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... For instance, meta-analyses have focused on RNR at a programmatic level, helping investigators determine whether a program generally served highversus low-risk offenders, or if services were available to target criminogenic needs. Although other empirical studies have examined the risk level of individual program participants, relatively little research has focused on the effects of targeting an individual's specific criminogenic needs (Heilbrun et al., 2011). Other inconsistencies, such as lack of support for RNR in certain programs or with certain populations (e.g., Hall et al., 2010), suggest that something may be missing from the previous research. ...
... I risultati, peraltro non uniformi, evidenziano una moderata ma significativamente aumentata possibilità della popolazione psichiatrica campionata di incorrere in un comportamento violento rispetto ai controlli, ovvero alla popolazione non psichiatrica omogenea per variabili demografiche e contesto residenziale di vita. Alla luce di tali reperti e quasi a sfidare quegli Autori che negli anni '70-'80 non riconoscevano alla pratica clinica della predizione della pericolosità (dangerousness) nei soggetti con disagio mentale, intesa qui come rischio di recidivare un comportamento di natura violenta eterodiretto, un valore scientifico superiore "alle arti magiche" 6 , si sono moltiplicati gli studi finalizzati all'indagine e individuazione di quali fattori di rischio correlano più di altri con la riespressione di tali condotte [7][8][9] . Le informazioni statistiche ed empiriche che si sono accumulate da studi prospettici e retrospettivi hanno portato allo sviluppo di scale psicometriche finalizzate all'indicazione quantitativa del rischio di recidiva violenta. ...
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Objectives: In the last decades, interest and research on violence risk assessment tools for patients suffering from mental disease has significantly increased, providing different approaches that vary from actuarial to structured clinical judgement. From a national perspective, it may be useful for psychiatrists not directly involved in forensic context to become familiar with tools that are mostly studied and used elsewhere. The imminent announced closing of the six national OPGs (Ospedali Psichiatrici Giudiziari) will inevitably increase the number of mentally disordered offenders directly managed by mental health services (Dipartimenti di Salute Mentale), which will be asked by the courts to assess the risk of danger of some of their clients. Our aim herein is to review the international literature over the last 10 years in terms of evidence for the predictive validity of major violence risk assessment tools in correctional, forensic and general psychiatric settings. Materials and methods: A research through Medline and Embase database of clinical trials, prospective and retrospective cohort studies, systematic reviews and meta-analyses in the period 2002-2012. Results: Analysis of the literature stress the evidence that violence risk assessment tools are more efficient than unstructured clinical judgement in the prediction of future violent and aggressive behavioural expressions, including rate of reconvictions. Actuarial tools, specifically VRAG, developed in the correctional sector, appear to be efficient in the prediction of this population. Structured clinical judgement tools, in particular HCR-20, are supported by a large number of studies on their predictive features, in different settings, including some evidence for the assessment of the level of security that is most appropriate for the patient within the forensic psychiatric care pathway. Conclusions: The introduction and routine use of violence risk assessment tools in the correctional and forensic contexts appears to be valid. Usage of appropriate, validated risk assessment tools can augment standard clinical approaches in a number of ways. Some of their advantages derive simply from having a well-structured approach, others from consideration of specific kinds of risk factors: 'static' and 'dynamic'. The inappropriate use of tools without a firm evidence base, however, is unlikely to enhance clinical practice significantly: their utility at the level of general psychiatry is still controversial. Additional considerations are discussed.
... To date very little is known about if, and how, RFs can meet the everyday needs of patients with a history of violent behavior. As stressed by many authors, more investigations aimed at evaluating risk of reoffending in this group of patients are needed (Bjørkly & Waage, 2005;Heilbrun et al., 2011;Hodgins & Müller-Isberner, 2004;Holliday, Heilbrun, & Fretz, 2012). Our study, conducted in the specific setting of RFs, is a contribution into that direction. ...
Article
People with severe mental disorders and a history of violence are often seen as a difficult-to-manage segment of the population. In addition, this group is usually characterized by a high risk of crime recidivism, and poor compliance with community and aftercare programs. To investigate a sample of male patients living in Residential Facilities (RFs) with a history of violent behavior against people and to compare their characteristics with those of never-violent residents; to analyze the associations between aggressive behaviors in the last two years and a history of previous violence; and, to assess the predictors of aggressive behaviors. This study is part of a prospective observational cohort study which involved 23 RFs in Northern Italy. A comprehensive set of sociodemographic, clinical, and treatment-related information was gathered, and standardized assessments were administered to each participant. Also a detailed assessment of aggressive behaviors in the past two years was carried out. The study involved 268 males: 81 violent and 187 never-violent. Compared to never-violent patients, violent patients were younger, with a higher proportion of personality disorders, and have displayed an increased number of aggressive behaviors in the last two years. The presence of a history of violent behavior in the past significantly increases the probability of committing aggressive acts in the future. Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
... Such subgroup efforts could examine the role that a single influence can have on multiple outcomes and also the role of multiple influences on a single outcome (Kazdin, 2007). In a dynamic risk assessment context, efforts would include the development of specialized risk-needs measures taken at multiple points in time (Heilbrun et al., 2011). The second type of research involves the use of time lines. ...
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The present study examined whether treatment change among offenders under community supervision would predict reductions in recidivism. The intervention program, based on cognitive-behavioral principles, focused on changing antisocial attitudes. Compared to a matched control group, the likelihood of reduced recidivism was 57% for the binary outcome and 70% for the multiple count outcome, after controlling for past program participation, propensity score, and days of opportunity to offend. The within-person pre-/postchange scores showed less promise in predicting recidivism. Only changes with a single antisocial associate measure, which were not central to the treatment program, predicted future recidivism. Caution must be used in the idiographic assessment of dynamic risk and treatment change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
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In 2011, the New Brunswick government released the New Brunswick Mental Health Action Plan 2011–2018 (Action Plan). Following the release of the Action Plan in 2011, two progress reports were released in 2013 and 2015, highlighting the implementation status of the Action Plan. While vague in their language, these reports indicated considerable progress in implementing the Action Plan, as various initiatives were undertaken to raise awareness and provide additional resources to facilitate early prevention and intervention in children and youth. However, whether these initiatives have yielded measurable improvements in population-level mental health outcomes in children and youth remains unclear. The current study explored the impact of the Action Plan by visualizing the trend in psychosocial outcomes and service utilization of vulnerable populations in New Brunswick before and after the implementation of the Action Plan using multiple datasets from the Canadian Community Health Survey. Survey-weighted ordinary least square regression analyses were performed to investigate measurable improvements in available mental health outcomes. The result revealed a declining trend in the mental wellness of vulnerable youth despite them consistently reporting higher frequencies of mental health service use. This study highlights the need for a concerted effort in providing effective mental health services to New Brunswick youth and, more broadly, Canadian youth, as well as ensuring rigorous routine outcome monitoring and evaluation plans are consistently implemented for future mental health strategies at the time of their initiation.
Article
The two primary goals of mental health courts are to engage individuals with severe mental illness in the criminal justice system with clinical mental health services and to prevent future involvement with the criminal justice system. An important factor in helping to achieve both goals is to identify participants' level of clinical needs and criminogenic risk/needs. This study seeks to better understand how criminogenic risk affects outcomes in a mental health court. Specifically, we explore if high criminogenic risk is associated with failure to complete mental health court. Our subjects are participants of a municipal mental health court (MHC) who completed the Level of Services Inventory—Revised (LSI-R) upon entry to the program (N = 146). We used binary logistic regression to determine the association between termination from the program with the total LSI-R. Our findings suggest that, net of prior criminal history, time in the program and clinical services received, high criminogenic risk/need is associated with failure to complete mental health court. In addition to providing clinical services, our findings suggest the need for MHCs to include criminogenic risk assessment to identify criminogenic risk. For participants to succeed in MHCs, both their clinical and criminogenic needs should be addressed.
Article
Despite the continued growth of adolescent risk assessment tools, we do not know how these tools are being used in adolescent court cases or how this information influences legal decision making. To address this gap, we reviewed 50 Canadian, American, and international adolescent offender cases using the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth or Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory. The results confirm that adolescent risk assessment tools are primarily introduced during sentencing or adult transfer proceedings. Judges identified the specific risk and protective factors of youth in 36.2% and 19.0% of cases, respectively. In terms of legal decision making, the risk assessment was either directly or indirectly referred to in 76.0% of cases; however, judges most often placed some weight on the risk assessment as a part of an enumerated list of other important factors. Although risk assessments were generally considered admissible in these cases, some legal concerns were raised, particularly with the use of risk assessments to guide sentencing decisions.
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Careful reading of the literature on the psychology of criminal conduct and of prior reviews of studies of treatment effects suggests that neither criminal sanctioning without provision of rehabilitative service nor servicing without reference to clinical principles of rehabilitation will succeed in reducing recidivism. What works, in our view, is the delivery of appropriate correctional service, and appropriate service reflects three psychological principles: (1) delivery of service to higher risk cases, (2) targeting of criminogenic needs, and (3) use of styles and modes of treatment (e.g., cognitive and behavioral) that are matched with client need and learning styles. These principles were applied to studies of juvenile and adult correctional treatment, which yielded 154 phi coefficients that summarized the magnitude and direction of the impact of treatment on recidivism. The effect of appropriate correctional service (mean phi = .30) was significantly (p
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The principles of risk, need, and responsivity have been empirically linked to the effectiveness of treatment to reduce reoffending, but the transference of these principles to the inside of prison walls is difficult. Results from a sample of 620 incarcerated male offenders—482 who received either a 5-week, 10-week, or 15-week prison-based treatment program and 138 untreated comparison offenders—found that treatment significantly reduced recidivism (odds ratio of .56; effect size r of .10) and that the amount of treatment (e.g., “dosage”) played a significant role (odds ratios between .92 and .95 per week of treatment; adjusted effect size r of .01 and .02). These results indicate that prison-based treatment can be effective in reducing recidivism, that dosage plays a mediating role, and that there may be minimum levels of treatment required to reduce recidivism that is dependent on the level of an offender’s risk and need.
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The history of risk assessment in criminal justice has been written on several occasions (Andrews & Bonta, 2003; Clements, 1996; Hollin, 2002). Here we assess progress since Andrews, Bonta, and Hoge’s (1990; Andrews, Zinger, et al., 1990) statement of the human service principles of risk-need-responsivity (RNR) and professional discretion. In those articles, the corrections-based terms of risk and need were transformed into principles addressing the major clinical issues of who receives treatment (higher risk cases), what intermediate targets are set (reduce criminogenic needs), and what treatment strategies are employed (match strategies to the learning styles and motivation of cases: the principles of general and specific responsivity). General responsivity asserts the general power of behavioral, social learning, and cognitive-behavioral strategies. Specific responsivity suggests matching of service with personality, motivation, and ability and with demographics such as age, gender, and ethnicity. Nonadherence is possible for stated reasons under the principle of professional discretion. Expanded sets of principles now include consideration of case strengths, setting of multiple criminogenic needs as targets, community-based, staff relationship and structuring skills, and a management focus on integrity through the selection, training, and clinical supervision of staff and organizational supports (Andrews, 2001).
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This study examines the predictive validity of the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) by examining relationships between SAVRY scores and violent reoffending during a 3-year period after sentencing. Two types of sentences were studied: a mandatory treatment order (N = 77) and a juvenile prison sentence (N = 40). The predictive validity of the SAVRY was significant for the two types of sentences. The predictive validity of the unstructured clinical judgment proved to be not significant. Support was found for the hypothesis that the juvenile court's sentence (treatment versus detention) might have been influenced by the unstructured clinical risk assessment of the mental health experts, even though this assessment is a poor predictor of violent reoffending.
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This study presents the findings of an evaluation of the effect on reconviction of three general offending behavior programs involving adult male offenders in the English and Welsh Probation Service. Using a quasi-experimental design controlling for population factors, there was no difference in the reconviction rates of offenders allocated to programs and a comparison group. Offenders who completed a program had a lower rate of reconviction compared to the nonstarter, noncompleter, and comparison groups. A range of explanations for this “completion effect” is discussed, particularly with regard to the emerging literature on readiness to change.
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A prison inmate's risk of recidivism is central to decisions about whether to release her to serve a portion of her sentence on parole. Although several tools have been developed to improve accuracy in estimating the risk of future reoffense, few have been validated with the ever-growing population of female offenders. This study compared the utility of the Level of Service Inventory—Revised (LSI-R) in predicting recidivism for 70 female and 1,035 male offenders who had been convicted of serious violent offenses. The LSI-R predicted 1-year general recidivism quite well for women. Although gender did not moderate the utility of the LSI-R in predicting recidivism, risk factors that best predicted recidivism differed for men and women. Implications for risk assessment and parole decision making with female inmates are discussed.
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Over the past 20 years, an increased understanding has been developed of what interventions do and do not work with offenders. Treatment programs that attend to offender risk, needs, and responsivity factors have been associated with reduced recidivism. There is also a recognition that sanctions without a rehabilitative component are ineffective in reducing offender recidivism. This study evaluates a cognitive-behavioral treatment program delivered within the context of intensive community supervision via electronic monitoring (EM). Offenders receiving treatment while in an EM program were statistically matched on risk and needs factors to inmates who did not receive treatment services. The results showed that treatment was effective in reducing recidivism for higher risk offenders, confirming the risk principle of offender treatment. The importance of matching treatment intensity to offender risk level and ensuring that there is a treatment component in intensive supervision programs is reaffirmed.
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The Level of Service Inventory—Revised: Screening Version (LSI-R:SV) has proven to validly predict reoffending in general offender populations but has not previously been studied specifically with offenders who have a major mental illness, including those with a dual diagnosis. This research project measures the validity of the LSI-R:SV for use with 208 mentally ill offenders who were released from a secure forensic hospital in Melbourne, Australia. Results indicate that the LSI-R:SV is a good predictor of recidivism among mentally disordered offenders. However, the LSI-R:SV does not reliably predict recidivism in individuals who attracted a dual diagnosis. Further research needs to reevaluate risk factors associated with recidivism in offenders with a dual diagnosis.
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A growing body of scholarship faults existing risk/needs assessment models for neglecting the risk factors most relevant to women offenders. In response, a series of gender-responsive assessment models were tested for their contributions to widely used gender-neutral risk needs assessments. In six of eight samples studied, subsets of the gender-responsive scales achieved statistically significant contributions to gender-neutral models. Promising results were found for the following: (a) parental stress, family support, self-efficacy, educational assets, housing safety, anger/hostility, and current mental health factors in probation samples; (b) child abuse, anger/hostility, relationship dysfunction, family support, and current mental health factors among prisoners; and (c) adult victimization, anger/hostility, educational assets, and family support among released inmates. The predictive validity of gender-neutral assessments was strong in seven of eight samples studied. However, findings for both gender-neutral and gender-responsive domains suggested different treatment priorities for women from those currently put forward in correctional theory and policy.
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This study examines the statistical validation of a recently developed, fourth-generation (4G) risk—need assessment system (Correctional Offender Management Profiling for Alternative Sanctions; COMPAS) that incorporates a range of theoretically relevant criminogenic factors and key factors emerging from meta-analytic studies of recidivism. COMPAS's automated scoring provides decision support for correctional agencies for placement decisions, offender management, and treatment planning. The article describes the basic features of COMPAS and then examines the predictive validity of the COMPAS risk scales by fitting Cox proportional hazards models to recidivism outcomes in a sample of presentence investigation and probation intake cases (N = 2,328). Results indicate that the predictive validities for the COMPAS recidivism risk model, as assessed by the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC), equal or exceed similar 4G instruments. The AUCs ranged from .66 to .80 for diverse offender subpopulations across three outcome criteria, with a majority of these exceeding .70.
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Using 88 studies from 1980 to 2006, a meta-analysis compares risk instruments and other psychological measures on their ability to predict general (primarily nonsexual) violence in adults. Little variation was found amongst the mean effect sizes of common actuarial or structured risk instruments (i.e., Historical, Clinical, and Risk Management Violence Risk Assessment Scheme; Level of Supervision Inventory—Revised; Violence Risk Assessment Guide; Statistical Information on Recidivism scale; and Psychopathy Checklist—Revised). Third-generation instruments, dynamic risk factors, and file review plus interview methods had the advantage in predicting violent recidivism. Second-generation instruments, static risk factors, and use of file review were the strongest predictors of institutional violence. Measures derived from criminological-related theories or research produced larger effect sizes than did those of less content relevance. Additional research on existing risk instruments is required to provide more precise point estimates, especially regarding the outcome of institutional violence.
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Over the recent past there have been several meta-analyses and primary studies that support the importance of the risk principle. Oftentimes these studies, particularly the meta-analyses, are limited in their ability to assess how the actual implementation of the risk principle by correctional agencies affects effectiveness in reducing recidivism. Furthermore, primary studies are typically limited to the assessment of one or two programs, which again limits the types of analyses conducted. This study, using data from two independent studies of 97 correctional programs, investigates how adherence to the risk principle by targeting offenders who are higher risk and varying length of stay and services by level of risk affects program effectiveness in reducing recidivism. Overall, this research indicates that for residential and nonresidential programs, adhering to the risk principle has a strong relationship with a program’s ability to reduce recidivism.
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The Level of Service Inventory—Revised (LSI-R) has been validated for a variety of criminal justice populations, although one large segment for which the instrument has not been validated is drug-involved offenders. With the increasing implementation of the LSI-R across correctional jurisdictions in the United States and internationally, and with a significant number of offenders having substance abuse histories, validation of the instrument for this population is overdue. Using bivariate correlations and logistic regression analyses, the LSI-R total score was found to be a stable, significant predictor of reincarceration for a sample of 276 drug-involved offenders. This finding held up in multivariate analyses even when controlling for a variety of other factors including age, criminal history, time-at-risk in the community following release from prison, and treatment-related variables.
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Justice systems depend on risk assessment instruments to identify juveniles who have the greatest likelihood to re-offend. This study was an attempt to validate the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory as a predictor of re-offense for young offenders between the ages of 10 and 16. Although 26% of youth in the sample (n = 328) re-offended, there were significant differences in offense rates among juveniles classified as high risk, moderate risk, and low risk. The YLS/CMI also had a high correct classification rate, which was reflected in an AUC of .62. Finally, youth of different risk levels also showed differences in time to re-offense rates. Results indicate further study of the YLS/CMI's validity with girls and minorities is necessary. Furthermore, risk prediction could be improved by inclusion of ecological predictive variables related to delinquency.
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As the youth justice system has evolved, clinicians have been increasingly asked to make judgments about the likelihood that a youth who has committed a sexual offense will reoffend. However, there is an absence of well-validated tools to assist with these judgments. This study examined the ability of the Juvenile Sexual Offense Recidivism Risk Assessment Tool—II (J-SORRAT-II), Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY), and Juvenile Sex Offender Assessment Protocol—II (J-SOAP-II) to predict violent behavior in 169 male youth who were admitted to a residential adolescent sex offender program. Total scores on the SAVRY and J-SOAP-II significantly predicted nonsexual violence but none of the instruments predicted sexual violence. The J-SOAP-II and SAVRY were less effective in predicting violent reoffending in youth aged 15 and younger than in older youth. The implications of these findings are discussed.
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Reviews 4 principles of classification for rehabilitation: risk, need, responsivity, and professional override in the context of basic research and theory in the psychology of criminal conduct. Risk, need, and responsivity considerations in the psychology of criminal conduct may better reflect knowledge and opinion regarding discretionary services for purposes of rehabilitation than does the discounting of knowledge so characteristic of major portions of mainstream criminology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Since the late 1990s, in England and in Wales, there has been increasing interest in the particular challenges of managing offenders with personality disorder (PD). In 1999, a specialist hostel, managed by the probation service but with a high level of forensic mental health service input, was opened to high-risk PD offenders. To describe the first 93 high-risk residents with PD who were completing sentences under life licence, parole or probation, and their outcome. We investigated the nature of the offences residents had previously committed, their psychological profile in terms of personality patterns on the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI-III) and the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), as well as staff commentary on their progress, to establish whether these factors related to outcome in terms of completion of stay in the hostel or premature discharge. Curfew failures and rearrest rates were also measured. Of the 80 men who completed their residency within the two years of the study, the majority (50) left the hostel for positive reasons under mutual agreement. One-fifth were rearrested while resident, which is a lower rate than would be expected for such a group of offenders. PCL-R scores were predictive of outcome, but so was previous offending history. Self-defeating traits on the MCMI-III and negative comments written by hostel staff were also associated with failure. The hostel development demonstrated that probation and health services can work together to manage violent offenders with high levels of psychological dysfunction, and the evaluation provided some indications of how such arrangements might be enhanced.
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Among young offenders, mental health problems have been linked both to more serious delinquent acts and to high recidivism rates, but there has been little study of this in Greece. The aims of this study were to describe demographic and family characteristics of young incarcerated male offenders, to determine the prevalence of mental disorders among them and to compare native Greeks with immigrants on these variables. Ninety-three young males, randomly selected from the three main juvenile detention facilities in Greece, completed the Greek version of the Youth Self Report (YSR); the institutions' social workers completed a questionnaire designed for the study on the youths' demographics and offending. Results revealed over-representation of immigrants, high levels of psychosocial adversity (large family size, low parental educational level, poverty and family offending history) and high prevalence rates not only of externalizing disorders, such as conduct disorder, but also internalizing disorders, including anxiety, depression and somatizing problems. Young males in Greek correctional institutions need support at many levels, and especially for mental health problems. This will have implications for staff training and juvenile justice system reform.
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Target populations have always been a thorny issue for correctional programs, primarily in response to the question "what works for whom?" In this experiment of seamless treatment for probationers in two sites, offenders were randomly assigned to the seamless model (drug treatment incorporated into probation supervision) or traditional referral model to services in the community. The experiment blocked on risk level, using a version of the Wisconsin Risk Tool, to measure the differential effects on rearrest and substance abuse. The seamless system model improved treatment participation with greater gains for the high-risk offenders in both sites. Yet, no main effects were observed on drug use or rearrest, although effect sizes illustrate that small effects can be observed for the high-risk offenders and the direction of the effect size demonstrates negative effects for moderate-risk offenders in one of the sites. Part of the failure to observe main effects may be due to instrumentation and measurement problems, namely that many of the substance abusers in the experiment had low severity substance abuse problems and the majority of the offenders were marijuana users which has a weaker crime-drug linkage. Study findings illustrate the importance of theoretically driven and dynamic risk and need measures. The focus on sound dynamic factors may assist with identifying the appropriate target populations for correctional interventions.
Book
Part of the successful Best Practices in Forensic Mental Health Assessment series, this online resource provides helpful step-by-step information on performing violence risk assessments using a user-friendly format that includes bulleted lists, helpful tips, and key issues to avoid.
Article
The clinically relevant and psychologically informed principles of human service, risk, need, and responsivity have received strong support within several meta-analytic reviews. Despite their widespread acceptance, however, no meta-analysis to date has examined whether the appropriate application of these principles within correctional treatment programs is associated with reduced levels of violent re-offending. This article provides an overview of the role that each of these principles played in reducing violent recidivism. Adherence to each of the four principles, received empirical support, although not to a statistically significant degree in the case of risk. In addition, a composite measure, reflecting adherence to the four principles revealed the greatest mean reduction in violent recidivism. The principles of effective correctional treatment are discussed as key elements that should be considered in developing effective correctional interventions for reducing violent recidivism.
Article
Clinicians are often asked to assess the likelihood that an adolescent who has committed a sexual offense will reoffend. However, there is limited research on the predictive validity of available assessment tools. To help address this gap, this study examined the ability of the Estimate of Risk of Adolescent Sexual Offense Recidivism (ERASOR), the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (YLS/CMI), the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV), and the Static-99 to predict reoffending in a sample of 193 adolescents. Youth were followed for an average of 7.24 years after discharge from a residential sex offender treatment program. Although none of the instruments significantly predicted detected cases of sexual reoffending, ERASOR’s structured professional judgments nearly reached significance (p = .069). Both the YLS/CMI and the PCL:YV predicted nonsexual violence, any violence, and any offending; however, the YLS/CMI demonstrated incremental validity over the PCL:YV. Although the Static-99 has considerable support with adult sex offenders, it did not predict sexual or general reoffending in the present sample of adolescents.
Article
Although the question of what works for general offender populations has received considerable attention within the rehabilitation literature, very little research has examined female offenders. The present investigation examined the principles of effective correctional treatment for female offenders through a meta-analytic review. The results indicated that the clinically relevant and psychologically informed principles of human service, risk, need, and responsivity identified in past meta-analytic reviews were associated with enhanced reductions in reoffending.
Article
The study examined the predictive performance of social cognitive variables derived from a gender-neutral theory of criminal behavior in relation to several variables suggested as relevant by feminist perspectives. Multivariate analyses revealed that eight gender-neutral risk factors—assessed via the Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (LS/CMI)—performed very well in the prediction of the general and violent recidivism of more than 400 adult female offenders. None of the gender-specific factors, including parenting responsibility and stress, victimization history, and self-harm, had incremental validity over the gender-neutral risk and need variables. However, financial problems and a measure of personal misfortune did predict reoffending among low-risk/low-need women. The findings suggest that risk factors derived from a gender-neutral social cognitive theory of crime are relevant for adult females and that perhaps gender-specific concerns may be best viewed as specific responsivity factors.
Article
The current investigation is a meta-analysis of the predictive accuracy of three well-known forensic instruments used to appraise risk with young offenders: youth adaptations of the Level of Service Inventory and Psychopathy Checklist and the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk for Youth. Through several avenues, 49 potentially suitable published and unpublished studies (across 44 samples representing 8,746 youth) were identified and evaluated for inclusion. Predictive accuracy for general, nonviolent, violent, and sexual recidivism was examined for the three sets of measures. Mean weighted correlations for each of the three measures were significant in the prediction of general, nonviolent, and violent recidivism, with no single instrument demonstrating superior prediction. Separate analyses of specific young offender groups further supported the predictive accuracy of youth adaptations of the Level of Service Inventory among male, female, Aboriginal, and non-Aboriginal youth. Implications regarding the utility of young offender risk measures for enhancing clinical service provision with youth clientele are discussed.
Article
Juvenile justice systems have widely adopted risk assessment instruments to support judicial and administrative decisions about sanctioning severity and restrictiveness of care. A little explored property of these instruments is the extent to which their predictive validity generalizes across gender. The article reports on a meta-analysis of risk assessment predictive validity with male and female offenders. Nineteen studies encompassing 20 unique samples met inclusion criteria. Findings indicated that predictive validity estimates are equivalent for male and female offenders and are consistent with results of other meta-analyses in the field. The findings also indicate that when gender differences are observed in individual studies, they provide evidence for gender biases in juvenile justice decision-making and case processing rather than for the ineffectiveness of risk assessment with female offenders.
Article
Over the past two decades, the role of risk-needs assessment in the criminal justice system has increased substantially. This study provides validation data on the Level of Service Inventory—Revised (LSI-R) and the Correctional Offender Management Profiling for Alternative Sanctions (COMPAS) using a large male cohort ( N = 975) with a substantial proportion of ethnic minority offenders. In comparing the predictive validity of these tools, the authors employed a retrospective, archival, known-groups design to study outcomes of offenders released into the community from New Jersey prisons between 1999 and 2002, with a postrelease outcome period of 12 months. The results indicate that both the LSI-R composite score and the COMPAS recidivism score have inconsistent validity when tested on different ethnic/racial populations. Furthermore, the results suggest that different ethnic/racial groups have varying risk and needs factors that predict recidivism.
Article
Violence is a serious social problem that is often encountered in the youth justice system. Identifying those adolescents who are at the highest risk for future violence is an important step toward effective rehabilitation. The current study examined the predictive validity of the Structured Assessment for Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY), a structured professional judgment risk tool, in a sample of 121 juvenile offenders. The SAVRY was found to have strong predictive validity, a finding that was robust across gender and ethnicity. The SAVRY obtained ROC values of .75 and .66 for general and violent recidivism, respectively, for 1 year, and values of .76 and .77 for general and violent recidivism, respectively, for 3-year follow-up. For nonviolent recidivism, the ROC values were .80 for 1-year and .68 during 3 years. Use of the SAVRY in the youth justice system, and limitations of the study, are discussed.
Article
The rehabilitation of young offenders and their reintegration into society are important goals of the juvenile justice system. An empirically supported model of service delivery attending to the principles of risk level, criminogenic need, and respon- sivity provides direction in achieving these goals. Although research on this model thus far has evaluated the principles only at a group level, the present study evaluates the impact on recidivism of matching youth with services at the individual level. Files of 122 youth who received court assessments were reviewed to determine whether clinical recommendations and services received were congruent. Youths' criminal records were reviewed to determine reoffense outcomes. As predicted, higher risk scores were associated with earlier and more frequent recidivism. Knowing whether a young offender had his or her specific criminogenic needs addressed in treatment added to the predictive power of risk. Having only a few treatment needs met was associated with significantly earlier recidivism and a greater number of new convictions. These findings may provide direc- tion in enhancing efforts to effectively respond to youth crime.
Article
The authors bring the "person" back into criminology by focusing on understanding individual differences in criminal conduct and recognizing the importance of personal, interpersonal, and community factors. What results is a truly interdisciplinary general personality and social psychology of criminal behavior that is open to a wide variety of factors that relate to individual differences - a perspective with both theoretical and practical significance in North America and Great Britain.The book is now organized into four parts: (1) The Theoretical Context and Knowledge Base to the Psychology of Criminal Conduct, (2) The Major Risk/Need Factors of Criminal Conduct, (3) Applications, and (4) Summary and Conclusions. Chapters include helpful Resource Notes that explain important concepts. A selection of technical notes, separated from the general text, allows the advanced student to explore complex research without distracting readers from the main points. Resource notes throughout explain important concepts. Technical notes at the back of the book allow the advanced student to explore complex research without distracting readers from the main points. An acronym index is also provided.
Article
This current article introduces the special issue on child and adolescent psychopathy and the search for protective factors. Although there has been considerable research conducted on psychopathy at the adult level and a surge of research attempting to extend the concept to children and adolescents in the past decade, few studies have attempted to examine factors that might moderate or protect against the development of psychopathy. This special issue focuses on topics relevant to examining potential protective factors within a developmental psychopathology framework. Articles in the special issue are longitudinal and thus allow for the examination of protective factors as they are evidenced in real time. They focus on genetics, peer relations, parental factors, and internalizing and externalizing symptoms. These studies provide a foundation for examining protective factors and provide the groundwork for future research in this area.
Article
Specialist treatment programmes for personality disordered offenders suffer from high rates of non-completion. This has important consequences for service providers and individual patients. Data from hospital records and the Offenders Index were compared for groups of treatment completers (n = 22) and non-completers (n = 59) discharged from a specialist treatment programme. Twenty-seven percent of patients completed treatment, 37% were expelled for rule breaking and 35% disengaged early from treatment. Psychometric assessments of anger expression and anxiety showed no differences between the groups, however, treatment completers showed lower levels of impulsivity and psychopathy than either of the non-completer groups. Rates of post-discharge offending for grave and standard list offences were 56.8 and 10.8%, respectively. Despite careful selection methods, a large proportion of personality-disordered patients admitted to specialist units failed to complete treatment. Psychometric assessments of anger expression, anxiety and impulsivity showed limited utility in differentiating treatment completers and non-completers. Sample size limitations in this naturalistic follow-up impacted on the interpretation of differences observed between the groups on the primary outcome measure of re-offending after discharge.
Article
There has been a lot of research on risk factors for recidivism among juvenile offenders, in general, and on individual risk factors, but less focus on subgroups of serious juvenile offenders and prediction of recidivism within these. To find an optimal classification of risk items and to test the predictive value of the resultant factors with respect to severity of recidivism among serious juvenile offenders. Seventy static and dynamic risk factors in 1154 juvenile offenders were registered with the Juvenile Forensic Profile. Recidivism data were collected on 728 of these offenders with a time at risk of at least 2 years. After factor analysis, independent sample t-tests were used to indicate differences between recidivists and non-recidivists. Logistic multiple linear regression analyses were used to test the potential predictive value of the factors for violent or serious recidivism. A nine-factor solution best accounted for the data. The factors were: antisocial behaviour during treatment, sexual problems, family problems, axis-1 psychopathology, offence characteristics, conscience and empathy, intellectual and social capacities, social network, and substance abuse. Regression analysis showed that the factors antisocial behaviour during treatment, family problems and axis-1 psychopathology were associated with seriousness of recidivism. The significance of family problems and antisocial behaviour during treatments suggest that specific attention to these factors may be important in reducing recidivism. The fact that antisocial behaviour during treatment consists mainly of dynamic risk factors is hopeful as these can be influenced by treatment. Consideration of young offenders by subgroup rather than as a homogenous population is likely to yield the best information about risk of serious re-offending and the management of that risk.
Article
Several studies have found a relationship between psychiatric illness and criminal behaviour. Despite this, few studies have examined the presence of criminal thinking among civil psychiatric patients. The aim of this study is to explore the patterns and correlates of criminal thinking, using the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS), in a sample of civil psychiatric patients. The PICTS (Layperson Edition) and the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (Anchored Version; BPRS) were administered to 76 civil psychiatric patients. PICTS scores were compared with those of offenders from a previously published study. Bivariate tests were conducted between selected PICTS scales, BPRS factors, demographic and criminal history variables. Stepwise multiple regressions were performed to assess those variables that predicted the general criminal thinking, proactive and reactive composite scales of the PICTS. Independent samples t-tests revealed that five PICTS thinking styles were significantly higher in the psychiatric sample compared with the comparison sample of criminal offenders. Bivariate correlations revealed that the PICTS proactive composite scale was significantly related to and predicted by substance abuse and arrest history. CONCLUSIONS/CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Thinking styles which are typically associated with criminality were found in this sample of civil psychiatric patients. Cognitive remediation strategies targeting these may help to prevent criminal activity in psychiatric patients.
Article
The Weinberger Adjustment Inventory (WAI) measures social-emotional adjustment along two dimensions: distress and restraint. Four types of adjustment according to this measure have been shown to correlate with criminal recidivism among young male prisoners: reactive (high distress, low restraint), suppressor (high distress, high restraint), non-reactive (low distress, low restraint) and repressor (low distress, high restraint). To evaluate the predictive potential of the WAI among young female prisoners. Women under 30 years old, consecutively admitted to one of three Norwegian prisons, were asked to complete the WAI. Most of those eligible (102, 94%) did so. Re-conviction data were collected from the National Crime Register 38 months (SD = 9.0) after release. The overall re-conviction rate was 38%. Rates differed according to the four WAI types: 53% in the non-reactive, 50% in the reactive, 22% in the suppressor and 11% in the repressor group (p = 0.006). Kaplan-Meier analyses showed that group differences were explained by the WAI restraint dimension (p = 0.008). Differences on the distress dimension did not influence re-conviction. Cox regression analysis (adjusting for age at first court conviction and prior offences) found that women with low restraint scores were almost three times as likely to re-offend as women with high restraint scores. The WAI appears to be an effective tool for identifying women who are particularly vulnerable to re-offending. Evidence of high capacity for restraint is protective, regardless of distress levels and even after adjusting for the effect of other criminologically important factors. The findings are suggestive that there may be value in individualising 'treatment' or rehabilitation programmes for prisoners.
Article
A large proportion of violent crimes are committed by youths. Youths with psychopathic traits may have a higher risk for recidivism and violence. Our aim was to compare sexually aggressive with violent young men on offence severity and psychopathy. Three hypotheses were proposed: first, young men with previous offences would display a progressive increase in seriousness of offence during their criminal career; secondly, the sexually aggressive and violent young men would not differ in scores on the Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV); but, thirdly, PCL:YV scores would be positively correlated with the severity of the index crime, as measured by the Cormier-Lang System for Quantifying Criminal History. Information was collected from the files of 40 young men in conflict with the law, and the PCL:Youth Version (YV) rated from this by trained raters. The offences of these young men became more serious over time, but we found no association between PCL:YV scores and offence type or seriousness. This exploratory research suggests the importance of understanding the progression in offending careers, but a limited role for the PCL:YV in doing so. Given the small sample size, however, and the limit on access to information about details of age, the findings need replication.
Article
Rates of mental illness among prisoners are substantial, but little is known about the unique mental health needs of women in jail, those under pre-trial custodial remand or serving short sentences. To compare male and female jail inmates along a wide range of symptoms of mental illness using identical assessment methods, and to examine gender differences in treatment seeking before and during incarceration. Soon after incarceration in a county jail, 360 male and 154 female pre-trial and post-trial inmates completed the Personality Assessment Inventory, a wide-ranging measure of psychiatric symptoms. Treatment seeking information was taken from official jail records. Women were more likely to report clinically significant symptoms of anxiety, borderline personality features, somatic concerns and trauma-related symptoms; however, trauma-related symptoms and borderline features were also common among male inmates. Although both men and women reported high rates of drug-related problems, alcohol-related problems were twice as prevalent among male inmates. Female inmates were more likely to seek and be enrolled in jail-based treatment; there were no differences in reported help seeking prior to incarceration. Female jail inmates are especially in need of mental health services. Effective interventions for post-traumatic stress disorder and borderline personality disorder are needed in jail settings for both male and female inmates during incarceration and upon release.
Article
Recent meta-analyses have documented considerable evidence demonstrating that correctional treatment programs are indeed effective for reducing recidivism in offender populations. The effect of client risk, an issue that has received extensive coverage in the extant literature from an assessment perspective, has been relatively ignored in these efforts. The present study marks the first exhaustive meta-analytic investigation of the risk principle and its effects on correctional treatment program effectiveness. The results reveal moderate support for its utility, although the magnitude of the findings are affected by the reporting practices used in the primary studies. Finally, the evidence supporting the risk principle is much stronger for female offenders and young offenders and within programs that are deemed appropriate according to the principles of need and responsivity. It should be noted that justice interventions that did not include elements of human service (e.g., increased sanctions) yielded negative results regardless of level of client risk.
Article
Article
More mentally disordered offenders (MDOs) are referred to secure psychiatric care settings than are accepted for admission. Psychiatrists working in different care settings may disagree on the appropriate level of security for MDOs, resulting in treatment delay. A pre-admission structured assessment of security needs for MDOs may facilitate agreement and access to care. To assess the predictive validity and reliability of a structured assessment of security need (OPRISK) in a prospective cohort of referrals to high security hospital. Operationalized criteria describing risk factors related to security need were used to develop OPRISK, an 18 item checklist. The predictive validity of OPRISK was assessed prospectively on the outcome of 140 referrals to Broadmoor high security hospital. Receiver operating characteristic curves of the predictive validity of OPRISK yielded an area under the curve of 0.765 (p < 0.001, 95% CI: 0.686-0.844). Internal consistency (>0.75) and inter-rater reliability (0.925) were high. OPRISK makes the evidence for an MDO's security needs explicit, aiding communication across service settings and improving access to care.
SAVRY risk assessment in violent Dutch adoles-cents: Relation to sentencing and recidivism
  • De Ruiter
Lodewuks H, Doreleijers T, De Ruiter C (2008) SAVRY risk assessment in violent Dutch adoles-cents: Relation to sentencing and recidivism. Criminal Justice and Behavior 35: 696–709.
Women's risk factors and their contribu-tions to existing risk/needs assessment
  • Wright E E Salisbury
  • Bauman
Van Voorhis P, Wright E, Salisbury E, Bauman A (2010) Women's risk factors and their contribu-tions to existing risk/needs assessment. Criminal Justice and Behavior 37: 261–288.
Handbook of Violence Risk Assessment The signifi cance of protective factors in the assessment of risk
  • Otto R Douglas
Otto R, Douglas K (eds.) (2010) Handbook of Violence Risk Assessment. New York: Routledge. Rennie C, Dolan M (2010) The signifi cance of protective factors in the assessment of risk. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health 20: 8–22.
Manual for the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) Transferring the principles of effective treatment into a 'real world' prison setting
  • R P Borum
  • Forth
Borum R, Bartel P, Forth A (2006). Manual for the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY). Lutz, FL: PAR Associates. Bourgon G, Armstrong A (2005). Transferring the principles of effective treatment into a 'real world' prison setting. Criminal Justice and Behavior 32: 3–25.
Evaluation for Risk of Violence in Adults The Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory manual and scoring key Evaluation for Risk of Violence in Juveniles
  • Heilbrun
  • R Hoge
  • Andrews
Heilbrun K (2009) Evaluation for Risk of Violence in Adults. New York: Oxford University Press. Hoge R, Andrews D (2002) The Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory manual and scoring key. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Multi-Health Systems. Hoge R, Andrews D (2010) Evaluation for Risk of Violence in Juveniles. New York: Oxford University Press.
Address correspondence to: Kirk Heilbrun
  • British Burnaby
  • Columbia
Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada: Mental Health, Law, and Policy Institute, Simon Fraser University. Address correspondence to: Kirk Heilbrun, Department of Psychology, Drexel University, MS 626, 245 N. 15th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19102-1192, USA. Email: kirk.heilbrun@drexel.edu