psychiatric symptoms (Hansen et al., 2017;Oh et al., 2017;Roviello et al., 2021;Stier-Jarmer et al., 2021) and could therefore be of particular relevance for the treatment of Long/Post-COVID. ...
... However, the observed pre-to-post changes were fairly consistent with improvements in Long/Post-COVID symptoms and psychological variables as they were already demonstrated for online forest bathing in a study employing a waitlist controlled, repeated-measures design (McEwan et al., 2022). In addition, previous studies have demonstrated that forest bathing is a suitable nature-based method to reduce negative affect (Komori et al., 2017;Sundara Rajoo et al., 2021) and symptoms of fatigue (Lee et al., 2018;Muro et al., 2023), improve cardiovascular parameters (Ideno et al., 2017;Komori et al., 2017;Lee et al., 2011;Lee & Lee, 2014;Li et al., 2011;Oh et al., 2017;Song et al., 2015;Tsunetsugu et al., 2010;Wen et al., 2019), enhance mindfulness states (Muro et al., 2023), reduce stress-related outcomes (Annerstedt et al., 2013;Antonelli et al., 2019;Morita et al., 2007;Park et al., 2007Park et al., , 2010, and improve physical and mental well-being (Bang et al., 2017;Bielinis et al., 2018;McEwan et al., 2021). ...
Objective: Long/Post-COVID patients are in urgent need of specialized treatment. Forest bathing has shown to
promote health and well-being, and thus may be an appropriate treatment option. This pilot study aimed to investigate both the feasibility of a two-week audio-guided and mindfulness-based forest bathing intervention and pre-to-post symptom changes in Long/Post-COVID patients.
Methods: A repeated-measures design was employed to collect self-reported data on Long/Post-COVID symptoms, fatigue, well-being and stress-coping strategies from moderately affected Long/Post-COVID patients (N=46, N=36 included; recruited through media) prior to and following participation in the forest bathing program. Pulse rate was monitored through smartwatches. Feasibility was assessed by analysis of dropout rates.
Results: The dropout rate was 22 % due to physical and environmental conditions. We observed decreased overall
Long/Post-COVID symptoms (p < .001) and fatigue (p < .001), increased well-being (p < .001) and a more
adaptive use of stress-coping strategies (p < .01) over time. Participants` pulse rate fell within the normal range
after a forest “walk” (p < .001).
Conclusion: Our results suggest that further research on audio-guided and mindfulness-based forest bathing is
warranted, since this approach may offer a feasible and cost-effective method for the complementary treatment
of moderate Long/Post-COVID.
... Upon reviewing related research works (Kellert & Wilson, 1993;Guan et al., 2017;Li et al., 2009;Lee et al., 2011), several interesting findings were discovered, particularly regarding forest bathing. Forest bathing, a practice that stimulates the immune system, increases vitality, and reduces anxiety, stress, and depression, has been identified as a health-promoting form of tourism enhancing therapeutic treatment Morita et al., 2007). ...
... While the documented benefits of forest bathing, a practice rooted in the broader principle of nature exposure, have been shown to enhance well-being significantly, the exploration of forest bathing as a specific tourism practice within Thailand has been notably limited. Existing literature primarily focuses on general nature exposure, often overlooking the unique dynamics and advantages associated with forest bathing tourism (Kellert & Wilson, 1993;Guan et al., 2017;Furuyashiki et al., 2019;Li et al., 2009;Lee et al., 2011). In response to this gap, this research shifts from mere confirmation of benefits to an exploratory assessment aimed at uncovering the health-enhancing potentials of forest bathing within Thailand's distinctive environmental and cultural landscape. ...
This study broke new ground by exploring forest bathing in Thailand, examining its potential to improve health within the country's unique environment and culture. Recognizing the practice's novelty, the research assessed both feasibility and acceptability, along with its effectiveness in boosting well-being. Bespoke activities designed to optimize the experience for Thailand's diverse landscapes were also developed. Additionally, the study evaluated forest bathing's potential as a novel and attractive wellness tourism option in Thailand, highlighting its health benefits. The study engaged 94 volunteer tourists, randomized based on location and availability, who participated in forest bathing activities across varied ecosystems—National Park, Community Forest, and Urban Forest. A significant outcome was the observable decrease in participants' systolic blood pressure levels after engagement. This decrease, averaging approximately 6.6%, sparked discussions on its clinical relevance compared to other health interventions. To understand forest bathing's effects comprehensively, the study tracked systolic and diastolic blood pressure before and after the activity. It also incorporated psychological measures, including the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and a happiness assessment. The latter revealed that the vast majority of participants (88.3%) reported high levels of happiness. This research significantly advances forest bathing as a sustainable health tourism model in Thailand by providing early evidence of its effectiveness across diverse landscapes and reinforcing its adoption. The study highlights the importance of merging physiological and psychological assessments, offering a more comprehensive method to evaluate forest bathing's therapeutic potential, thereby enhancing its feasibility and maximizing its benefits within Thailand's unique environmental contexts.
... Chronic stress is one of the leading causes of illness worldwide (Torrades, 2007) and spending time in nature has been shown to help lower cortisol levels (J. Lee et al., 2011;Tsunetsugu et al., 2007Tsunetsugu et al., , 2010, a stressrelated hormone, in the body (Torrades, 2007). In addition, being surrounded by trees and vegetation also increases serotonin levels, a brain chemical related to well-being and happiness (B. ...
... All of them are among the prolific co-authors, coinciding with the most productive countries in forest therapies (X. . Similarly, many of the most cited papers were published by authors from those countries (J. Lee et al., 2009Lee et al., , 2011Lee et al., , 2014Q. Li et al., 2008;Morita et al., 2007;. ...
Forest bathing, or shinrin-yoku, is a practice that involves immersion in forest environments to improve health and well-being, associated with stress reduction, immune system strengthening and mood enhancement. The aim of the present analysis is to quantify and evaluate scientific output, map collaboration among researchers, as well as identify prolific and prominent researchers, identify prolific journals, and analyze thematic trends. The set of 285 documents was extracted from the Web of Science, processed with Microsoft Excel and VOSviewer programs, and the analysis was performed following the traditional rules of bibliometrics. The number of publications show exponential growth, demonstrating the interest of the scientific community. The core of prolific journals is composed of only two journals, and the most prominent author is M. Yoshifumi from Chiba University (47 articles and 2208 citations). Japan and South Korea stand out as the most prolific countries. The researchers focus on the positive effects of forest bathing on mental health, especially in mitigating symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress.
... The therapeutic effects of nature can be attributed to various factors, including the presence of phytoncides and the calming influence of natural visual and auditory stimuli [4]. Numerous studies have demonstrated that individuals participating in forest therapy experience a decrease in stress hormones [5], reduction in blood pressure [6,7], and increase in parasympathetic nerve activity [8,9]. In addition to its physical effects, forest therapy promotes mental, emotional, and physical well-being, as well as mindfulness [1,2,5,10]. ...
... We identified a distinct factor structure of the FMI relative to previous studies. A study conducted in the UK assigned items 1-3, 5, and 7 to the first factor and items 4,6,8,[9][10][11][12], and 14 to the second factor [33]. Conversely, a Korean study assigned items 1-8 to the first factor and items 9-12 and 14 to the second factor. ...
Forest therapy is associated with several health advantages, such as stress reduction and improved psychological health. Mindfulness, an important component of forest therapy, is also associated with improved health outcomes. However, few studies have empirically evaluated mindfulness in forest therapy settings. This study translated the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI) in the context of forest therapy into Korean and then validated it. (1) Methods: This study included 352 individuals. Four other psychometric tools were administered to ensure criterion validity. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were implemented to determine the factor structure. Furthermore, item validity was assessed using item response theory. (2) Findings: A two-factor structure of the FMI, comprising acceptance and presence, was the most suitable. However, excluding item 13 enhanced the model fit (χ2 [df] = 169.9 [64], comparative fit index = 0.93, Tucker-Lewis index = 0.92, root mean square error of approximation = 0.069). The FMI had satisfactory psychometric properties. (3) Conclusion: The FMI was translated into Korean and validated, serving as a valuable instrument for assessing mindfulness in the context of forest therapy. We identified that item 13 should be excluded. Our results demonstrate the potential effects of mindfulness on mental health in forest therapy.
... Low hydrodynamic landscapes (Haizi) in Jiuzhaigou are natural spaces containing rich flora and fauna and large areas of water. Plants and water can enhance mental restorativeness (40) as they can provide a comfortable environment by improving the microclimate, thus positively impacting the restorativeness of human health (41,42). Our results revealed that for low hydrodynamic landscapes (Haizi) Zhang et al. 10.3389/frcha.2025.1506392 ...
Audiovisual environmental perception has been the focus of numerous empirical studies. This study employs virtual reality (VR) to explore how different hydrodynamic waterscapes in Jiuzhaigou World Natural Heritage Site affect physiological and psychological restoration in youth. According to the results, audiovisual interactions, particularly with water sounds and birdsongs, significantly enhance physiological restoration compared to visuals alone. High-intensity hydrodynamic landscapes, regardless of birdsongs, exhibit the highest physiological restoration. There is a linearly positive correlation between physiological restorativeness and hydrodynamic landscapes. Medium-intensity hydrodynamic landscapes with rich forms are most psychologically restorative. In low-medium-intensity settings, visuals contribute more to psychological restoration than soundscapes. It is further found that waterscapes rich in flora and fauna feature a higher level of biodiversity. In the waterscapes with both elements of vegetation and water, the restorativeness of plant and animal resources is greater than that of water. This work highlights the need to focus on the application of different hydrodynamic landscapes in urban areas and the conservation of World Heritage Sites.
... When comparing our protocol to Wood et al. (2018), they utilized walking groups, which took place in an outdoor setting, followed by the TSST-G. It is plausible that the combination of exposure to nature, which has been documented to reduce cortisol levels [47] as well as the potential protective social effects of being in a group [48] may have contributed to the buffering effect. With respect to the Caplin study [21], the authors utilized a 45-minute period between exercise cessation and TSST administration, while we employed a 30-minute period, as we were interested in utilizing a rest period found in studies examining other stress reactivity measures (e.g., SBP, DBP, state anxiety) in conjunction to cortisol. ...
Post-secondary students experience acute stressors daily. Acute stress has been associated with poor cognitive and learning outcomes. Prior work has demonstrated a single bout of exercise can attenuate acute stress responses. The present study examined the effects of a single 30-minute bout of high intensity aerobic exercise on multidimensional stress reactivity and learning-related outcomes. Forty participants were randomized to either engaging in an exercise bout or seated rest. Participants were then exposed to the Trier Social Stress Test followed by a 20-minute video lecture. The video lecture contained embedded mind wandering probes. Acute exercise did not attenuate stress responses, however promoted greater on-task behaviour (i.e., less mind wandering) and improved lecture comprehension scores. Notably, state anxiety was positively associated with mind wandering and mind wandering was negatively associated with lecture comprehension. Collectively, examining the role of acute interventions that reduce state anxiety may promote favourable learning outcomes in young adults.
... Outra possível redução de risco de estresse, previnindo doenças relacionadas a ele, como distúrbios do sono, dor crônica e doenças autoimunes (Lee et al., 2011). ...
This text is part of the REDENEURO scientific dissemination project, available on the website https://cienciasecognicao.org/, from the NUTES Institute of Science and Health Education. This text addresses the issues related to children's exposure to electronic devices and provides evidence-based recommendations.
... According to Al-Ruzzeh et al. [4], quality of life is primarily influenced by physical health and relationships with other people but also by environmental characteristics that are important to a person, including the natural environment. In recent years, there have been many works showing that spending time in natural areas, especially forests, has positive effects on our physical [5,6] and mental health [7][8][9]. As environmental and health awareness increases, we can expect the popularity of recreation in forest areas to continue to grow, which is why we can see a very strong development of forest tourism, for example, in China [10,11] or Europe [12,13]. ...
Currently, people are more and more willing to rest in areas of urban greenery or forest areas for relaxation, sports, tourism, or recreation. Nonetheless, the decision for this type of activity is often a thoughtful, planned decision that determines the level of quality of life. The purpose of our study was to determine whether objective indicators of quality of life, such as social, economic, infrastructural, and environmental factors, influence the frequency of visits to urban green areas and forest areas. An online survey was conducted by a professional firm on a group of 1000 people living in and around the Warsaw metropolitan area. The results showed a clear seasonal pattern, with a higher frequency of visits in summer compared to winter. Urban green areas were more likely to be visited than forests. The frequency of visits was influenced by the 11 analysed factors, although not always in all variants. Among these factors were education level, income, distance to urban green areas, and assessment of the quality of greenery at the place of residence. Women and younger age groups were more frequent visitors, especially in summer, while older people and lower-income groups visited less often, especially in winter. The results underscore the importance of integrating green spaces with urban planning to increase accessibility and meet the diverse needs of the population, promoting both physical and mental well-being. Further research should be extended to other metropolitan areas and exploring psychological motivations for visiting natural areas.
... In addition to the treatment of psychopathologies, promising results are obtained that many psychological disorders can be prevented by being in touch with nature and exhibiting pro-nature behaviours (Stigsdotter et al. 2011. At this point, it is stated that studies should be carried out in order for people to have more frequent contact with nature, long-term green space exposure, to have attitudes that protect nature and to exhibit pro-nature behaviours (Lee et al. 2011, Vella et al. 2023. Our scale offers convenience to experts in the field at the point of what pro-nature behaviours of people in our country are, how they can be determined and measured. ...
Objective: This study aims to adapt the Pro-Nature Conservation Behavior Scale, which was developed to identify pro-nature conservation behaviors, into Turkish. Method: For the validity and reliability study, 371 participants were included in the study. The suitability of the scale for Turkish culture was tested with Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). Results: The scale, which consists of 18 items in total, has 4 sub-dimensions (Individual engagement, planting, collective engagement , wildlife). Overall Cronbach Alpha internal consistency coefficient of the scale was .85; .73 for the individual engagement factor, .86 for the planting factor, .71 for the collective engagement factor and .61 for the wildlife factor, and convergent validity was supported by positive correlations with the Environmental Behavior Scale, the New Ecological Paradigm Scale, the Generalized Self-Esteem Scale and the Warnick-Edinburg Mental Well-Being Scale. Conclusion: Pro-Nature Conservation Behavior Scale is a valid and reliable measurement tool that can be used in Türkiye.
... In three of the studies, participants were immersed in a natural or urban environment for a brief amount of time (~30 min). In two of them-both from Japan-the natural environment was associated with increases in HRV, consistent with reduced stress and an enhanced relaxation response [22,23]. In the third study, from Denmark, both environments elicited similar increases in HRV, although the control condition was a historic town and, therefore, might have had its own calming effect [24]. ...
The physiological impact of walking in nature was quantified via continuous heart rate variability (HRV), pre- and post-walk saliva cortisol measures, and self-reported mood and mindfulness scores for N = 17 participants who walked “The Green Road” at Walter Reed National Military Medical Center in Bethesda, Maryland. For N = 15 of the participants, HRV analysis revealed two main groups: group one individuals had a 104% increase (mean) in the root mean square standard deviation (RMSSD) and a 47% increase (mean) in the standard deviation of NN values (SDNN), indicating an overall reduction in physiological stress from walking the Green Road, and group two individuals had a decrease (mean) of 42% and 31% in these respective HRV metrics, signaling an increase in physiological stresses. Post-walk self-reported scores for vigor and mood disturbance were more robust for the Green Road than for a comparable urban road corridor and showed that a higher HRV during the walk was associated with improved overall mood. Saliva cortisol was lower after taking a walk for all participants, and it showed that walking the Green Road elicited a significantly larger reduction in cortisol of 53%, on average, when compared with 37% of walking along an urban road. It was also observed that the order in which individuals walked the Green Road and urban road also impacted their cortisol responses, with those walking the urban road before the Green Road showing a substantial reduction in cortisol, suggesting a possible attenuation effect of walking the Green Road first. These findings provide quantitative data demonstrating the stress-reducing effects of being in nature, thus supporting the health benefit value of providing access to nature more broadly in many settings.
... Greenery and vegetation in UGS provide functional services through transpiration and shading together resulting in cooling effects as a mitigation against the HIE by reducing temperature and increasing moisture [20]. These further lead to enhanced physiological health parameters for people exposed to green spaces in lowered blood pressure and heart rate variability and strengthened respiratory ability and blood cell metabolism [17,21,22]. These benefits in physiological and psychological health parameters should be parametrized for assessing OTC as they account for immediate human responses when a thermal environment is perceived [23,24]. ...
Outdoor thermal comfort (OTC) is one of the most important issues for people exposed to urban green space (UGS). It is mainly evaluated by assessing equivalent meteorological factors that may combine and result in human responses of perceptions about comfortable vs. uncomfortable environments. The assessment of these responses is challenged by limits in a database that is powerful enough to support big-data analysis and an essential parameter that can evaluate health-related responses to OTC in urban forests. In this study, a meta-analysis was conducted by synthesizing studies of physiological and psychological health responses of green space (GS) visitors to meteorological factors in host cities on a global scale. A total of 15,000 numerical records about the psychological and physiological responses of UGS visitors were obtained from 105 papers across 68 global cities in 21 countries. A novel parameterization was developed to evaluate OTC by normalizing changes in health-related parameters and detecting their regressions against multiple meteorological factors. It was revealed that OTC resulted in more benefits in psychological health parameters than in physiological ones for UGS visitors worldwide. Globally, health-promoting OTC environments were more found in temperate countries than in countries subjected to other climates. People in Asian countries were indicated to live in environments with higher comfort that benefitted health states in cities at low latitudes. Thermal environments tended to be harsher and more challenging, mostly too chilling, in northern cities than in the south globally. A deep learning model using the ResNet algorithm was found to perform to an expected level with R2 as high as >70% and errors controlled generally lower than 0.01. Taking mainland China for instance, it was predicted that thermal environments in eastern cities of China highly challenged the psychological health of local UGS visitors across all seasons of the year. Northern cities of China were predicted to have satisfied thermal environments that benefited psychological and psychological health responses in spring. In summer, cities in West China were predicted to have comfortable thermal environments, and in winter, environments in the southwestern cities were more comfortable.
... Medical studies have shown that increased PP can reduce arterial wall elasticity and is associated with conditions such as aortic insufficiency and severe anemia [102]. Pulse (P) is an important cardiovascular health indicator, typically rising during stress or stressful environments and falling during relaxed states [103]. ...
The smellscape of garden plants plays a crucial role in promoting human well-being. Despite this, empirical data on the specific effects of distinct stimulation methods on public health remain insufficient. The objective of this research is to investigate the influence of three distinct sensory modalities, olfactory, visual, and their combined effect, on both physiological and psychological reactions to a pine forest’s smellscape. A sample of 95 college students was selected, with data collected through both physiological and psychological measurements. The analysis focused on variables such as blood pressure (BP), pulse rate (P), pulse pressure (PP), skin conductance (SC), brainwave patterns (α, β), the odor emotion semantic differential (SD), and the State Anxiety Inventory (S-AI) scale. The results reveal that in the pine forest aroma environment, the central nervous system shows a compromise effect during olfactory–visual interaction, with greater autonomic nervous system (ANS) activation compared with either stimulus alone, suggesting cumulative effects. Psychologically, the influence of olfactory interaction on anxiety fell between that of visual and olfactory stimulation. Participants consistently reported that the combination of both the sight and scent of a pine forest was the most invigorating. Furthermore, research revealed that combining olfactory and visual stimuli led to a more profound amplification of positive environmental perceptions compared with when each sense was engaged individually. These findings lay the groundwork for understanding how garden plant aromas contribute to human well-being.
... In three of the studies, participants were immersed in a natural or urban environment for a brief amount of time (~ 30 minutes). In two of them -both from Japan -the natural environment was associated with increases in HRV, consistent with reduced stress and an enhanced relaxation response [21,22]. In the third study, from Denmark, both environments elicited similar increases in HRV, although the control condition was a historic town, and therefore might have had its own calming effect [23]. ...
The physiological impact of walking in nature was quantified via continuous heart rate variabil-ity (HRV), pre- and post-walk saliva cortisol measures, and self-reported mood and mindfulness scores for N=17 participants who walked “The Green Road” at Walter Reed National Military Medical Center in Bethesda, Maryland. For N=15 of the participants, HRV analysis revealed two main groups: group 1 individuals who had a 104% increase (mean) in root mean square standard deviation (RMSSD) and 47% increase (mean) in standard deviation of NN values (SDNN) indi-cating an overall reduction in physiological stress from walking the Green Road, and group 2 in-dividuals who had a decrease (mean) of 42% and 31% in these respective HRV metrics signaling an increase in physiological stresses. Post-walk self-reported scores for vigor and mood disturb-ance were more robust for the Green Road than for a comparable urban road corridor and showed that higher HRV during the walk was associated with improved overall mood. Saliva cortisol was lower after taking a walk for all participants and showed that walking the Green Road elicited a significantly larger reduction in cortisol of 53% on average when compared with 37% of walking along an urban road. It is also observed that the order in which individuals walked the green road, and urban road also impacted their cortisol response with those walking the urban road before the green showing a substantial reduction in cortisol, suggesting a possible attenuation effect of walking the green road first. These findings provide quantitative data demonstrating the stress-reducing effects of being in nature, thus supporting the health benefit value of providing access to nature more broadly in many settings.
... Unlike the horticultural activities conducted indoors or in an urban garden environment during those studies, the activities conducted on an actual care farm during this study had more positive effects on the subjective emotional state of the participants. Cohen (1978) reported that, compared with urban environments, exposure to natural environments achieves psychological recovery, and related studies also reported that green environments have psychophysiological benefits, such as stabilizing the autonomic nervous system and increasing cerebral alpha activity (Jiang et al. 2019;Lee et al. 2011). ...
The underlying therapeutic mechanisms of care farming activities have not been addressed using psychophysiological data. We aimed to understand frontal cortex activation in adults during care farming activities and to explore the psychophysiological effects. Using a randomized crossover study method, 20 adults (average age, 31.3 ± 9.8 years) participated in 10 care farming activities, (four gardening activities, three animal-mediated activities, and three off-farming activities) for 3 minutes each at an actual care farm. Electroencephalography (EEG) was performed during the activity, and emotional states were assessed using subjective emotional questionnaires after each activity. The EEG results revealed that alpha activity increased during gardening activities, such as organizing garden plots and planting plants. Spectral edge frequency 50, which predicts the degree of arousal, increased during interaction with dogs. The results of the subjective emotional questionnaire revealed that participants experienced positive emotions, such as vigor, comfort, naturalness, and relaxation, when participating in care farming activities compared with those while resting. Therefore, this study suggests that care farming activities can induce changes in the frontal cortex activation and positive emotional states in participants. This study elucidates the use of such activities to address mental health-related issues.
... [33]. POMS is a credible and contemporary measure of mood state, used previously for the evaluation of the forest environment's effect on individuals' moods [16,28,30,[34][35][36][37]. It is a tool that measures six subscales of mood state: confusion or bewilderment, fatigue, anger or hostility, tension or anxiety, depression or dejection, and vigor. ...
Currently, there is a marked increase in the importance of the environmental and cultural ecosystem services of the forest. Among the social benefits, protection of human health and improvement of human well-being come to the fore. Forests, both reserve and commercial, benefit human health. However, people often have negative attitudes toward forest management activities, especially near urban areas, and prefer forest management that results in a forest that is close to natural. Second-growth forest and clear-cutting are the most visible manifestations of ongoing forest management in forests. The purpose of this study was to compare the benefits derived from exposure to second-growth forest, clear-cutting and mature forest stands. Fifty-five students of the Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW (WULS-SGGW) participated in the study. The study was conducted in October 2023 in a forest within the city of Otwock, within the range of the Warsaw metropolitan area. Participants were exposed for 15 min to selected plots: second- growth forest, clear-cutting area and mature forest stand. Before the experiment (PRE-Test control trial) and after each of the exposures four psychological questionnaires were administered: the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), the Restorative Outcome Scale (ROS), the Subjective Vitality Scale (SVS) and Profile of Mood States (POMS). The results indicate that not all analyzed features of the forest landscape have a regenerative effect on people. Exposure to a commercial forest, only in the case of a mature stand, yielded the most benefits in terms of mood improvement. In contrast, exposure to clear-cutting area resulted in a decrease in positive feelings and an increase in negative feelings, leading to a complete disturbance of mood, an increase in tension, depression and a decrease in feelings of vigor. Clear-cutting area has significantly worse restorative properties compared to mature forest stands and second-growth forest. This observation is relevant to forest management within city limits and in the suburban zone of large cities. Not only is clear-cutting area not accepted by people visiting forests for recreational purposes, but it leads to a detraction from the health benefits provided by forests.
... Both of these techniques are becoming more and more popular, especially in Asia. In recent years, there have been many publications on the positive influence of nature on human health [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. Moreover there are increasing scientific reports in this area from the USA and the EU [12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]. ...
Background and Objectives: In recent years, there has been a significant increase in interest in the health benefits of contact with nature. The theoretical and practical aspects of this issue are constantly being investigated. It is worth noting, however, that there is a large group of people for whom the only available form of contact with nature can only be through images (the view outside the window, photos and films about nature), recorded sounds of nature or descriptions of nature. Research indicating how much exposure to nature in the dimension of virtual reality achieves improvements in well-being, mood and vitality is therefore urgently needed. Material and Methods: The main goal of the experiment was to examine whether watching a 20-min 2D video of forest environment or reading a textbook on forest knowledge for 20 min would bring any psychological benefits. The order of both exposures was intentionally changed (reversed) for every second participant in this study to reduce the order effect. A group of 16 volunteers, students of Warsaw University of Life Sciences, took part in the experiment. The psychological tests before and after each of the two parts of the experiment (viewing a picture with sound and reading a book) were established using five questionnaires: Profile of Mood State (POMS); Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS); Restorative Outcome Scale (ROS); Subjective Vitality Scale (SVS) and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Results: As a result of the analyses, a 20-min viewing of a 2D video of a forest with natural sounds of nature was shown to have a positive effect on the psychological relaxation of the subjects in the form of an increase in restorativeness and vitality in the participants of the experiment, as well as a greater decrease in negative feelings, tension and anger than when reading a forest-themed book. Watching a video of a landscape can reduce tension and anger levels significantly, which can be an important guideline in relation to the interior design of public spaces and the protection of employees from the adverse effects of psychosocial working conditions, as well as the desire to stabilize anger and maintain emotional stability in everyday life.
... Although there is still a limited number of publications on the effects of nature contact on well-being and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic, previous studies have shown nature contact promotes increased perception and restoration of mental health and quality of life (Lee et al., 2009). Nature contact has positive effects on mood, thereby indicating relaxation and calmness (Mcallister et al., 2017), happiness (Zelenski & Nisbet, 2014), emotional strength (Eisenman et al., 2015Lumber et al., 2017); development of self-discipline and memory (McCormick, 2017), fulfillment and peace of mind (Clark et al., 2014;Glackin & Beale, 2018), stress reduction (Lee et al., 2011;McCormick, 2017), relief (Ward Thompson et al., 2012), and coping skills (Meyer & Botsch, 2017). Nature contact also helps prevent and recover from the negative effects of stress (Duvall;Kaplan, 2014;Hordyk;Hanley;Richard, 2015). ...
O contato com a natureza é uma das atividades capazes de proporcionar melhora na saúde física e mental da sociedade. Com o início da pandemia da COVID-19, causada pelo vírus Sars-CoV-2 e a necessidade de os governos realizarem lockdown ou impor medidas de contenção da circulação de pessoas em diversas localidades do planeta para contenção do vírus, houve uma diminuição do contato com a natureza. Paralelo a isso, um aumento nos casos e relatos de sintomas de depressão e ansiedade. Dessa forma, o presente estudo buscou identificar os benefícios do contato com a natureza durante o período da pandemia para a manutenção da saúde mental. Os resultados demonstraram que há uma alta eficácia na realização de diversas atividades de contato com a natureza para a redução dos sintomas de estresse, depressão e ansiedade durante a pandemia da COVID-19.
... Knowledge of the impact of forests on people in different seasons is needed, especially in those regions where there are different seasons and where different conditions exist in forests, resulting in trees losing their leaves in autumn and failing to keep their leaves in winter (deciduous forests). Many previous studies have been undertaken in winter [21,36,37] and autumn [38,39]. There were also studies comparing spring with other seasons. ...
Human contact with the natural environment effectively counteracts negative symptoms of stress and has many positive psychological effects. For this reason, forests within city limits are increasingly seen as part of public health promotion. Being in an urban forest can take many forms, but there is still little known about whether being in a forest alone, without engaging one’s senses, is as effective for human renewal as an experience that involves greater, more conscious activation of the senses of sight, hearing, smell. A study measuring the effect of the forest (spring aspect) on human mental relaxation during passive exposure was conducted on a sample of 19 Polish young adults. The experiment consisted of two series. In the first, participants read an academic textbook in a tree stand for 20 min, while in the next session—conducted at the same location—they contemplated the landscape. Before the experiment and after each of the two series of tests, four psychological questionnaires were administered: the Profile of Mood State (POMS), Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), the Restorative Outcome Scale (ROS) and the Subjective Vitality Scale (SVS). Analyses showed that being in a forest environment positively influenced the subjects’ mental relaxation, while the level of benefit from the activation of the senses, especially vision (looking at the forest) was significantly higher compared to the passive activity of reading a text. The research indicates that forest bathing is the best form of relaxation that can be obtained through contact with the forest.
... The term greenspace is typically defined as open, undeveloped land with natural vegetation [2]. Researches has shown that visiting a forest had greater benefits for improving stress levels than visiting an urban environment in 2011 [3], moreover, Berg and Custer finds out that gardening led to greater levels of stress reduction than a restful indoor task like reading [4]. Several studies have investigated the reasons why greenspaces improve health. ...
This essay use literature review to explores the relationship between greenspace and stress, drawing on evidence from multiple studies that utilize cortisol measurements to indicate changes in stress levels. Greenspace refers to all natural green areas, including parks, woodlands, scrublands, and other natural environments. People's stress can be influenced by various factors such as the environment, family, friends, and work or study. Therefore, it is important to understand how much a green environment can reduce stress. The findings strongly suggest that greenspace has a beneficial impact on reducing mental stress. However, the influence of greenspace exposure varies by gender. For men, a moderate amount of greenspace is optimal for stress recovery, while more greenspace does not necessarily lead to greater improvement. In contrast, the effects on women require further investigation to be fully understood.
... [33]. POMS is a credible and contemporary measure of mood state, used previously for the evaluation of the forest environment's effect on individuals' moods [16,28,30,[34][35][36][37]. It is a tool that measures six subscales of mood state: confusion or bewilderment, fatigue, anger or hostility, tension or anxiety, depression or dejection, and vigor. ...
Currently, there is a marked increase in the importance of the environmental and cultural ecosystem services of the forest. Among the social benefits, protection of human health and improvement of human well-being come to the fore. Forests, both reserve and commercial, benefit human health. However, people often have negative attitudes toward forest management activities, especially near urban areas, and prefer forest management that results in a forest that is close to natural. Second-growth forest and clear-cutting are the most visible manifestations of ongoing forest management in forests. The purpose of this study was to compare the benefits derived from exposure to second-growth forest, clear-cutting and mature forest stands. Fifty-five students of the Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW (WULS-SGGW) participated in the study. The study was conducted in October 2023 in a forest within the city of Otwock, within the range of the Warsaw metropolitan area. Participants were exposed for 15 minutes to selected plots: second- growth forest, clear-cutting area and mature forest stand. Before the experiment (PRE-Test control trial) and after each of the exposures four psychological questionnaires were administered: the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS), the Restorative Outcome Scale (ROS), the Subjective Vitality Scale (SVS) and Profile of Mood States (POMS). The results indicate that not all analyzed features of the forest landscape have a regenerative effect on people. Exposure to a commercial forest, only in the case of a mature stand, yielded the most benefits in terms of mood improvement. In contrast, exposure to clear-cutting area resulted in a decrease in positive feelings and an increase in negative feelings, leading to a complete disturbance of mood, an increase in tension, depression and a decrease in feelings of vigor. Clear-cutting area has significantly worse restorative properties compared to mature forest stands and second-growth forest. This observation is relevant to forest management within city limits and in the suburban zone of large cities. Not only is clear-cutting area not accepted by people visiting forests for recreational purposes, but it leads to a detraction from the health benefits provided by forests.
... This outdoor activity in a forest environment is often conceptualized as 'forest bathing' (if the aim of the activity is restoration) [6,9] or 'forest therapy' (if the aim of the activity is usage of the forest for healing) [10,11]. These activities unquestionably induce psychological relaxation [9,[12][13][14][15][16][17] and have a positive influence on mental health [18][19][20][21]. The induced psychological relaxation might be measured using psychometric techniques. ...
Forest recreation can be successfully used for psychological relaxation and can serve as a remedy for common stress-related problems. The special form of forest recreation intended for restoration is forest bathing. These activities might be disrupted by some factors, such as viewing buildings in the forest or using a computer in nature, which interrupt psychological relaxation. One factor that might interrupt psychological relaxation is the occurrence of an open dump in the forest during an outdoor experience. To test the hypothesis that an open dump might decrease psychological relaxation, a case study using a randomized, controlled crossover design was conducted. For this purpose, two groups of healthy young adults viewed a control forest or a forest with an open dump in reverse order and filled in psychological questionnaires after each stimulus. Participants wore oblique eye patches to stop their visual stimulation before the experimental stimulation, and the physical environment was monitored. The results were analyzed using the two-way repeated measures ANOVA. The measured negative psychological indicators significantly increased after viewing the forest with waste, and the five indicators of the Profile of Mood States increased: tension-anxiety, depression-dejection, anger-hostility, fatigue, and confusion. In addition, the negative aspect of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule increased in comparison to the control and pretest. The measured positive indicators significantly decreased after viewing the forest with waste, the positive aspect of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule decreased, and the Restorative Outcome Scale and Subjective Vitality scores decreased (in comparison to the control and pretest). The occurrence of an open dump in the forest might interrupt a normal restorative experience in the forest by reducing psychological relaxation. Nevertheless, the mechanism of these relevancies is not known, and thus, it will be further investigated. In addition, in a future study, the size of the impact of these open dumps on normal everyday experiences should be investigated. It is proposed that different mechanisms might be responsible for these reactions; however, the aim of this study is to only measure this reaction. The identified psychological reasons for these mechanisms can be assessed in further studies.
... EEG asymmetry was found to have a significant correlation with depression or anxiety [10,11]. In addition, pulse rate variability (PRV, or heart rate variability (HRV)) is an evaluation method for quantifying the cardiovascular system and autonomic nervous system [12,13]. HRV is analyzed by repetitive QRS waveforms measured by electrocardiogram, and pulse rate variability (PRV) refers to the change in the interval between pulses in the signal acquired using photoplethysmography (PPG) [14]. ...
The purpose of this study is to more quantitatively identify changes in body function through various bio-signal parameters. (1) Background: Forest therapy is effective in stabilizing cognitive, emotional, cardiovascular, and autonomic nervous systems. In particular, it is necessary to more quantitatively confirm changes in body functions through various bio signals. (2) Methods: As a forest therapy program (FTP) for the elderly, it consisted of strength training in the forest, respiratory aerobic exercises, and cognitive function training, and a total of 19 sessions were performed for 12 weeks. The electroencephalography (EEG) and Photoplethysmography (PPG) before and after the program were measured and compared between program participants (FTP group) and non-participants (control group). (3) Results: the FTP group showed increase in the alpha band power in EEG and a decrease in the PRV index, Tad, and Tae after the program compared to the control group; (4) Conclusions: Significant differences occurred in the physiological functioning of the elderly participants after the program. This is a result that can confirm the effectiveness of forest therapy more quantitatively. Forest therapy has a positive effect on mental stress reduction and cardiovascular function.
... Urban life brings along with loads of stress involving work pressure, pollution, interpersonal relationships, and various other stressors while also limiting people to closed rooms and clumped-up spaces irritating the state of mind, as observed in daily life. All these drives the urge of urban citizens to escape into the wilderness for therapeutic health benefits and relief from anxiety and strain (Knopf, 1983;Ulrich et al., 1991;Kaplan, 1995;Frumkin, 2001;Lee et al., 2011Mao et al., 2012;Tsunetsugu et al., 2013;Ochiai et al., 2015;Bang et al., 2017;Velarde et al., 2007;Neff et al., 2018;Song et al., 2018;Yu et al., 2018;Lyu et al., 2019;Kim at al., 2020). Natural environments also provide an improved physiological and emotional environment improving human attitude or mood than urban scapes (Hartig & Staats, 2003;Morita et al., 2006). ...
The current study deals with the (1) perspectives of and (2) benefits to local communities neighbouring the Kaziranga National Park to various aspects of ecosystem services. The study involved interviewing participants to know their perspective on utilities of services provided by the protected area in their daily living, health, psychology, and livelihood. The above-mentioned investigation was carried out between the years 2018 and 2021. It consisted of 749 semi-structured interviews carried out in 21 different villages in the Bokakhat and Kaliabor Circle adjacent to Kaziranga National Park. Every household served as a sampling unit. The villages were chosen based on how likely they were to use non-timber forest products and how dependent they were on the ecosystem services of the forest to support their livelihood. Through group discussions and semi-structured interviews, the eldest members of the household provided most of the information on the use of NTFP extraction and perceptions of the benefits of ecosystem services. The respondent's demographic information was also recorded. Results showed a very positive attitude of locals towards protecting and conserving the protected area for better livelihood, health, and psychological benefits. Based on this study, this paper also discusses the role of Provisioning and Cultural Ecosystem Services of Kaziranga National Park in supporting human health and well-being. OVERVIEW Ecosystem Services (ES) are significant contributors to the health and well-being of human beings. It is broadly categorized as Provisioning Services, Regulating Services, Supporting Services, and Cultural Services (MEA, 2005) with the majority being offered by forest variations. Provisioning services such as NTFPs (food, seeds, fruits, fodders, fuel wood, medicine, natural fibres, etc.) and timbers delivered by the forest act as a resource to local communities to sustain a livelihood, whereas cultural services (such as spiritualism, entertainment, aesthetics, etc) improve the quality of life of the communities. Regulating services supports humans by regulating the key components or processes of the ecosystem such (as carbon sequestration, climate modulation, water cycle, amelioration of infectious diseases, etc.) while forests also provide supporting services that significantly support humans by promoting production and/or maintenance of all other ecosystem services. These are the fundamental processes that support the services and functioning of any ecosystem. Forest ecosystem services (FESs) promote natural ecosystem health and improve the health and well-being of the human population residing in the vicinity. Although, forests are spread across all terrestrial biomes of the earth, viz.
... . These studies directly proved or inferred that the forest environment was effective in relieving stress and depression, and individuals felt more relaxation, dynamism, and rest when exposed to the forest [31,[40][41][42]. Studies focusing on the physiological effects of relaxation exposure to the forest space showed that exposure to the forest could decrease pre-frontal cortex cerebral blood flow, lower blood pressure and heart rate [39,40], enhance parasympathetic activity, inhibit sympathetic activity [42][43][44], decrease salivary cortisol stress hormone concentrations [42,43], and enhance anticancer proteins and natural killer cells activities [45,46], thereby enhancing immune performance. This was mainly due to various environmental elements in the forest, such as sufficient oxygen, phytoncides, sunlight, sound, etc. ...
Previous studies have reported that exposure to forest landscapes has many benefits on human physiological and psychological health, as well as effectiveness in reducing stress and improving mood depending on different types of landscape. This study examined the effects of different types of forest landscapes for indirect visual experiences on the physical and mental health of college students (N = 33). Three types of landscape images were selected, in which forest landscapes included vegetated landscapes and water features, and as a control, we set up images of urban landscapes without natural elements. Physiological and psychological assessment was performed before the experiment for each student, followed by each student being exposed consecutively to nine landscape images for 3 min (each type) and assessed after each exposure. The results showed that both forest landscapes decreased stress (p < 0.05 for all) and improved mood and self-esteem (p < 0.01 for all). In contrast, water landscapes showed a slightly higher impact on physical and mental health than vegetated landscapes, but there was no significant difference. Conversely, only for self-esteem, the response after viewing vegetated landscapes (VL, SD = 29.06 ± 3.38) was better than after water views (WL, SD = 28.21 ± 2.48). Despite significant differences between the two types of forest landscapes not being found in our findings, the benefits of forest landscapes were observed through understanding the health-promoting capacities of different forest landscapes.
... Tsunetsugu et al. [12] found that while the HF feature showed significantly different effects between forest and city walking, variations in the LF/HF feature were inconsistent throughout or after the walk. Similarly, Lee et al. [23] found significantly lower cortisol levels after forest walking but did not observe significant changes in HRV features. ...
... The study also found that the HF component tended to be higher in forest areas than in urban areas [33]. Similar results were found by Lee et al. [52], who found that forest bathing increased the parasympathetic activity and decreased sympathetic activity in patients relative to when they were exposed to an urban environment. Tsunetsugu et al. [53] also found higher parasympathetic activity and lower sympathetic activity for subjects in forested areas compared to urban locations. ...
With the progress of science and technology, humans’ ability to transform and create has been greatly enhanced, but so have the physical and mental ailments associated with environmental degradation and urbanization. Human survival and health are strongly linked to nature, and there is growing evidence that exposure to nature promotes health and well-being. However, there is currently a lack of synthesis among empirical studies on these aspects for the findings to be sufficient for informing public health strategies and social policy. Here, following basic guidelines for systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched PubMed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Scopus databases in January 2023. The results of our search and analysis show that nature can improve people’s health and well-being from two aspects: physical (reduces CVDs, increases immunity, improves autonomic nervous system function, and improves sleep quality) and psychological (restores attention, improves mood, reduces stress, and improves cognitive development). The ways in which people derive health from nature are varied, and tailored, personalized, symptom-specific exposure can further increase the health benefits. More importantly, it seems that people can gain the health benefits of nature by only being exposed to it for a short time. We incorporate the existing scientific evidence in our review and develop a new heuristic point of view on the necessity of exposure to natural environments for the health of individuals.
... Thoma et al. (2013) observed a subsequent change in heart rate (HR) while listening to music in a stressful situation [39]. Enhanced parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) activity indicated by the high frequency (HF) component of heart rate variability (HRV) was observed with Zen meditation [40], soothing music [41], and forest bathing [42]. Additionally, research on using citrus mint-flavored mouthwash revealed a significant reduction in SCL during the recovery period following a calculation task [43]. ...
Background
Black pepper is one of the most popular spices globally. As black pepper essential oil has not yet been used in the context of aromatherapy, this study examined the effect of black pepper aroma on cardiac and peripheral autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity under stressful conditions using an olfactometer to administer aroma in a precise and controlled manner to ensure reproducibility.
Methods
A within-participant design experiment was conducted with 20 male university students who performed a 30-min calculation task as a short-term stressor under three aroma conditions: black pepper, ginger, and dipropylene glycol (DPG) (scentless air as a control). Each aroma was sporadically delivered (first 20 s of each 1-min interval) with the olfactometer during the task. Electrocardiograms and skin conductance level (SCL) were measured to evaluate ANS's physiological acute stress response. Subjective evaluations for the given stressful task and impressions on the types of aromas were assessed.
Results
The physiological acute stress response induced by the short-term stressor, which is characterized by the enhancement of the heart rate (HR) and SCL and decreases in the heart rate variability (HRV), was suppressed with black pepper: the increase in HR and reduction in HRV from the baseline were 38.9% ( p = 0.048 when compared with DPG) and 32.9% smaller ( p = 0.002 for multiple comparisons) than those in DPG, respectively, and the increase of SCL was 15.5% smaller ( p = 0.005 for multiple comparisons) than that in ginger. However, there was no significant difference in subjective scores among the conditions.
Conclusion
Although black pepper is a stimulative agent, the study findings showed that black pepper aroma alleviated the physiological acute stress response, which can be beneficial in aromatherapy under stressful conditions.
Urban parks are essential for connecting people with nature and providing social, psychological, and ecological benefits, along with vital ecosystem services. This study focuses on the economic valuation of four urban parks in Kathmandu Valley: Shankha Park, Ratna Park, Balaju Park, and Tribhuvan Park. One hundred and sixty respondents, with 40 respondents from each park were surveyed to assess visitation pattern, satisfaction levels, and willingness to pay (WTP) for park maintenance. Approximately 66% of respondents expressed a willingness to pay for maintenance, indicating the recognized value of these parks, regardless of income levels. The Travel Cost Method (TCM) analysis revealed that Ratna Park had the highest average travel cost (Rs. 81.25) and the largest annual visitor count (360,030), while Tribhuvan Park recorded the lowest visitor numbers (80,000 annually). These results highlight the pivotal role of accessibility, proximity, and park quality in shaping visitation patterns and preferences. Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) highlighted the cultural and ecological importance of the parks, alongside challenges of poor waste management, inadequate fencing, and limited infrastructure in larger parks. These findings emphasize the need for integrating economic valuation into urban park management to enhance visitor satisfaction, environmental benefits, and long-term sustainability.
Interdisciplinary research has significantly advanced our understanding, benefits, and measurements of Urban Green Space (UGS). Further, the rapid expansion of research on this topic has resulted in a diverse array of definitions, which can rely on implicit assumptions without a formal definition. This variability highlights the need for a carefully structured framework to refine and combine these definitions. This narrative review examines constructs underlying UGS, particularly focusing on the spatial aspects of how we spatially measure UGS, the measurements of UGS, and how we define exposure; the latter focuses on two methods: viewsheds and image segmentation. Our findings reveal a shift in UGS measurement focus, moving beyond simple quantification of how much green space exists, to incorporate visibility, accessibility, and availability dimensions. Furthermore, advancements in computational tools, including artificial intelligence-driven methods, now enable high-resolution visibility measurements on a city-wide scale, supporting epidemiological research and urban development. These insights aim to guide researchers and practitioners in selecting suitable methodologies and datasets, as well as explicitly defining UGS in their work through a construct-based approach.
Background: Anxiety and depression are global mental health issues, affecting approximately one-third of the population and imposing substantial economic and social burdens. Physical exercise, mainly walking, has been recognized as an effective non-pharmacological intervention that significantly improves symptoms of depression and anxiety. However, the benefits of walking in different environments require further investigation.
Objective: This review aims to delve into the impact of walking in natural versus urban environments on levels of depression and anxiety. Outcome measures will include scales assessing the degree of depression and anxiety, as well as heart rate responses.
Methods: A search was conducted across five databases—PubMed, Web of Science (all databases), Medline, Central, and Embase—from their inception to January 11, 2025. The quality of the literature was assessed using the GRADE scale, and all included study data were statistically analyzed using Stata software.
Results: A total of 10 studies, encompassing 457 participants, were included to evaluate the differences between walking in urban and natural environments. Meta-analysis results indicated that walking in natural environments significantly reduced levels of anxiety (SMD=1.30, p=0.000), depression (SMD=1.11, p=0.000), and heart rate (SMD=0.48， p=0.000) and in contrast, walking in urban environments slightly increased levels of anxiety (SMD=-0.65, p=0.000), with no significant impact on depression (SMD=-0.13, p=0.106) and heart rate changes (SMD=-0.13，p=0.379).
Conclusion: Walking in natural settings has a positive effect on reducing levels of depression and anxiety and slowing heart rate, while urban walking does not demonstrate similar benefits and may even have adverse effects on mental health.
Stress is ubiquitous in our modern society and contributes to many disease states. This narrative review describes the effect of stress/distress on cancer development and progression. Seminal randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews/meta-analyses, and distress management guidelines from the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN), the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO), and the Society for Integrative LinearOncology (SIO) are highlighted. We describe the physiological effects of distress, distress assessment, and management. Psychological treatments are summarized. Evidence-based lifestyle modifications and integrative therapies are reviewed in detail, including mindfulness-based techniques, yoga, guided imagery, breathing techniques, hypnosis, exercise, music therapy, qigong/Tai Chi, eye movement desensitization and reprocessing, and improving sleep and heart rate variability. Recognition and treatment of distress can improve quality of life. More research is needed to determine the effects of managing distress on cancer outcomes, as well as the best type and duration of intervention, noting that the benefits of interventions may be specific for patients with different cancer types.
The objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a nature prescription program on mental, physical, and social health offered to Salt Lake County employees. The program was conducted in two separate phases during 2020 and 2021 by a wellness program for Salt Lake County employees. Participants received a nature prescription and bi-weekly newsletters, and were offered additional wellness benefits for completing weekly prescriptions. Data were collected by a post-survey that assessed participants’ time spent outdoors, perceived health benefits (physical, mental, and social), and perceived benefit of the nature prescription program. Due to the post only study design, descriptive statistics were calculated and analyzed. About two-thirds of participants were female. Of the 285 participants who completed the 2020 post-survey, the majority reported improved mood, decreased stress and sedentary behavior, improved anxiety and relationships with others, and increased energy. In addition, almost half reported improved cognition and an increased connection with their community. Of the 143 first-time participants who completed the 2021 post-survey, similar results were found where the majority reported improved mood and relationships with others, decreased stress and sedentary behavior, and increased energy. The cost of the 2020 program, aside from employee salary, was US$1.52 per completed participant. The success of this program provides evidence to suggest that incorporating nature prescriptions into employee wellness programs is both beneficial and cost effective.
Objective: The purpose of this study is to investigate if there is a physiological stress response to the visual and auditory characteristics of waterscapes. Background: Biophilic research suggests that the presence of water can reduce stress, reduce blood pressure, and increase circulation. However, water has largely been omitted from healthcare design due to concerns of cost, maintenance, waterborne pathogens, and contamination. Existing research has not yet provided a design methodology to incorporate the healing effects of water without the potential diseases, contamination, and maintenance issues associated with physical water. Given the current technological capabilities, the isolation of the auditory and visual sensory stimuli has potential to re-introduce the healing benefits of water into healthcare design. Methods: Participants were either exposed to a slow-moving or fast-moving waterscape for 20 minutes. Pre- and post-anxiety were measured using the State Trait Anxiety Scale in an online Qualtrics survey (118 participants) and through a salivary cortisol biomarker (in which 26 participants also partook). Results: The overall results demonstrate that the utilization of digital blue space was effective in reducing stress. There was no significant difference between the lake or waterfall environment in both salivary cortisol and state-trait anxiety measures. However, it is suggested that the slow and fast-moving waterscapes may be beneficial in different settings. Conclusion: Design recommendations are made regarding potential biophilic design in healthcare facilities. The utilization of sensory waterscapes can also provide a cost affordable, non-pharmacological, alternative for anxiety mitigation for patients and staff undergoing high-stress situations.
Existing research on the effects of nature exposure on the mental health of adults indicates that spending time in nature reduces depressive symptoms and stress, increases quality of life and mood and improves mental health. This meta‐analysis aimed to answer the question: what are the effects of nature exposure on the social, mental and physical health of adults with symptoms of mental illness? The meta‐analysis included all studies relevant to the study research questions which collected quantitative data on nature exposure using validated instruments for at least two time points on each participant and which were published between 1990 and 2020. Regarding the impact of nature exposure on adults with symptoms of mental illness, analyses showed significant, moderate effect sizes for all studies and smaller, but significant, effect sizes for studies with control groups Analyses also yielded critical information regarding the effect size of the type of nature dosage, nature setting, nature‐based activity, key mental health outcomes and other factors. These findings from the present study results have important implications regarding the potential benefits of nature exposure for adults and its role in healthcare.
Although greenspace exposure has physiological health benefits, there is insufficient research on the threshold effect of health benefits in typical urban landscapes. Here we selected five typical urban landscapes (open greenspace, semi-closed greenspace, closed greenspace, bluespace, grey space) in 15 urban parks in Xiamen, China, and applied the physiological health threshold model to calculate the efficiency threshold and benefit threshold of greenspace exposure by continuously monitoring the changes of two physiological indicators-electroencephalography (EEG) and heart rate (HR). (1) The EEG threshold results show that compared with greenspace exposure, bluespace exposure can reach the physiological health efficiency threshold faster (4-5 min) but does not show an advantage in terms of benefit threshold. The more open the greenspace, the faster it can reach the efficiency threshold (5-6 min), but the higher the canopy density of the (closed) greenspace, the shorter the time to reach the efficiency threshold (8-9 min). (2) The HR threshold shows that bluespace and open greenspace are the fastest to reach the efficiency threshold (1 min), with the remaining greenspace reaching it after 6-7 min. The benefit threshold was reached faster in the bluespace (11 min) than in the greenspace (18-21 min), and the degree of openness of the greenspace has no significant effect on the speed of benefit thresholds. (3) Combining the results of EEG and HR thresholds, it can be seen that bluespace is better at reducing stress, while open greenspace can reach efficiency thresholds more quickly. This study confirms the physiological health threshold model, offering a reference for urban greenspace planning to enhance residents' stress management and health.
Biotechnology is one of the emerging fields that can add new and better application in a wide
range of sectors like health care, service sector, agriculture, and processing industry to name
some. This book will provide an excellent opportunity to focus on recent developments in the
frontier areas of Biotechnology and establish new collaborations in these areas. T
Forests are important to human wellbeing. Forests allow people to engage in physical activity, contribute to social integration, and help people to gain distance from everyday life. These became particularly important during COVID-19 and the number of forest visits increased remarkably. This chapter looks at how and why visits to forests changed during the COVID-19 pandemic. The chapter draws on data that was collected during the first wave of COVID-19 in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. On the basis of 345 data sets, the study shows how the frequency, the duration, the motives, and the activities in forests changed during the pandemic. These findings are correlated with changes in the subjective wellbeing of respondents. The study shows that longer visits as well as more frequent visits to forests contributed to wellbeing during COVID-19. Those woking in forest administration, however, faced many unknown challenges during that time. The pandemic revealed that recreation needs to be taken into account in forest management practices in the future. Recommendations are developed which focus on participatory forest management, the inclusion of a diverse range of social groups, and prevention of use conflicts.
Background
The high stress of nursing education can adversely affect students' well-being. Nature-based therapies aim to lessen stress. There is a gap in knowledge related to nature-based therapies and the nursing student population. The aims of this study were: (1) to describe the well-being of nursing students; and (2) to assess the effects of a nature-based intervention on students' anxiety, stress, relatedness, resilience, and well-being.
Method
This descriptive study included 28 nursing students at a midwestern university. Participants completed online questionnaires before and after a nature-based intervention at an arboretum that consisted of five 1-hour designated nature walks guided by an audio recording.
Results
Participants' mean (SD) scores for well-being were classified as average before the intervention (54.3 [3.7]) and increased significantly after the intervention (55.3 [3.2]) ( p = .04).
Conclusion
With rising stress and anxiety levels among college students, nature interventions can support nursing students' overall well-being. [ J Nurs Educ . 2024;63(2):116–119.]
Background: Many individuals who use the sauna at a temperature of 120°C of higher are not aware of the negative consequences of extreme thermal stress. Despite extensive research into sauna use, the impact of extreme thermal stress on the physiological and psychological characteristics of sauna users have not been examined to date. Aim: The aim was to determine the effect of 20 min sauna sessions with a temperature of 80°C and 120°C on the physiological and psychological characteristics of women who sporadically visit the sauna. Methods: The study was conducted on 22 full-time female university students. Physical activity (PA) levels were evaluated with the Polish short version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). Anthropometric characteristics were measured before the first sauna session by the InBody270 body composition analyzer. Physiological parameters, including heart, energy expenditure, physical effort, and blood pressure (systolic blood pressure-SBP, and diastolic blood pressure-DBP), were assessed indirectly using Polar V800 heart rate monitors and the Omron M6 Comfort blood pressure monitor. The participants' wellbeing was assessed with the Profile of Mood States (POMS) questionnaire. The presence of significant correlations between heat exhaustion and heat stress variables and syncope during the second sauna session was examined with the use of classification and regression trees (CRT) and the cross-validation technique. Results: Twenty-minute sauna sessions with a temperature of 80°C and 120°C induced a significant (p < 0.001) decrease in the values of SBP (excluding the temperature of 120°C), DBP, and body mass, as well as a significant increase in HR and forehead temperature. Exposure to a temperature of 80°C led to a significant (p < 0.001) increase in vigor with a simultaneous decrease in tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion. In turn, sauna bathing at a CITATION Podstawski R, Borysławski K, Józefacka NM, Snarska J, Hinca B, Biernat E and Podstawska A (2024) The influence of extreme thermal stress on the physiological and psychological characteristics of young women who sporadically use the sauna: practical implications for the safe use of the sauna. Frontiers in Public Health 02 frontiersin.org temperature of 120°C had an opposite effect on the above mood parameters. Vomiting and confusion were the main predictors of syncope that occurred in some of the surveyed women. Conclusion: Excessive air temperature can induce symptoms characteristic of heat exhaustion and heat stress nausea, heavy sweating, fast weak or strong HR, high body temperature, and confusion. Therefore, sauna bathing at a temperature of 80°C can be recommended to women who sporadically use the sauna, whereas exposure to a temperature of 120°C is not advised in this group of sauna users. The present findings provide highly valuable inputs for managing wellness and SPA centers.
Background
Many individuals who use the sauna at a temperature of 120°C of higher are not aware of the negative consequences of extreme thermal stress. Despite extensive research into sauna use, the impact of extreme thermal stress on the physiological and psychological characteristics of sauna users have not been examined to date.
Aim
The aim was to determine the effect of 20 min sauna sessions with a temperature of 80°C and 120°C on the physiological and psychological characteristics of women who sporadically visit the sauna.
Methods
The study was conducted on 22 full-time female university students. Physical activity (PA) levels were evaluated with the Polish short version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). Anthropometric characteristics were measured before the first sauna session by the InBody270 body composition analyzer. Physiological parameters, including heart, energy expenditure, physical effort, and blood pressure (systolic blood pressure – SBP, and diastolic blood pressure – DBP), were assessed indirectly using Polar V800 heart rate monitors and the Omron M6 Comfort blood pressure monitor. The participants’ wellbeing was assessed with the Profile of Mood States (POMS) questionnaire. The presence of significant correlations between heat exhaustion and heat stress variables and syncope during the second sauna session was examined with the use of classification and regression trees (CRT) and the cross-validation technique.
Results
Twenty-minute sauna sessions with a temperature of 80°C and 120°C induced a significant (p < 0.001) decrease in the values of SBP (excluding the temperature of 120°C), DBP, and body mass, as well as a significant increase in HR and forehead temperature. Exposure to a temperature of 80°C led to a significant (p < 0.001) increase in vigor with a simultaneous decrease in tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion. In turn, sauna bathing at a temperature of 120°C had an opposite effect on the above mood parameters. Vomiting and confusion were the main predictors of syncope that occurred in some of the surveyed women.
Conclusion
Excessive air temperature can induce symptoms characteristic of heat exhaustion and heat stress nausea, heavy sweating, fast weak or strong HR, high body temperature, and confusion. Therefore, sauna bathing at a temperature of 80°C can be recommended to women who sporadically use the sauna, whereas exposure to a temperature of 120°C is not advised in this group of sauna users. The present findings provide highly valuable inputs for managing wellness and SPA centers.
It is widely believed that coming into contact with forest environments is somehow beneficial to human well-being and comfort. In Japan, "Shinrin-yoku" (taking in the atmosphere of a forest) has been proposed to be a relaxation activity associated with forest recreation. The purpose of this study was to examine the physiological effects of forest recreation on the autonomic nervous activity. The subjects were twelve male university students (21.8 ± 0.8 years old). On the first day of the experiment, six subjects were sent to a forest area, and the other six to a city area. On the second day, each subject was sent to the area he did not visit on the first day as a cross check. The subjects walked (15 minutes) around their assigned areas before noon, and sat on chairs viewing (15 minutes) the landscapes of their assigned areas in the afternoon. Heart rate variability (HRV), blood pressure, and pulse rate were measured as physiological indices. Measurements were taken at the place of accommodation in the morning, before and after walking, and before and after viewing at their assigned field areas. Pulse rate, diastolic blood pressure and LF/(LF+HF) (LF- low frequency, HF- high frequency) components of HRV were significantly lower in the forest area than in the city area. HF components of HRV tended to be higher in the forest than in the city. In conclusion, the results of the physiological measurements show that forest recreation enabled effective relaxation in people, both of the mind and body.
The findings suggest that stressed individuals feel significantly better after exposure to nature scenes rather than to American urban scenes lacking nature elements. Compared to the influences of the urban scenes, the salient effect of the nature exposures was to increase Positive Affect — including feelings of affection friendliness, playfulness, and elation. The increase in positive affect produced by the nature scenes is consistent with the finding that the nature exposures also significantly reduced Fear Arousal. According to psychological theories, a reduction in arousal or activation produces pleasurable feelings if an individual is experiencing stress or excessive arousal (Berlyne, 1971, pp. 81–82). In contrast to the nature scenes, the urban views tended to work against emotional well‐being. The major effect of the urban scenes was to significantly increase Sadness. There was also a consistent but non‐significant tendency for the urban scenes to‐aggravate feelings of Anger/Aggression, and for the nature scenes to reduce such feelings. The urban exposures also held the attention of subjects somewhat less effectively than the nature exposures. These findings were stable across sexes, and applied to subjects who had grown up in either rural or urban environments.
In most cases, therapy is addressed as an indoor, verbal, and cognitive activ- ity, with the relationship between therapist and client at its center (McLeod, 2003). This article presents an alternative approach to therapy, conducted in creative ways in nature, addressing the environment not merely as a setting but as a partner in the process. The article includes examples of work that took place with different clients, in varied settings. It aims at presenting basic con- cepts from this young framework that will inspire other practitioners to "open the doors" and explore these ideas with their clients in nature.
Argues that evolutionary heritage underlies humans' consistent preference for stimuli from the natural environment and that research on affective and aesthetic responses is needed to understand human interaction with the environment. It is noted that the rapidly expanding empirical record concerning aesthetic and affective responses to natural environments is in need of a well-developed theoretical foundation. An integrated conceptual framework to address this theoretical lack, drawing on recent theory and research on emotion, is proposed. This framework explains how affects arise in the natural environment; postulates their functions; and links them to cognition, activity in physiological systems, and behavior. The present author, in developing the framework, questions the view that feelings result from cognitive processes, asserting that feelings (not thoughts) are the initial response in environmental encounters. The observer's initial feeling reaction shapes subsequent cognitive events. The relative sequence of feeling and thinking in environmental encounters represents a fundamental issue in understanding human interaction with the environment. (98 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Forest-air bathing and walking (shinrin-yoku) is beneficial to human heath. In this study the phytoncide (volatile compounds) released from Cryptomeria japonica plantation forest was characterized by using solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
(GC-MS). The main volatile compounds were α-pinene (19.35%), β-myrcene (16.98%), d-limonene (15.21%), and γ-muurolene (7.42%). Furthermore, the neuropharmacological activity of the essential oils from leaves of C. japonica (ECJ) was evaluated by several animal behavior tests. ECJ could prolong the sleeping phase of ICR (imprinting control region)
mice in the pentobarbital-induced sleeping time model. Furthermore, both EJC and one of its monoterpenes, d-limonene, possessed potent anxiolytic and analgesic activities based on the results obtained from elevated plus maze and
writhing tests. The volatile compounds released from C. japonica provide relaxing and stress-relieving effects on mice, and further study on the effect of phytoncide on humans is worthwhile.
Attention Restoration Theory (ART) proposes that effortful directed attention can become fatigued in modern urban environments. Restoration can occur in a setting that evokes fascination (effortless attention). Ordinary natural settings evoke soft fascination, that is, moderate fascination accompanied by esthetic pleasure. Such settings enable a fully restorative experience, including the recovery of directed attention and the opportunity for serious reflection. Settings broadly classified as sports/entertainment are more likely to evoke hard fascination, that is, very high levels of fascination that fill the mind. Such settings permit directed attention recovery but afford little opportunity for reflection. We tested these ideas by having participants rate the perceived restorative effectiveness of three kinds of settings (ordinary natural, sports/entertainment, and everyday urban) under two goal-set conditions (as places for attentional recovery or for reflection). Ordinary natural settings were seen as having the highest overall restorative effectiveness, everyday urban settings as having the lowest, and sports/entertainment settings as in between. Moreover, sports/entertainment settings were seen as higher in restorative effectiveness for the attentional-recovery goal set than for the reflection goal set. No such goal-set difference occurred for the other two setting categories combined. These results are in agreement with the predictions of ART.
Different conceptual perspectives converge to predict that if individuals are stressed, an encounter with most unthreatening natural environments will have a stress reducing or restorative influence, whereas many urban environments will hamper recuperation. Hypotheses regarding emotional, attentional and physiological aspects of stress reducing influences of nature are derived from a psycho-evolutionary theory. To investigate these hypotheses, 120 subjects first viewed a stressful movie, and then were exposed to color/sound videotapes of one of six different natural and urban settings. Data concerning stress recovery during the environmental presentations were obtained from self-ratings of affective states and a battery of physiological measures: heart period, muscle tension, skin conductance and pulse transit time, a non-invasive measure that correlates with systolic blood pressure. Findings from the physiological and verbal measures converged to indicate that recovery was faster and more complete when subjects were exposed to natural rather than urban environments. The pattern of physiological findings raised the possibility that responses to nature had a salient parasympathetic nervous system component; however, there was no evidence of pronounced parasympathetic involvement in responses to the urban settings. There were directional differences in cardiac responses to the natural vs urban settings, suggesting that attention/intake was higher during the natural exposures. However, both the stressor film and the nature settings elicited high levels of involuntary or automatic attention, which contradicts the notion that restorative influences of nature stem from involuntary attention or fascination. Findings were consistent with the predictions of the psycho-evolutionary theory that restorative influences of nature involve a shift towards a more positively-toned emotional state, positive changes in physiological activity levels, and that these changes are accompanied by sustained attention/intake. Content differences in terms of natural vs human-made properties appeared decisive in accounting for the differences in recuperation and perceptual intake.
The influence of "shinrin-yoku" (forest-air bathing and walking) on blood glucose levels in diabetic patients was examined. Eighty-seven (29 male and 58 female) non-insulin-dependent diabetic patients [61 (SEM 1) years old] participated in the present study. Shinrin-yoku was performed nine times over a period of 6 years. The patients were divided into two parties. They then walked in the forest for 3 km or 6 km according to their physical ability and/or the existence of diabetic complications. The mean blood glucose level after forest walking changed from 179 (SEM 4) mg.100 ml-1 to 108 (SEM 2) mg.100 ml-1 (P < 0.0001). The level of glycated haemoglobin A1c also decreased from 6.9 (SEM 0.2)% (before the first shinrin-yoku) to 6.5 (SEM 0.1)% (after the last shinrin-yoku; P < 0.05). Blood glucose values declined by 74 (SEM 9) mg.100 ml-1 and 70 (SEM 4) mg.100 ml-1 after short- and long-distance walking respectively. There was no significant difference between these values. Since the forest environment causes changes in hormonal secretion and autonomic nervous functions, it is presumed that, in addition to the increased calorie consumption and improved insulin sensitivity, walking in a forest environment has other beneficial effects in decreasing blood glucose levels.
We previously reported that the forest environment enhanced human natural killer (NK) cell activity, the number of NK cells, and intracellular anti-cancer proteins in lymphocytes, and that the increased NK activity lasted for more than 7 days after trips to forests both in male and female subjects. To explore the factors in the forest environment that activated human NK cells, in the present study we investigate the effect of essential oils from trees on human immune function in twelve healthy male subjects, age 37-60 years, who stayed at an urban hotel for 3 nights from 7.00 p.m. to 8.00 a.m. Aromatic volatile substances (phytoncides) were produced by vaporizing Chamaecyparis obtusa (hinoki cypress) stem oil with a humidifier in the hotel room during the night stay. Blood samples were taken on the last day and urine samples were analysed every day during the stay. NK activity, the percentages of NK and T cells, and granulysin, perforin, granzyme A/B-expressing lymphocytes in blood, and the concentrations of adrenaline and noradrenaline in urine were measured. Similar control measurements were made before the stay on a normal working day. The concentrations of phytoncides in the hotel room air were measured. Phytoncide exposure significantly increased NK activity and the percentages of NK, perforin, granulysin, and granzyme A/B-expressing cells, and significantly decreased the percentage of T cells, and the concentrations of adrenaline and noradrenaline in urine. Phytoncides, such as alpha-pinene and beta-pinene, were detected in the hotel room air. These findings indicate that phytoncide exposure and decreased stress hormone levels may partially contribute to increased NK activity.
"Shinrin-yoku", which can be defined as "taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing", has been receiving increasing attention in Japan in recent years for its capacity to provide relaxation and reduce stress. Since 2004, the authors of this paper have been involved in an investigation designed to ascertain the physiological effects of "Shinrin-yoku" within the framework of the "Therapeutic Effects of Forests" project. We have conducted physiological experiments, both in actual forests and in the laboratory, to elucidate the physiological effects on individuals of exposure to the total environment of forests or to only certain elements of this environment, such as the odor of wood, the sound of running stream water, and the scenery of the forest. We have obtained physiological measurements of central nervous activity, autonomic nervous activity, and biomarkers reflecting stress response that can be applied in this line of approach. Using these measurements, we have summarized the separate elements of forests in terms of the five senses. We have also reviewed a selection of field studies and introduced a number of results from ongoing projects as well as those from early studies. Future perspectives are also discussed.
The measurement of cortisol in saliva provides the basic scientist as well as the clinician with a reliable tool for investigations of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity. Since saliva samples can be obtained stress-free and independent from medically trained personnel this method may be well suited for use in psychobiological studies. This overview intends to give a comprehensive introduction to the method of salivary cortisol assessment and to briefly discuss its application in different scientific disciplines.
Records on recovery after cholecystectomy of patients in a suburban Pennsylvania hospital between 1972 and 1981 were examined
to determine whether assignment to a room with a window view of a natural setting might have restorative influences. Twenty-three
surgical patients assigned to rooms with windows looking out on a natural scene had shorter postoperative hospital stays,
received fewer negative evaluative comments in nurses' notes, and took fewer potent analgesics than 23 matched patients in
similar rooms with windows facing a brick building wall.
This study examined the effect of chronic stress associated with unemployment on the magnitude of salivary cortisol excretion, on the diurnal rhythm of cortisol, and on cortisol reactivity to acute naturalistic stressors using Experience Sampling Methodology (ESM). Employed (N = 60) and unemployed (N = 60) subjects were studied for 2 days. Subjects were beeped 6 times per day by a preprogrammed wristwatch to assess acute stressors; 25 minutes after each ESM-beep, subjects were beeped a second time for saliva samples. The groups did not differ in their overall cortisol excretion or in cortisol reactivity to acute daily stressors. Compared to employed subjects, unemployed subjects had a diurnal pattern of cortisol excretion with relatively higher morning and lower evening levels. Subjects' daily activities and their locations were associated with diurnal rhythm differences.
Heart rate variability (HRV), a non-invasive index of autonomic controls of the heart, has extensively been employed in various fields of study. The application range of this index persists to expand over the research horizon, and the need continues to demand technical complements for hitherto known deficiencies. Concurrent technical advances in recent years have yielded methodological techniques capable of performing quantitative analysis of HRV. However, as various approaches designed for HRV analysis exist, quantitative comparisons of the investigations have become difficult. Current physiological interpretations of the components of HRV are also inconsistent. Moreover, the issue of respiratory control has been much disputed when determining the HRV. In an attempt to clarify the current controversial state in HRV measurement, the present paper, based on the physiological background of HRV, pursued various procedures of HRV measurement and furnished global explanations for special features characterizing the various analytical approaches adopted thereof.
In Japan, forest-air bathing and walking (shinrin-yoku) has been proposed as a health-facilitating activity in which people spend a short period of time in a forest environment. Initially, we examined the usefulness of salivary amylase activity as an indicator of an individual's stress levels in a forest environment. The circadian rhythm of salivary amylase activity was measured in healthy young male subjects under stress-free conditions. The salivary amylase activity remained relatively constant throughout the day. Salivary amylase activity was then measured before and after walking in both urban and forest environments using a hand-held monitor. Our results indicated that (i) the circadian rhythm fluctuations in salivary amylase activity were much smaller than the stressor-induced variations; (ii) salivary amylase activity was an excellent indicator of the changes in sympathetic nervous activity; and (iii) the forest was a good environment in which people could experience much less environment-derived stress.
Looking out on and being in the green elements of the landscape around us seem to affect health, well-being and feelings of social safety. This article discusses the design of a research program on the effects of green space in the living environment on health, well-being and social safety.
The program consists of three projects at three different scales: at a macro scale using data on the Netherlands as a whole, at an intermediate scale looking into the specific effect of green space in the urban environment, and at micro scale investigating the effects of allotment gardens. The projects are observational studies, combining existing data on land use and health interview survey data, and collecting new data through questionnaires and interviews. Multilevel analysis and GIS techniques will be used to analyze the data.
Previous (experimental) research in environmental psychology has shown that a natural environment has a positive effect on well-being through restoration of stress and attentional fatigue. Descriptive epidemiological research has shown a positive relationship between the amount of green space in the living environment and physical and mental health and longevity. The program has three aims. First, to document the relationship between the amount and type of green space in people's living environment and their health, well-being, and feelings of safety. Second, to investigate the mechanisms behind this relationship. Mechanisms relate to exposure (leading to stress reduction and attention restoration), healthy behavior and social integration, and selection. Third, to translate the results into policy on the crossroads of spatial planning, public health, and safety. Strong points of our program are: we study several interrelated dependent variables, in different ordinary settings (as opposed to experimental or extreme settings), focusing on different target groups, using appropriate multilevel methods.
To investigate the strength of the relation between the amount of green space in people's living environment and their perceived general health. This relation is analysed for different age and socioeconomic groups. Furthermore, it is analysed separately for urban and more rural areas, because the strength of the relation was expected to vary with urbanity.
The study includes 250 782 people registered with 104 general practices who filled in a self administered form on sociodemographic background and perceived general health. The percentage of green space (urban green space, agricultural space, natural green space) within a one kilometre and three kilometre radius around the postal code coordinates was calculated for each household.
Multilevel logistic regression analyses were performed at three levels-that is, individual level, family level, and practice level-controlled for sociodemographic characteristics.
The percentage of green space inside a one kilometre and a three kilometre radius had a significant relation to perceived general health. The relation was generally present at all degrees of urbanity. The overall relation is somewhat stronger for lower socioeconomic groups. Elderly, youth, and secondary educated people in large cities seem to benefit more from presence of green areas in their living environment than other groups in large cities.
This research shows that the percentage of green space in people's living environment has a positive association with the perceived general health of residents. Green space seems to be more than just a luxury and consequently the development of green space should be allocated a more central position in spatial planning policy.
The purpose of this study is to examine the physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest). The subjects were 12 male students (22.8+/-1.4 yr). On the first day of the experiments, one group of 6 subjects was sent to a forest area, and the other group of 6 subjects was sent to a city area. On the second day, each group was sent to the opposite area for a cross check. In the forenoon, the subjects were asked to walk around their given area for 20 minutes. In the afternoon, they were asked to sit on chairs and watch the landscapes of their given area for 20 minutes. Cerebral activity in the prefrontal area and salivary cortisol were measured as physiological indices in the morning at the place of accommodation, before and after walking in the forest or city areas during the forenoon, and before and after watching the landscapes in the afternoon in the forest and city areas, and in the evening at the place of accommodation. The results indicated that cerebral activity in the prefrontal area of the forest area group was significantly lower than that of the group in the city area after walking; the concentration of salivary cortisol in the forest area group was significantly lower than that of the group in the city area before and after watching each landscape. The results of the physiological measurements show that Shinrin-yoku can effectively relax both people's body and spirit.
In order to explore the effect of forest bathing on human immune function, we investigated natural killer (NK) activity; the number of NK cells, and perforin, granzymes and granulysin-expression in peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) during a visit to forest fields. Twelve healthy male subjects, age 37-55 years, were selected with informed consent from three large companies in Tokyo, Japan. The subjects experienced a three-day/two-night trip in three different forest fields. On the first day, subjects walked for two hours in the afternoon in a forest field; and on the second day, they walked for two hours in the morning and afternoon, respectively, in two different forest fields. Blood was sampled on the second and third days, and NK activity; proportions of NK, T cells, granulysin, perforin, and granzymes A/B-expressing cells in PBL were measured. Similar measurements were made before the trip on a normal working day as the control. Almost all of the subjects (11/12) showed higher NK activity after the trip (about 50 percent increased) compared with before. There are significant differences both before and after the trip and between days 1 and 2 in NK activity. The forest bathing trip also significantly increased the numbers of NK, perforin, granulysin, and granzymes A/B-expressing cells. Taken together, these findings indicate that a forest bathing trip can increase NK activity, and that this effect at least partially mediated by increasing the number of NK cells and by the induction of intracellular anti-cancer proteins.
We previously reported that a forest bathing trip enhanced human NK activity, number of NK cells, and intracellular anti-cancer proteins in lymphocytes. In the present study, we investigated how long the increased NK activity lasts and compared the effect of a forest bathing trip on NK activity with a trip to places in a city without forests. Twelve healthy male subjects, age 35-56 years, were selected with informed consent. The subjects experienced a three-day/two-night trip to forest fields and to a city, in which activity levels during both trips were matched. On day 1, subjects walked for two hours in the afternoon in a forest field; and on day 2, they walked for two hours in the morning and afternoon, respectively, in two different forest fields; and on day 3, the subjects finished the trip and returned to Tokyo after drawing blood samples and completing the questionnaire. Blood and urine were sampled on the second and third days during the trips, and on days 7 and 30 after the trip, and NK activity, numbers of NK and T cells, and granulysin, perforin, and granzymes A/B-expressing lymphocytes in the blood samples, and the concentration of adrenaline in urine were measured. Similar measurements were made before the trips on a normal working day as the control. Phytoncide concentrations in forest and city air were measured. The forest bathing trip significantly increased NK activity and the numbers of NK, perforin, granulysin, and granzyme A/B-expressing cells and significantly decreased the concentration of adrenaline in urine. The increased NK activity lasted for more than 7 days after the trip. In contrast, a city tourist visit did not increase NK activity, numbers of NK cells, nor the expression of selected intracellular anti-cancer proteins, and did not decrease the concentration of adrenaline in urine. Phytoncides, such as alpha-pinene and beta-pinene were detected in forest air, but almost not in city air. These findings indicate that a forest bathing trip increased NK activity, number of NK cells, and levels of intracellular anti-cancer proteins, and that this effect lasted at least 7 days after the trip. Phytoncides released from trees and decreased stress hormone may partially contribute to the increased NK activity.
The therapeutic value of landscape in giving opportunity for 'spiritual renewal' through closer contact with nature has been the basis for much of the scenic conservation movement and lies behind a universal concept of National Parks as providing recreational resources for urban populations. This belief is tested in a series of classroom studies. -C.Laverick
Preface 1. Disease patterns in human biohistory 2. Human biology: the Pleistocene inheritance 3. Adapting to diversity: climate, food and infection 4. Infectious disease: humans and microbes coevolving 5. The third horseman: food, farming and famines 6. The industrial era: the fifth horseman? 7. Longer lives and lower birth rates 8. Modern affluence: lands of milk and honey 9. Cities, social environments and synapses 10. Global environmental change: overstepping limits 11. Health and disease: an ecological perspective 12. Footprints to the future: treading less heavily Notes Index.
Research and teaching in environmental health have centered on the hazardous effects of various environmental exposures, such as toxic chemicals, radiation, and biological and physical agents. However, some kinds of environmental exposures may have positive health effects. According to E.O. Wilson’s “biophilia” hypothesis, humans are innately attracted to other living organisms. Later authors have expanded this concept to suggest that humans have an innate bond with nature more generally. This implies that certain kinds of contact with the natural world may benefit health. Evidence supporting this hypothesis is presented from four aspects of the natural world: animals, plants, landscapes, and wilderness. Finally, the implications of this hypothesis for a broader agenda for environmental health, encompassing not only toxic outcomes but also salutary ones, are discussed. This agenda implies research on a range of potentially healthful environmental exposures, collaboration among professionals in a range of disciplines from public health to landscape architecture to city planning, and interventions based on research outcomes.
The utility of different theoretical models of restorative experience was explored in a quasi-experimental field study and a true experiment. The former included wilderness backpacking and nonwilderness vacation conditions, as well as a control condition in which participants continued with their daily routines. The latter had urban environment, natural environment, and passive relaxation conditions. Multimethod assessments of restoration consisted of self-reports of affective states, cognitive performance, and, in the latter study, physiological measures. Convergent self-report and performance results obtained in both studies offer evidence of greater restorative effects arising from experiences in nature. Implications for theory, methodology, and design are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to examine the physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest). The subjects were 12 male university students. On the first day of the experiments, six subjects went to the forest area, and the other six went to a city area as a control. On the second day, subjects went to the opposite areas as a cross-check. In the afternoon, they were seated on chairs watching the landscapes of their given area for 15 min. Heart rate variability (HRV), salivary cortisol and pulse rate were measured as physiological indices in the morning and in the evening at the place of accommodation, before and after watching the landscapes in the field areas. The high-frequency power of HRV of subjects in the forest area was significantly higher than that of subjects in the city area. The pulse rate of subjects in the forest area was significantly lower than that of subjects in the city area. The salivary cortisol concentration of the subjects in the forest area was significantly lower than that of subjects in the city area. The results of physiological measurements show that Shinrin-yoku was an effective form of relaxation.
Windows have been found to be a particularly salient feature of the workplace, not only as a matter of preference but also for health and well-being. Depending on what is in the view, looking out of the window may provide numerous opportunities for restoration. This study investigated the effect of window views on job satisfaction and stress. The impact of two specific influencing mechanisms was examined: existence of forest views through windows in workplaces, and absence of forest views through windows in workplaces. The sample consisted of 931 office workers in Seoul, South Korea, 481 who could see forest views from their workplaces and 450 who could not see forest views. A set of self-administered questionnaires including job satisfaction and job stress measures was distributed to the sample from April to September 2004. The results showed a significant direct effect of forest views from windows on job satisfaction and stress. Respondents' personal information such as gender, age and job category did not influence on the window view effects. As expected, employees' job satisfaction and job stress were highly and negatively correlated.
Growing attention has been paid to the health-enhancing or therapeutic effects of natural environments, such as forests, and the requirement for an evidence-based approach has been pressing. However, there is a lack of evidence-based research in this field. In this study, the restorative effects of viewing real forest landscapes were examined through field experiments by comparing the effects of urban landscapes. Twelve Japanese male subjects in their twenties participated in a 3 day field experiment. The subjects were instructed to visit forest and urban environments randomly and to view each real landscape. Physiological and psychological data on each subject were collected four times a day. Significant differences between the responses of the subjects in forest compared with those in the urban environment were found. Forest environments had significantly lower values than urban environments after viewing in (1) salivary cortisol concentration (an index of stress response), (2) diastolic blood pressure, and (3) pulse rate. Further, subjects felt more comfortable, soothed and refreshed when viewing a forest landscape than an urban one. These findings support the idea that real forest landscapes may ameliorate stress, aid autonomic nervous system relaxation and increase positive emotion, and provide important scientific evidence of forest-guided health benefits.
Heart period, systolic time intervals, low and high frequency heart period variability, blood pressure, and respiration were measured in female subjects under three drug conditions (saline, atropine sulfate, metoprolol) while sitting and standing on three consecutive days. Following preinfusion baseline recordings, saline, metoprolol (14 mg), or atropine sulfate (2 mg) was infused for 15 min (by using a double-blind procedure). Recordings were taken during a postinfusion baseline and in response to an orthostatic stressor (standing versus sitting postures). At the end of the metoprolol session, atropine sulfate was infused and responses were monitored during the post-infusion (i.e., double blockade) baseline and during orthostatic stressor. Analyses of the blockade data revealed that the preejection period (PEP) reflected sympathetic but not vagal influences on the heart, and high frequency (HF, 0.12–0.40 Hz) heart rate variability (respiratory sinus arrhythmia) reflected vagal but not sympathetic influences on the heart. No other measure provided a specific index of the tonic sympathetic or vagal activation of the heart. Postinfusion PEP under saline predicted individual differences in postinfusion cardiac sympathetic activation, whereas postinfusion heart period (but not HF variability) under saline predicted individual differences in postinfusion cardiac vagal activation.
The assessment of cortisol in saliva has proven a valid and reliable reflection of the respective unbound hormone in blood. To date, assessment of cortisol in saliva is a widely accepted and frequently employed method in psychoneuroendocrinology. Due to several advantages over blood cortisol analyses (e.g., stress-free sampling, laboratory independence, lower costs) saliva cortisol assessment can be the method of choice in basic research and clinical environments. The determination of cortisol in saliva can facilitate stress studies including newborns and infants and replace blood sampling for diagnostic endocrine tests like the dexamethasone suppression test. The present paper provides an up-to-date overview of recent methodological developments, novel applications as well as a discussion of possible future applications of salivary cortisol determination.
Does the widely documented tendency to prefer natural over built environments owe to the perception of greater restorative potential in natural environments? In the present experimental study we tested the mediating role of restoration in environmental preferences. Participants viewed a frightening movie, and then were shown a video of either a natural or a built environment. We used two examples of each type of environment. Participants’ mood ratings were assessed before and after they viewed the frightening movie, and again after viewing the environmental video. Participants also rated the beauty of the environment shown (to indicate preference) and performed a test of concentration after viewing the environmental video. The results indicate that participants perceived the natural environments as more beautiful than the built environments. In addition, viewing natural environments elicited greater improvement in mood and marginally better concentration than viewing built environments. Mediational analyses revealed that affective restoration accounted for a substantial proportion of the preference for the natural over the built environments. Together, these results help substantiate the adaptive function of people's environmental preferences.
Directed attention plays an important role in human information processing; its fatigue, in turn, has far-reaching consequences. Attention Restoration Theory provides an analysis of the kinds of experiences that lead to recovery from such fatigue. Natural environments turn out to be particularly rich in the characteristics necessary for restorative experiences. An integrative framework is proposed that places both directed attention and stress in the larger context of human-environment relationships.
Studies have shown that exposure to the natural environment, or so-called green space, has an independent effect on health and health-related behaviours. We postulated that income-related inequality in health would be less pronounced in populations with greater exposure to green space, since access to such areas can modify pathways through which low socioeconomic position can lead to disease.
We classified the population of England at younger than retirement age (n=40 813 236) into groups on the basis of income deprivation and exposure to green space. We obtained individual mortality records (n=366 348) to establish whether the association between income deprivation, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality (circulatory disease, lung cancer, and intentional self-harm) in 2001-05, varied by exposure to green space measured in 2001, with control for potential confounding factors. We used stratified models to identify the nature of this variation.
The association between income deprivation and mortality differed significantly across the groups of exposure to green space for mortality from all causes (p<0.0001) and circulatory disease (p=0.0212), but not from lung cancer or intentional self-harm. Health inequalities related to income deprivation in all-cause mortality and mortality from circulatory diseases were lower in populations living in the greenest areas. The incidence rate ratio (IRR) for all-cause mortality for the most income deprived quartile compared with the least deprived was 1.93 (95% CI 1.86-2.01) in the least green areas, whereas it was 1.43 (1.34-1.53) in the most green. For circulatory diseases, the IRR was 2.19 (2.04-2.34) in the least green areas and 1.54 (1.38-1.73) in the most green. There was no effect for causes of death unlikely to be affected by green space, such as lung cancer and intentional self-harm.
Populations that are exposed to the greenest environments also have lowest levels of health inequality related to income deprivation. Physical environments that promote good health might be important to reduce socioeconomic health inequalities.
Describes the development of a mood adjective checklist to measure self-reported stress and arousal. The scale was adapted for British use from one originally constructed by R. E. Thayer (see record
1967-08169-001). When the new scale was administered to 145 British undergraduates, 2 bipolar factors (rather than the 4 monopolar factors found by Thayer) were revealed and labeled Stress and Arousal. Item loadings on these factors are presented. A 2nd study with 72 Ss produced similar factors. Additional support for a 2-factor solution is described. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The POMS (Profile of Mood States) was translated into Japanese, and reliability and validity of the Japanese edition was assessed on 354 healthy males aged 20 to 59 years (mean 42). The following findings were obtained. 1) Reliability coefficients (Cronbach's alpha) were 0.779-0.926 for six mood scales measured by the Japanese edition, i.e. "Depression-Dejection", "Vigor", "Anger-Hostility", "Fatigue", "Tension-Anxiety" and "Confusion." 2) Five factors were extracted by factor analysis for the 65 items of the POMS. "Vigor" and "Anger-Hostility" were solely explained by their respective factors, indicating that these two scales had the highest factorial validity. "Fatigue" had the second highest factorial validity; and "Tension-Anxiety" was third. "Confusion" and "Depression-Dejection" were related to the same one factor. 3) In 33 of the subjects, the scores for mood measured by the POMS were significantly correlated to ratings by a psychiatrist, indicating that the POMS had good criterion-related validity, except for "Anger-Hostility".
The experiments were carried out to study the influence (a) of 3 different respiratory frequencies (0.12, 0.20 and 0.35 Hz) on heart rate power spectra during orthostatic load with special reference to the peak frequency of mid-frequency heart rate fluctuations, and (b) of variation in respiratory depth on this peak frequency in supine position. The peak frequency of mid-frequency heart rate fluctuations was shifted to lower frequency values in response to orthostasis despite the constant respiratory frequency for either posture. No differences in peak frequency were observed between respiratory frequencies of 0.20 and 0.35 Hz in both supine and standing position and between the two extreme patterns of respiratory depth. We suggest that the shift of the peak frequency of mid-frequency heart rate fluctuations to the lower end of the heart rate power spectrum during orthostasis represents an original effect independent of depth and frequency of respiration.
Research and teaching in environmental health have centered on the hazardous effects of various environmental exposures, such as toxic chemicals, radiation, and biological and physical agents. However, some kinds of environmental exposures may have positive health effects. According to E.O. Wilson's "biophilia" hypothesis, humans are innately attracted to other living organisms. Later authors have expanded this concept to suggest that humans have an innate bond with nature more generally. This implies that certain kinds of contact with the natural world may benefit health. Evidence supporting this hypothesis is presented from four aspects of the natural world: animals, plants, landscapes, and wilderness. Finally, the implications of this hypothesis for a broader agenda for environmental health, encompassing not only toxic outcomes but also salutary ones, are discussed. This agenda implies research on a range of potentially healthful environmental exposures, collaboration among professionals in a range of disciplines from public health to landscape architecture to city planning, and interventions based on research outcomes.
To study the association between greenery filled public areas that are nearby a residence and easy to walk in and the longevity of senior citizens in a densely populated, developed megacity.
Cohort study.
The authors analysed the five year survival of 3144 people born in 1903, 1908, 1913, or 1918 who consented to a follow up survey from the records of registered Tokyo citizens in relation to baseline residential environment characteristics in 1992.
The survival of 2211 and the death of 897 (98.9% follow up) were confirmed. The probability of five year survival of the senior citizens studied increased in accordance with the space for taking a stroll near the residence (p<0.01), parks and tree lined streets near the residence (p<0.05), and their preference to continue to live in their current community (p<0.01). The principal component analysis from the baseline residential environment characteristics identified two environment related factors: the factor of walkable green streets and spaces near the residence and the factor of a positive attitude to a person's own community. After controlling the effects of the residents' age, sex, marital status, and socioeconomic status, the factor of walkable green streets and spaces near the residence showed significant predictive value for the survival of the urban senior citizens over the following five years (p<0.01).
Living in areas with walkable green spaces positively influenced the longevity of urban senior citizens independent of their age, sex, marital status, baseline functional status, and socioeconomic status. Greenery filled public areas that are nearby and easy to walk in should be further emphasised in urban planning for the development and re-development of densely populated areas in a megacity. Close collaboration should be undertaken among the health, construction, civil engineering, planning, and other concerned sectors in the context of the healthy urban policy, so as to promote the health of senior citizens.
Meditation is a specific consciousness state in which deep relaxation and increased internalized attention coexist. There have been various neurophysiological studies on meditation. However, the personal predispositions/traits that characterize the properties of meditation have not been adequately studied. We analyzed changes in neurophysiological parameters [EEG coherence and autonomic nervous activity using heart rate variability (HRV) as an index] during Zen meditation, and evaluated the results in association with trait anxiety (assessed by Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) in 22 healthy adults who had not previously practiced any form of meditation. During meditation, in terms of mean values in all subjects, an increase in slow alpha interhemispheric EEG coherence in the frontal region, an increase in high-frequency (HF) power (as a parasympathetic index of HRV), and a decrease in the ratio of low-frequency to HF power (as a sympathetic index of HRV) were observed. Further evaluation of these changes in individuals showed a negative correlation between the percent change (with the control condition as the baseline) in slow alpha interhemispheric coherence reflecting internalized attention and the percent change in HF reflecting relaxation. The trait anxiety score was negatively correlated with the percent change in slow alpha interhemispheric coherence in the frontal region and was positively correlated with the percent change in HF. These results suggest that lower trait anxiety more readily induces meditation with a predominance of internalized attention, while higher trait anxiety more readily induces meditation with a predominance of relaxation.
1. Phytoncides are volatile substances released mainly from trees. We studied whether phytoncides can reduce stress responses in stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSP).
2. Under the restraint stress, SHRSP exposed to phytoncides showed lower blood pressure than those without the exposure (186.8 ± 3.9 vs 207.7 ± 3.4 mmHg, respectively, P < 0.01 by Student's t-test).
3. Consistent with the observation above, the plasma concentration of catecholamines under the restraint stress was lower in the phytoncides group than in the control group.
4. Based on these results, we concluded that phytoncides reduced the cardiovascular response to restraint stress in SHRSP.
Previous studies of physiological responses to music showed inconsistent results, which might be attributable to methodological differences. Heart rate variability has been used to assess activation of the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. The present study aimed to examine heart rate variability with repetitive exposure to sedative or excitative music. The participants were 13 undergraduate or graduate students who were each exposed to three conditions sedative music (SM), excitative music (EM), and no music (NM) on different days. Each participant underwent four sessions of one condition in a day. Sedative music and no music each induced both high relaxation and low tension subjectively. However, excitative music decreased perceived tension and increased perceived relaxation as the number of sessions increased. The low-frequency (LF) component of heart rate variability (HRV) and the LF/HF (high-frequency) ratio increased during SM and EM sessions but decreased during NM sessions. The HF component of HRV during SM was higher than that during EM but the same as that during NM. These findings suggest that excitative music decreased the activation of the parasympathetic nervous system.
Shinrin-yoku (walking and/or staying in forests in order to promote health) is a major form of relaxation in Japan; however, its effects have yet to be completely clarified. The aims of this study were: (1) to evaluate the psychological effects of shinrin-yoku in a large number of participants; and (2) to identify the factors related to these effects.
Four hundred and ninety-eight healthy volunteers took part in the study. Surveys were conducted twice in a forest on the same day (forest day) and twice on a control day. Outcome measures were evaluated using the Multiple Mood Scale-Short Form (hostility, depression, boredom, friendliness, wellbeing and liveliness) and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory A-State Scale. Statistical analyses were conducted using analysis of variance and multiple regression analyses.
Hostility (P<0.001) and depression (P<0.001) scores decreased significantly, and liveliness (P=0.001) scores increased significantly on the forest day compared with the control day. The main effect of environment was also observed with all outcomes except for hostility, and the forest environment was advantageous. Stress levels were shown to be related to the magnitude of the shinrin-yoku effect; the higher the stress level, the greater the effect.
This study revealed that forest environments are advantageous with respect to acute emotions, especially among those experiencing chronic stress. Accordingly, shinrin-yoku may be employed as a stress reduction method, and forest environments can be viewed as therapeutic landscapes. Therefore, customary shinrin-yoku may help to decrease the risk of psychosocial stress-related diseases, and evaluation of the long-term effects of shinrin-yoku is warranted.
The physiological effects of "Shinrin-yoku" (taking in the atmosphere of the forest) were examined by investigating blood pressure, pulse rate, heart rate variability (HRV), salivary cortisol concentration, and immunoglobulin A concentration in saliva. Subjective feelings of being "comfortable", "calm", and "refreshed" were also assessed by questionnaire. The subjects were 12 male university students aged from 21 to 23 (mean+/-SD: 22.0+/-1.0). The physiological measurements were conducted six times, i.e., in the morning and evening before meals at the place of accommodation, before and after the subjects walked a predetermined course in the forest and city areas for 15 minutes, and before and after they sat still on a chair watching the scenery in the respective areas for 15 minutes. The findings were as follows. In the forest area compared to the city area, 1) blood pressure and pulse rate were significantly lower, and 2) the power of the HF component of the HRV tended to be higher and LF/(LF+HF) tended to be lower. Also, 3) salivary cortisol concentration was significantly lower in the forest area. These physiological responses suggest that sympathetic nervous activity was suppressed and parasympathetic nervous activity was enhanced in the forest area, and that "Shinrin-yoku" reduced stress levels. In the subjective evaluation, 4) "comfortable", "calm", and "refreshed" feelings were significantly higher in the forest area. The present study has, by conducting physiological investigations with subjective evaluations as supporting evidence, demonstrated the relaxing and stress-relieving effects of "Shinrin-yoku".