Article

Assessment of removal of components containing hazardous substances from small WEEE in Austria

February 2011
Journal of Hazardous Materials 186(2-3):1481-8

DOI:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.12.030

Source
PubMed

Authors:

University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna

Minimum treatment requirements for waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) established by Directive 2002/96/EC provide for the removal of specific components containing hazardous substances. To date, no comparative analysis of removal rates has been undertaken. The present paper examines the state of de-pollution of sWEEE in Austrian treatment plants. The mass of selected components removed and the corresponding mass of hazardous substances is compared to estimated values for sWEEE input material. The results obtained reveal that components are only partly removed, featuring a high variation between components and plants assessed. The overall rate of removal ranged from 72% of the estimated value for batteries to 21% of the estimated value for liquid crystal panels. This implies the forwarding of substantial quantities of hazardous substances to mechanical treatment processes, particularly relevant in terms of dispersion of pollutants. Furthermore, easily releasable pollutants, such as Hg from LCD-backlights, Cd from batteries or highly contaminated dust in general, pose substantial health risks for plant workers. Low removal rates of printed circuit boards, batteries and toner cartridges also lead to a reduction in quantities of valuable recyclable materials (precious metals, plastics).

Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment: The Anthropocene Knocks on Our Door

Article

Nov 2018

Júlio Carlos Afonso

This review describes the technological, environmental, socio-cultural, economical and health challenges due to the waste electrical and electronic equipment. The rate of production of this waste has reached scary levels in the last years, and the level of perception of the populations facing the challenges imposed for their management greatly varies from one country to another. Solutions for waste electrical and electronic equipment are extremely complex, from the establishment of an effective reverse logistics of used products and reverse manufacturing protocols, to the proposal of technologies capable of processing the components of the various electrical and electronic products. Printed circuit boards, cathode ray tubes and liquid crystal displays are the most difficult components to recycle due to their multi-component nature: although they contain high-added value elements in much larger amounts than those of primary sources, they also present metallic components and organic compounds that are highly toxic to health and lead to environmental impacts. Brazil has begun to pay attention to the problem of e-waste relatively recently. Despite ongoing initiatives, the country still has a long way to go until the establishment of a management system that covers all its stages and peculiarities, such as its territorial extension. Waste electrical and electronic equipment is one of the most eloquent symbols of Anthropocene. © 2018 Secretaria Regional do Rio de Janeiro da Sociedade Brasileira de Quimica.All rights reserved.

Potential health impacts of waste electrical and electronic equipment management: A brief comparison between emerging and developed countries

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2018

A literature review was conducted to examine the emissions and health impacts of WEEE treatment sites in developing and developed countries. The sources for treatment sites in emerging countries were bibliographic reviews, while the original publications were used for developed countries. The increasing quantities of WEEE contain many harmful substances such as heavy metals and halogenated compounds. The processing conditions in emerging countries are more harmful to the environment, workers in recycling centers and people living near the workshops than in developed countries. Numerous epidemiological studies have shown the deleterious effects of the treatment of WEEE in emerging countries as well as contamination of the environment around treatment centers and disposal sites. The few studies conducted in developed countries show possible exposures above regulatory occupational thresholds. However, ventilation methods and appropriate dismantling protocols can easily decrease them to below the exposure limits. There is also little information available about possible environmental contaminant dispersion. Environmental data can be obtained through 1) analyses of Classified Installations for Environmental Protection, which is time-consuming because there are over 600 plants, or 2) metrology research. To better understand emissions from treatment facilities of WEEE, particularly those where the WEEE is crushed, monitoring should focus on: dust, and especially bromine (Br), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), yttrium (Y) and barium (Ba) as well as flame retardants.

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Mercury Exposure among Populations and Environments in Contact with Electronic Waste

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2022
Int J Environ Res Publ Health

Electronic waste (e-waste) recycling releases mercury (Hg) into the environment, though to our knowledge Hg levels at such sites have yet to be examined on a worldwide basis. A systematic review of scientific studies was conducted to extract, analyze, and synthesize data on Hg levels in e-waste products, environments near recycling sites, and in people. Data were extracted from 78 studies from 20 countries, and these included Hg levels in 1103 electrical and electronic products, 2072 environmental samples (soil, air, plant, food, water, dust), and 2330 human biomarkers (blood, hair, urine). The average Hg level in products was 0.65 μg/g, with the highest levels found in lamps (578 μg/g). Average soil and sediment Hg levels (1.86 μg/g) at e-waste sites were at least eight times higher than at control sites. Average urinary Hg levels (0.93 μg/g creatinine) were approximately two-fold higher among e-waste workers versus control groups. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that e-waste recycling may lead to Hg contamination in environments and human populations in close proximity to processing sites. These findings contribute to a growing knowledge base of mercury exposure through diverse source–exposure pathways, and the work has potential policy implications in the context of the Minamata Convention.

Waste toner powder in concrete industry: An approach towards circular economy

Article

Jan 2019
ENVIRON ENG MANAG J

Substantial quantities of toner cartridges are produced and used in photocopiers and printers every year. Spent toner cartridges are classified as hazardous waste because they contain toner powder with specific chemical composition, making a recovery of waste toner cartridges a very important issue from the aspect of waste management and environmental protection. Spent toner cartridges are mechanically processed to exploit valuable materials such as metals, plastics and magnets and to separate toner powder as a toxic waste. In this work, the use of waste toner powder as an additive in concrete was studied. The toner powder was mixed with calcium-based additive in ratio 50:50 immediately after the mechanical treatment. The resulting mixture (hereafter: WTP) was added to concrete at different percentages (1%, 3,%, 5% and 10%) as a replacement for fine aggregate. All processes were performed on industrial scale. The addition of 1% and 3% of WTP lead to a concrete with the optimal properties. The possible impact on the environment was studied by the means of leaching test using valid regulations for a landfill. The modified concrete with 1%, 3%, 5% WTP can be classified as inert waste. Key words: circular economy, concrete industry, environmental impact, recycling, waste toner

Impacts from infromal recycling

Conference Paper

Oct 2017

Characterization of brominated flame retardants from e-waste components in China

Article

Jul 2017

Many studies show that high levels of many toxic metals and persistent and bio-accumulative chemicals have been found in electronic waste (e-waste) dismantling sites and their surrounding environmental media. Both flame-retardant plastic housing materials and printed circuit boards (PCBs) could be the major contributors. However, relatively little work has focused on the use or content of toxic substances and their changing in scrap housing materials and PCBs from home appliances. This study evaluated the existence of brominated flame retardants (BFRs, including polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and Tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBPA)) in housing plastics and PCBs from home appliances collected from various e-waste recyclers in China. These were then analyzed for the potential migration of BFRs from the e-waste components into their recycled products. The results show that both PBDEs and TBBPA were found with high level in most of e-waste samples, indicating that the widespread use of BFRs in home appliances are entering into the end-of-life stage. For the plastics samples, CRT TVs and LCD monitors should be given priority for the control of BFRs. Regarding PBDEs, the dominant congeners of BDE-209 in the plastics samples contributed 90.72–93.54% to the total concentrations of PBDEs, yet there are large variations for PCBs samples: BDE-28, -47, -99, and -153 were also important congeners compositions, except for BDE-209. Compared with previous studies, the BFRs concentrations in current Chinese e-waste are trending to decline. This study also found that BFRs in housing plastics and PCBs will be transferred into the recycled products with other purpose use, and the new products could have highly enriched capacities for BFRs. The obtained results could be helpful to manage e-waste and their components properly in order to minimize associated environmental and health risks of BFRs, particularly for their further reuse.

Determination of toxic metals in discarded Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs)

Article

Nov 2014
RESOUR CONSERV RECY

This study focused on the determination of the toxic metal content of Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) present in various Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE). The main objective was the identification and quantification of toxic metals detected in LCD panels. An experimental procedure which involved dismantling, shredding, pulverization, digestion and chemical analysis was followed for the sorting, separation and analysis of LCD monitors from various electronic devices that are currently on the market. Nine selected devices were examined, originated from four different types of e-waste (WEEE); TVs, computers, mobile phones and tablets. Eleven metals were measured in all examined samples. In addition, concentration values of chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and mercury (Hg) were compared with the respective limits set by the RoHS 2002/95/EC Directive that was recently renewed by the 2012/19/EU recast. The comparison revealed that the examined toxic metals on LCD panels did not exceed the limits set by the European Union (EU). Furthermore, when results were compared to the TTLC regulatory limits it was revealed that in three samples As concentrations were higher than the limit. Finally, when the TCLP test was implemented the aforementioned samples did not exhibit proportionally elevated values in their leachates.

E-waste in Vietnam: a narrative review of environmental contaminants and potential health risks

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2023
Rev Environ Health

Informal electronic waste (e-waste) dismantling activities contribute to releasing hazardous compounds in the environment and potential exposure to humans and their health. These hazardous compounds include persistent organic pollutants (POPs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and heavy metals. This review searched papers addressing hazardous compounds emitted from e-waste recycling activities and their health effects in Vietnam. Based on the keywords searched in three electronic databases (PubMed, Psych Info, and Google scholar), we found 21 relevant studies in Vietnam. The review identifies extensive e-waste dismantling activities in Vietnam in the northern region. To measure the environmental exposure to hazardous compounds, samples such as e-waste recycling workshop dust, soil, air, and sediments were assessed, while human exposure levels were measured using participants' hair, serum, or breast milk samples. Studies that compared levels of exposure in e-waste recycling sites and reference sites indicated higher levels of PBDEs, PCBs, and heavy metals were observed in both environmental and human samples from participants in e-waste recycling sites. Among environmental samples, hazardous chemicals were the most detected in dust from e-waste recycling sites. Considering both environmental and human samples, the highest exposure difference observed with PBDE ranged from 2-48-fold higher in e-waste processing sites than in the reference sites. PCBs showed nearly 3-fold higher levels in e-waste processing sites than in reference sites. In the e-waste processing sites, age-specific higher PCB levels were observed in older recycler's serum samples. Among the heavy metals, Pb was highly detected in drinking water, indoor soil and human blood samples. While high detection of Ni in cooked rice, Mn in soil and diet, Zn in dust and As in urine were apparent. Exposure assessment from human biomonitoring showed participants, including children and mothers from the e-waste processing areas, had higher carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks than the reference sites. This review paper highlights the importance of further comprehensive studies on risk assessments of environmentally hazardous substances and their association with health outcomes at e-waste processing sites.

Occupational exposure to metals among battery recyclers in France: Biomonitoring and external dose measurements

Article

Aug 2022
WASTE MANAGE

In battery-recycling facilities, exposure to trace elements may occur through inhalation of contaminated dust or vapor emanating from the treatment processes. Exposure of battery-recycling workers to lead has been quite well covered in the literature. In contrast, we lack data on exposure to other elements contained in batteries. The aim of this study was to characterize the exposure of French battery recyclers to multiple elements using biomonitoring and airborne measurements. Eighty-six workers participated in the study. Inhalable metal concentrations were determined for personal airborne samples, and total exposure was determined from pre-shift and post-shift urine samples collected during the working week. In both types of sample, a total of 33 trace elements were measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Results showed battery recyclers to be mostly exposed to Cd, Co, Cr, Li, Mn, Ni, and Pb. Administrative and sorting workers were exposed at lower levels than maintenance, treatment, and dismantling workers. Cd, Co, Li, Mn, and Ni were detected at high levels in air samples, especially near the treatment facilities, with airborne cadmium levels of up to 79.4 µg/m³. Urinary sample analysis indicated exposure to Cd and Co, with levels measured at up to 27.6 and 3.34 µg/g of creatinine, respectively. Concentrations were compared to data reported for e-waste recycling companies. The data presented provide valuable information on exposure to trace elements for workers involved in battery-recycling. They also highlight the need to improve both collective and individual protective measures, which were not sufficient in the participating companies.

Utilization of liquid crystal display (LCD) glass waste in concrete: A review

Article

Jul 2022
CEMENT CONCRETE COMP

As the demand for display devices increases, the disposal of liquid crystal display (LCD) glass waste becomes an emerging issue. It is thus necessary to make efforts to recycle bulk LCD glass waste. The construction industry can propose a solution to this by using LCD glass waste as an alternative resource for construction materials. This paper presents a state-of-the-art review on the utilization of liquid crystal display (LCD) glass waste as replacements for cement and fine aggregate. Its applications in special types of concrete, e.g., ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC), self-consolidating concrete, and geopolymers, are also evaluated. Thanks to the high pozzolanicity with abundant alumina, the LCD glass powder can partially replace the cement in a classical concrete and filler of UHPC. The matrix modified with the LCD glass powder is effective in improving the medium- to long-term mechanical strength (generally at a replacement level of up to 10% or 20%) and the overall durability, with respect to alkali-silica reaction expansions, sulfate attacks, and chloride ion penetration, and freeze–thaw, as well as the pull-out resistance. However, the alternative use of LCD glass powder in metakaolin negatively affects the mechanical strength of the geopolymer, owing to the increased heterogeneity, pore size, and volume. The use of LCD glass waste as sand decreases the mechanical strength in general but leads to better workability, durability, and volume stability. Thus, LCD glass waste can be used as a new alternative ingredient for concrete, i.e., as a replacement for cementitious materials or sand.

Challenges and Emerging Trends in Toner Waste Recycling: A Review

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2021

Meera Parthasarathy

Toner waste is one of the major electronic waste materials posing serious environmental threat and health hazards. Globally, only about 20–30% of toner waste is recycled, while the remaining percentage is dumped in landfills. Recycling options are limited due to the desirably engineered durability of toners, ascribed to a complicated composition of chemicals, carbon black, and plastic particles, which in turn creates critical challenges in recycling. The World Health Organization has classified toner waste as class 2B carcinogen due to its potential health hazard. In this review, the existing challenges in toner waste recycling are discussed from the perspective of environmental, health, and feasibility aspects. In parallel, the challenges have been opening up alternative strategies to recycle toner wastes. Emerging trends in toner waste recycling include transformation of toner waste into value-added products, utilization as raw material for nanomaterial synthesis, generation of composite electrodes for power generation/storage devices, integration into construction materials, and development of microwave absorbing composites. Considering the enormous volume of toner waste generated globally every year, better recycling and transformation strategies are needed immediately. A circular economy could be established in the future by transforming the enormous toner waste into a resource for other applications. For an effective management of toner waste in the future, an integrated approach involving policies and legislations, infrastructure for collection and treatment, and financial planning among the stakeholders is needed in addition to technological innovations.

X-RAY FLUORESCENCE ANALYSIS OF WASTE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2021

WASTE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENT IN UKRAINE

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Jan 2019

Vitalii Ishchenko

Waste management alternatives for hazardous waste lists

Article

Feb 2016

TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN HAZARDOUS HOUSEHOLD WASTE

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Jun 2018

Vitalii Ishchenko

A simplified method to evaluate the recycling potential of e-waste

Article

Dec 2017
J CLEAN PROD

E-waste has attracted global concern owing to huge generation amount, rich valuable metal content, and potential environmental risk. The evaluation of the recycling potential is becoming more and more important, especially for many recyclers when they are hesitating which substance is more worthwhile to recover. In this research, a simplified method is set up to calculate the recycling potential of many metals in ewaste, and considers four respects, including existence condition, substance toxicity, economic condition and technical condition. A study case based on the liquid crystal display (LCD) is presented as an example to assess the recycling potential of substances contained. The recycling potential of the contained metals was measured according to those four aspects. As a result, the priority level of these substances recycled from waste LCDs is aluminum (Al) > mercury (Hg) > indium (In) > tin (Sn) > zinc (Zn), and the technological level would be an important factor that affect the recycling potential value of Hg. The toxicity and the price are two key issues that affect the recycling potential of Sn compared with Zn. When the price of In increased twentyfold or more, the recycling potential should be taken fully into account.

Reducing contamination in the printed circuit board industry for the improvement of the process and human health

Article

Feb 2015

In this work, an electronic manufacturing company is studied in terms of contamination. The aim of this study was to determine contamination problems, along with their causes and sources. Improvements aimed at reducing the contaminants in the process are suggested, and a positive effect is expected in both the defective parts per million (PPM) of the final products and in human health. It is concluded that negative externalities in the form of industrial contamination may be an important subject for future studies, due to the impact in both the final products and human health.

Analysis of recycling structures for e-waste in Vietnam

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2016

E-waste management in Vietnam poses real challenges such as the lack of specific e-waste legislation, the strong involvement of “craft villages” and the missing of monitoring data. Many issues (e.g., pollution level, generated waste, health of workers and resident living at recycling sites) lead to the limited access to these craft villages. Thus, there is no comprehensive picture on e-waste management in Vietnam available today. This research focuses on the current situation of e-waste management. Sources of e-waste, collection and treatment in Vietnam are investigated by utilizing most available sources of information (published journals, unpublished works from projects and reports from institutes, ministry) together with the interviewed data from experts, collectors, workers and especially, biggest traders in the field. Based on this information, the processes applied in Vietnam, both in the formal and informal sector, have been analyzed systematically in terms of inputs, outputs, potential emissions and related risks for workers. From these aspects, a comparison in terms of legal frameworks, collection and treatment at both formal and informal sector between Vietnam and other countries in Asian region was undertaken. Thus, major challenges of e-waste management and relatively comprehensive image of e-waste management and treatment in Vietnam have been identified.

Life cycle assessment of the management of special waste types: WEEE and batteries

Thesis

Full-text available

Dec 2014

Marianne Bigum

There has been an increased focus on special waste types (WEEE, batteries, ink cartridges and cables) in Denmark and abroad, as many of these fractions constitute a special threat to the environment, due to their content of hazardous compounds and valuable resources. Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and batteries are some of the special waste types receiving significant focus as hazardous and valuable substances in WEEE and batteries are plentiful. WEEE and batteries, which are not sorted out for recycling and recovery, do not only imply a loss of materials and metals but could also lead to pollution of other waste streams. In addition to this, there are significant environmental benefits to be obtained when recycling special wastes. Many of the raw materials found in special waste are in an immediate supply risk for the development of emerging green technologies. The inherent resources in waste have become an obvious focus as a source of these critical raw materials, and the municipal solid waste is considered to be one of the largest potential sources for the recovery and recycling of scarce elements. Special waste streams should, therefore, be collected and recycled. In particular, precious and scarce metals should be recovered due to environmental as well as sustainability issues. In Denmark, there are still waste flows that are unaccounted for. One of these flows is the special waste that is being misplaced with residual household waste. Bigum et al. (II) investigated this by conducting a sorting analysis of the Danish residual household waste. The analysis showed that especially small household appliances, lamps, toys, leisure and sports equipment, and portable batteries were frequently misplaced with residual household waste. Misplaced special waste will, in Denmark, be incinerated. This leads to pollution of the surrounding environment with heavy and toxic metals, as well as being a significant source for abiotic resource depletion (Bigum et al., III). Improvements with respect to the treatment of special waste are necessary. Traditional pre-treatment facilities seem to focus primarily on the traditional metals such as iron (Fe), aluminium (Al), and copper (Cu), which can be recovered in bulk amounts. Recovery of the precious and scarce metals is to a lesser degree carried out, as these appear in much smaller amounts. Future recovery facilities should, however, aim at recovering these metals, even though they appear in smaller concentrations, as the recovery of these can have larger environmental relevance exceeding that of the traditionally recovered metals (Bigum et al., I). Life cycle assessments (LCAs) are used as decision-making tools for supporting waste management decisions. LCAs must therefore also be able to incorporate issues related to special waste streams and management. The ability for LCAs to incorporate these issues is crucial for the tool to be able support decisions and to further justify the use of waste-LCAs when decisions are made. One of these issues is related to special waste being a very heterogeneous waste type. The variation in composition is significant and data availability is scarce, which can make it difficult to include special waste in waste-LCAs. This also means that the environmental aspects connected with the special waste types can be difficult to fully assess, and that the consequences of these may risk being overlooked or underestimated. The field of environmental assessment of special waste is relatively new, and many issues need to be resolved. One of these issues is the evaluation of resource depletion and scarcity. This area is in need of a much broader consensus and further scientific development in order to ensure that LCA is applicable and accepted as a decision-making tool. This thesis shows the importance of including a detailed composition of the special waste types, as well as the importance of incorporating the resource depletion of unrecovered elements in waste-LCAs (Bigum et al., III). The thesis also shows that the recycling of metals is of significant environmental importance (Bigum et al., I) and quantifies the amount of special waste types being misplaced with residual household waste (Bigum et al., II). The thesis also concludes that there are still many issues that need to be resolved and suggested which areas need further research in order to improve the field of environmental assessments of special waste types.

Indium applications in WEEE: Possible recovery paths

Conference Paper

Sep 2016

Integrating anthropogenic material stocks and flows into a modern resource classification framework: Challenges and potentials

Article

Jun 2016
J CLEAN PROD

WEEE management in Europe and China – A comparison

Article

Nov 2015

Over the last years Europe and China have developed specific regulations to address the challenge of managing Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE). Households in today’s urban China are similarly equipped with electrical and electronic appliances as households in European metropolitan areas, which in turn will lead to similar per capita generation rates in WEEE. While the challenge is a similar one, the systems, technologies and legislation in place in Europe and China are partly different, partly aligned to each other. In Europe WEEE collection is based on existing municipal structures. Additionally, retail and other take-back channels are in place. In China the informal sector dominates WEEE collection, being more competitive and flexible and offering pecuniary reimbursement to consumers.

Leaching capacity of metals–metalloids and recovery of valuable materials from waste LCDs

Article

Jun 2015
WASTE MANAGE

The purpose of Directive 2012/19/EU which is related to WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment), also known as "e-waste", is to contribute to their sustainable production and consumption that would most possibly be achieved by their recovery, recycling and reuse. Under this perspective, the present study focused on the recovery of valuable materials, metals and metalloids from LCDs (Liquid Crystal Displays). Indium (In), arsenic (As) and stibium (Sb) were selected to be examined for their Leaching Capacity (R) from waste LCDs. Indium was selected mainly due to its rarity and preciousness, As due to its high toxicity and wide use in LCDs and Sb due to its recent application as arsenic's replacement to improve the optimal clarity of a LCD screen. The experimental procedure included disassembly of screens along with removal and recovery of polarizers via thermal shock, cutting, pulverization and digestion of the shredded material and finally leaching evaluation of the aforementioned elements. Leaching tests were conducted under various temperatures, using various solid:liquid (S/L) ratios and solvents (acid mixtures), to determine the optimal conditions for obtaining the maximum leaching capacities. The examined elements exhibited different leaching behaviors, mainly due to the considerable diversity in their inherent characteristic properties. Indium demonstrated the highest recovery percentages (approximately 60%), while the recovery of As and Sb was unsuccessful, obtaining poor leaching percentages (0.16% and 0.5%, respectively). Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Tetrabromobisphenol A in Indoor Dust from Houses and Internet Cafes

Article

Mar 2012

Tetrabromobisphenol A or TBBPA is a widely used brominated flame retardant in modern materials such as electronic products, plastics and building materials. TBBPA can leach out of flame retardant-treated products during production, use, reuse, and final disposal of these consumer products. It has thus become a contemporary environmental contaminant. This study reports the levels of TBBPA in indoor dust from houses (n=4) and internet cafes (n=5) in Angono and Quezon City, in the Philippines. TBBPA in indoor dust was analyzed by ultrasonication-assisted hexane extraction and HPLC-UV determination. The instrument and method detection limits were 0.004 ng uL-1 and 1275 ng g-1, respectively. The standard calibration solutions ranged from 0.03 to 0.30 ng uL-1 (r2=0.9956). The extraction recovery was 78% (n=3. TBBPA was found in six of the nine indoor dust samples studied where the concentrations ranged from not detected to 4916 ng g-1. The occurrence and levels of TBBPA in indoor dusts are significant and suggest the need for further investigations especially in other microenvironments where people may be exposed to this contaminant.

In-depth analysis of aluminum flows in Austria as a basis to increase resource efficiency

Article

Dec 2014
RESOUR CONSERV RECY

Based on the method of material flow analysis (MFA), a static model of Austrian aluminum (Al) flows in 2010 was developed. Extensive data research on Al production, consumption, trade and waste management was conducted and resulted in a detailed model of national Al resources. Data uncertainty was considered in the model based on the application of a rigorous concept for data quality assessment. The model results indicated that the growth of the Austrian "in-use" Al stock amounts to 11 +/- 3.1 kg yr(-1) cap(-1). The total "in-use" Al stock was determined using a bottom-up approach, which produced an estimate of 260 kg Al cap(-1). Approximately 7 +/- 1 kg of Al yr(-1) cap(-1) of old scrap was generated in 2010, of which 20% was not recovered because of losses in waste management processes. Quantitatively, approximately 40% of the total scrap input to secondary Al production originated from net imports, highlighting the import dependency of Austrian Al refiners and remelters. Uncertainties in the calculation of recycling indicators for the Austrian Al system with high shares of foreign scrap trade were exemplarily illustrated for the old scrap ratio (OSR) in secondary Al production, resulting in a possible range of OSRs between 0 and 66%. Overall, the detailed MFA in this study provides a basis to identify resource potentials as well as resource losses in the national Al system, and it will serve as a starting point for a dynamic Al model to be developed in the future.

Waste electric and electronic toys: Management practices and characterisation

Article

Aug 2013

The main objective of this paper is to characterise, both physically and chemically, waste electric and electronic toys, belonging to the category 7 of the Directive, 2012/19/UE, in order to obtain information about the generation and composition of this waste which is not widely found in the literature. For this, a campaign was designed with the aim of collecting a representative sample of waste toys in different schools in a Spanish town. Altogether 1014.25 kg of waste toys were collected, of which 31.83% corresponded to the electric and electronic fraction, which is the object of study. The collected wastes were divided into subcategories and a representative sample of each was one used to characterise them physically and chemically. Physical characterisation provided information about the materials they were made of, the electrical and electronic parts, fixing and assembly systems, and so forth. The results showed that the weight of a toy is comprised of 72.30% of plastics, 12.07% of electrical and electronic components, 4.47% of metals, and 11.15% other materials. In general, the most common types of polymers were PS, PP and ABS. Chemical characterisation made it possible to analyse the composition of the plastic components, which is information that is essential to be able to determine the feasibility of recovering the resulting fractions. The results showed that the content of hazardous substances in these plastics is far below the limits stipulated in Directive 2002/95/EC (RoSH Directive). The findings of this study show a need for a specific management system for this fraction of domestic wastes and a wide range of potential reusability of the discarded toys since 65% of the toys from the collected sample worked in perfect condition. We also found that the end-of-life is one of the aspects that have not been considered during their design as both materials and disassembly sequence do not facilitate the end-of-life of this type of wastes. This information could be used to improve the ecodesign of electrical and electronic equipment toys regarding their end-of-life. © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

АНАЛІЗ СИСТЕМИ ПОВОДЖЕННЯ З ВІДХОДАМИ ЕЛЕКТРИЧНОГО ТА ЕЛЕКТРОННОГО ОБЛАДНАННЯ В УКРАЇНІ

Article

Jul 2021

Главацька Л.Ю

Проаналізовано сучасний стан системи поводження з відходами електричного та електронного обладнання в Україні. Здійснено оцінку кількості утворених ВЕЕО в Україні шляхом аналізу ринку електроніки та статистичних даних щодо утворення відходів у промисловому і комерційному секторах. Головним компонентом ВЕЕО в Україні є пластик (30%), а також мідь (20%) і залізо (8%). Щорічно в Україні утворюється близько 28 тис. тонн ВЕЕО (технологічне обладнання – 60%, акумулятори і батареї – 21%, побутові та офісні прилади – 13%, компоненти електричного обладнання – 4%, люмінесцентні лампи – 2%.). Ці дані, ймовірно, є заниженими у зв’язку із відсутністю системи моніторингу за ВЕЕО у побутовому секторі. 128 підприємств України можуть збирати окремі типи ВЕЕО, які містять у своєму складі небезпечні сполуки (батарейки, люмінесцентні лампи тощо) З них 22 мають ліцензію на утилізацію цих відходів. Всі інші ВЕЕО не охоплені. 2 області не мають жодного підприємства, яке б могло долучитися до поводження з ВЕЕО. Існуючі підприємства не можуть переробляти належним чином той обсяг відходів, який уже накопичився та буде продовжувати зростати. Таким чином, Україні потрібне прийняття відповідного законодавства на загальнодержавному рівні, створення пунктів прийому ВЕЕО, сприяння та контроль за поводженням з ВЕЕО підприємствами, а також створення ефективної системи моніторингу потоків ВЕЕО. Необхідно інформувати населення про шкоду ВЕЕО для навколишнього середовища та в подальшому і на здоров’я людей. Провести компанію по популяризації роздільного збору сміття та необхідність відокремлення електротехнічних приладів від твердих побутових відходів.

Systematic Quantification of Waste Compositions: A Case Study for Waste of Electric and Electronic Equipment Plastics in the European Union

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2022

Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) is a prominent and increasing waste stream for which the Commission of the European Union has put in place ambitious recycling targets. However, these targets can only be achieved by ensuring that both industry and governments develop adequate infrastructure and policies for recycling plastics in an economically and technically optimal manner. Unfortunately, a quantitative overview of WEEE plastics covering the composition of waste streams down to the product component level and describing polymer and additive concentrations, is currently lacking. This hinders policymakers and recyclers in making strategic decisions regarding WEEE plastics recycling. Therefore, a novel method is proposed in this paper combining experimental results with findings from prior literature in order to provide sound quantitative insights into the volume and characteristics of the plastics content of WEEE collected in the European Union. The provided overview was obtained through a combination of proprietary experimental data and a statistical data integration method. More specifically, over 3800 samples awere analysed through manual composition analysis, FTIR, and XRF. The obtained results were integrated with data from prior literature through a novel data integration methodology based on linear opinion pools. The obtained results confirm that distinct plastic types can be found in different product categories and that flame retardants are only found in high concentrations in specific waste streams or components thereof. Hence, the presented analysis provides a quantitative substantiation for the separate collection and treatment of specific waste streams in order to reduce the complexity of the mix of plastic types and allow for the more cost-efficient and higher quality recycling of plastics.

Material Flow Analysis of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment in Ukraine

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2021

The composition of widespread electronic devices (mobile phone, computer mouse, keyboard, web-camera, monitor) was studied by manual dismantling. The material flow analysis was conducted for e-waste components. For the case study of Ukraine, five devices under investigation contain over 4 thousand tons / year resources. Most of them (first of all, plastic and metal) can be easily recovered. The content of chemical elements in the components of the electronic devices was determined by X-ray fluorescence analysis. Taking into account the mass of electronic waste generated in Ukraine, the resource potential of metals was estimated. Most of metals are concentrated in mobile phones and monitors (about 2000 tons/year). Apart from common metals, silver, molybdenum, vanadium, rubidium, zirconium, antimony, yttrium, rhodium, bismuth, and gallium were also found.

Analysis of Composition of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Components

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2021

STUDY OF ORGANIZATIONAL PRINCIPLES OF WASTE ELECTRIC AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT MANAGEMENT IN UKRAINE

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2020

Study of the electrochemical behavior of printed circuit boards (PCBs) leaching solutions using glycine and copper recovery by electrodeposition from leachate solutions

Article

Nov 2020

The present work focuses on the study of the electrochemical behavior of printed circuit boards (PCBs) leaching solutions using glycine and copper recovery by electrodeposition from leachate solutions. The recovery is done in a minimum number of steps and under ambient conditions of temperature and pressure. Printed circuits boards (PCBs) were pulverized and sieved, which allowed to obtain a PCBs powder of particle size fraction ≤ 1 mm. X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy analysis was used for PCBs powder characterization before and after leaching. The copper leaching has been carried out from PCBs powder in the open air, under ambient conditions of temperature and pressure using a buffer solution of glycine. UV–Vis spectrophotometry and atomic absorption spectrophotometry were utilized to determine the efficiency of copper leaching. Cyclic sweep voltammetry and chronoamperometry were employed to obtain informations on the electrochemical behavior of metals in the leaching solutions and then compared to that of synthetic solutions containing Cu (II) ions. UV–Visible spectrophotometry was used to determine the nature of the formed complex. Electrodeposition technique was applied in order to recover copper in powder form. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) were employed to examine the surface morphology and chemical composition of electrodeposited copper. The leaching solutions show exactly the same electrochemical behavior as the synthetic cupric solutions with two reduction peaks and a single oxidation peak, which demonstrates the high selectivity of glycine for copper. The chronoamperometric results confirm those obtained by voltammetry. UV–Visible spectrophotometry showed that the complex formed is [Cu(Gly)2] for the synthetic solutions as well as for the leachate solutions. Selective copper leaching was achieved with an efficiency of 92.5%. The resulting leachate solution was used directly for copper electrodeposition allowing the recovery of metallic copper as a pure product.

Source Separation and Recycling Implementation and Benefits for a Circular Economy

Book

Full-text available

Mar 2018

Source separation of waste and subsequent recycling processes are promising solutions on the road to a circular economy. They reduce waste disposal and the need for resource deployment, while also producing secondary raw materials; as such, they have a significant effect on climate protection. This book presents source separation technologies and related aspects that form the basis for efficient recycling and a modern approach to waste management. It examines legislational drivers and policy aspects of adequate waste collection schemes, as well as segregation technologies and the success factors for their implementation. Summarizing the outcomes of a Sino-German workshop, the focus of this volume is mainly on the current situation in China and Germany. However, the findings are applicable to a broad range of situations and regions around the world. In addition, the book demonstrates the relevance of source separation for climate protection and describes alternative separation technologies. Given the breadth and depth of its coverage, the volume will appeal to environmental scientists, engineers, economists, waste managers and policymakers alike.

Pricing and collection for printer cartridge recycling under retailers’ ordering and collection

Article

Jul 2020
J CLEAN PROD

This paper models printer cartridge recycling with a framework of a closed-loop supply chain consisting of a leading manufacturer and two competing retailers, which investigates the dynamics of the manufacturer's pricing, including both wholesale price for new cartridges and transfer price for collected ones, and retailers' ordering and collection strategies. The analysis shows a negative correlation between the wholesale price and the number of retailers engaged in the collection; it also shows that the collection effort is negatively correlated with the wholesale price and positively correlated with the transfer price under low and moderate pricing. A case study of original HP ink cartridges in the U.S. demonstrates that (i) the manufacturer and retailers reach their maximum profits with less ordering and collection under low pricing; retailers' ordering and collecting are most stimulated under moderate pricing but the manufacturer and retailers have lower profits compared with low pricing; (ii) price reduction strategy is the best way for the manufacturer to deal with the increase of manufacturing costs under low and moderate pricing; (iii) under low pricing, the return reward is paid by the manufacturer at the transfer price, not by retailers, resulting in limited effects on their decisions; however, this reward is extremely detrimental to place orders and take collection under moderate pricing.

Synthesis of MWCNTs using waste toner powder as carbon source by chemical vapor deposition method

Article

Aug 2019

The present work deals with the synthesis of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) from waste toner powder. XRD pattern of waste toner showed peaks related to magnetite and proximate analysis showed higher percentage of volatile matter (56.7%) which confirmed the possibility of using waste toner as a good source of carbon for the synthesis of CNTs. The process involved thermal breakdown of waste toner into hydrocarbons and used as a precursor to synthesize multi-walled carbon-nanotubes (MWCNTs) by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method. The catalyst containing Ni4Mo0.2MgO1 was used for synthesis of CNTs. The process parameters were optimized using response surface methodology (RSM) and prepared CNTs were studied by using XRD, Raman spectroscopy, FESEM and HRTEM. The results shown the formation of multi walled carbon nanotubes with 40–50 nm from waste toner.

WEEE data management in Germany and Serbia

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2018

p>In Jordan and as in many other Mediterranean countries olive oil production is one of the major agricultural production, it is estimated that the annual production of olive oil in Jordan approximately 21.5 thousand tons per year. O the other hand the process of olive oil extraction generates around 200,000 m3 of olive mill wastewater (OMW) and it is considered as a a serious problem in. In this study the real sample of wastewater is collected from the outlet at the mill near by the university campus. The analysis of this collected wastewater has shown a very high Chemical Oxygen Demand COD (253.648 kg/l) and Bilogical Oxygen Demand, BOD (89.365kg/l). These high BOD and COD reveals a real need to treat it before sent to municipal sewage. The study also focuses on reducing an organ phenol component which has been measured and found equal to 0.5698mg/l. The use of Ferric Oxide in the form of nanoparticles was successfully used to oxide organic phenols from olive mill wastewater (OMW) and has reduced to 0.002 mg/l. The results show that 0.1g of Ferric Oxide in the form of nanoparticles when mixed with sand has the capacity to remove the phenols from the collected samples. The removal percentage obtained here reached 97%. When the mixture of ferric nanoparticles used with sand in a ratio of 0.1 g Fe2O3and 1 kg of sand, the removal capacity of organic phenols has reached to 99%, and COD () in percentage of 97.2%. The results show an interesting behavior towards other minerals that exists in solution, that ferric nanoparticles have a good capacity to remove Cr+3Cu+3 K+Ca+2Na+.minerals exist in wastewater.</p

Gaps and Needs within the WEEE Management in Brazil: Internationale Konferenz zur Kaskadennutzung und Kreislaufwirtschaft – Oldenburg 2018

Chapter

Jan 2019

Elektroaltgeräte als bedeutende Quelle von sekundären Metallen – Entwicklung eines neuen analytischen Verfahrens zur Bestimmung des Metallgehalts

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2018

Im Vergleich zu Metallerzen der Erdkruste sind Metalle in Elektro- und Elektronikaltgeräten (EAGs) in deutlich höheren Konzentrationen vorhanden, sind aber häufig in komplexe Matrizen unterschiedlicher Metalle oder in Nichtmetall-Metall-Komplexe eingebunden. Aufgrund der komplexen Materialzusammensetzung von EAGs, die v. a. durch eine Vielzahl von am Markt verfügbaren Gerätetypen und rasche Technologieentwicklung bedingt ist, wird das volle Recyclingpotenzial derzeit bei weitem noch nicht ausgeschöpft. Davon sind besonders edle und kritische Metalle betroffen, die trotz umfassender Recyclingprozesse mit sehr geringer Effizienz zurückgewonnen werden. Die Erhöhung der Rückgewinnungsrate dieser Metalle erfordert effizientere Methoden und Verfahren. Daraus resultiert der Bedarf an besseren Datengrundlagen zur Charakterisierung von EAGs.

Assessment of the waste electrical and electronic equipment management systems profile and sustainability in developed and developing European Union countries

Article

Mar 2018
WASTE MANAGE

The assessment of waste management systems for electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) from developed economies (Germany, Sweden and Italy) and developing countries (Romania and Bulgaria), is discussed covering the period 2007–2014. The WEEE management systems profiles are depicted by indicators correlated to WEEE life cycle stages: collection, transportation and treatment. The sustainability of national WEEE management systems in terms of greenhouse gas emissions is presented, together with the greenhouse gas efficiency indicator that underlines the efficiency of WEEE treatment options. In the countries comparisons, the key elements are: robust versus fragile economies, the overall waste management performance and the existence/development of suitable management practices on WEEE. Over the life cycle perspective, developed economies (Germany, Sweden and Italy) manage one order of magnitude higher quantities of WEEE compared to developing countries (Romania and Bulgaria). Although prevention and reduction measures are encouraged, all WEEE quantities were larger in 2013, than in 2007. In 2007–2014, developed economies exceed the annual European collection target of 4 kg WEEE/capita, while collection is still difficult in developing countries. If collection rates are estimated in relationship with products placed on market, than similar values are registered in Sweden and Bulgaria, followed by Germany and Italy and lastly Romania. WEEE transportation shows different patterns among countries, with Italy as the greatest exporter (in 2014), while Sweden treats the WEEE nationally. WEEE reuse is a common practice in Germany, Sweden (from 2009) and Bulgaria (from 2011). By 2014, recycling was the most preferred WEEE treatment option, with the same kind of rates performance, over 80%, irrespective of the country, with efforts in each of the countries in developing special collection points, recycling facilities and support instruments. The national total and the recycling carbon footprints of WEEE are lower in 2013 than in 2007 for each country, the order in reducing the environmental impacts being: Germany, Italy, Sweden, Bulgaria and Romania. The negative values indicate savings in greenhouse gas emissions. In 2013, the GHG efficiency shows no differences of the WEEE management in the developed and developing countries.

Pyrolysis Routine of Organics and Parameter Optimization of Vacuum Gasification for Recovering Hazardous Waste Toner

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2017

With the rapid development of printing industry, the amount of waste toner is increasing. Waste toner should be properly disposed because of great harmfulness and carcinogenicity to human and environment. To dispose waste toner, the previous work developed vacuum gasification method to convert them into oils and nano-particles with benefits of environment friendly and low energy consumption. The properties of toner particles enable themselves transformed into high value-added products during vacuum gasification. The vacuum gasification mechanism is further revealed in this paper. The first-order thermal dynamics shows well that the average values of apparent activation energy E and frequency factor A are 12547.390 kJ·mol-1 and 10148.120 min-1 respectively. Single-factor experiments shows that in range of 773-973 K, the residence time of 40 min and heating rate of 15 K·min-1 are significant and sufficient to obtain maximum oils yield, meaning that complete separation of nonmetal components from nanometal particles. Furthermore, we infer the pyrolysis pathways of acrylate-styrene copolymer at 873 K and carbon reduction reactions between carbon and Fe3O4 at 1023-1173 K and 100 Pa. This paper provides the specific parameters guidance for industrial application and mechanism analysis for efficient utilization of waste toner by vacuum pyrolysis method.

Elektrokleingeräte – Von der Sammlung zur Sekundärressource

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2017

Elektroaltgeräte stellen mit einem jährlichen Zuwachs von 3 bis 5 % einen der am schnellsten wachsenden Abfallströme in Europa dar. Vorgaben und Ambitionen der Europäischen Union zielen auf die Vermeidung des Anfalls von Elektroaltgeräten, eine nachhaltige Ressourcennutzung sowie eine Beschränkung von gefährlichen Stoffen ab. Im Rahmen eines FFG-Forschungsprojekts wurden die Materialströme von Elektrokleingeräten entlang der gesamten Verwertungskette und die dabei auftretenden Materialverluste von der Sammlung bis zur Sekundärressource untersucht. Dabei wurden neue Ansätze zur Sammlung von Elektrokleingeräten aus Haushalten recherchiert sowie ein stochastisches Modell zur Abschätzung der Materialzusammensetzung des Outputs einer mechanischen Behandlungsanlage basierend auf dem Inputmaterial (Sammelware) entwickelt. Primärdaten wurden in Kooperation mit dem Betreiber einer österreichischen mechanischen Aufbereitungsanlage im Rahmen von Batchversuchen sowohl für das Inputmaterial in die Anlage wie auch für die Outputströme erhoben. Die prognostizierte Zusammensetzung des Anlagenoutputs wurde mit den tatsächlichen Outputströmen verglichen.

E-Waste Collection and Treatment Options: A Comparison of Approaches in Europe, China and Vietnam

Chapter

Jun 2017

Stefan Salhofer

E-waste is a complex waste stream with several categories of products, each of them requiring a specific treatment technology. This chapter analyses the status quo of e-waste management in three global regions, where the European Union represents a frontrunner in environmental legislation and implementation; China, catching up with recent legislation and large-scale investments in recycling infrastructure; and Vietnam, as an example for the numerous countries where an unregulated situation dominates. This chapter aims at giving an overview of the management of this waste stream focussing on two relevant stages in the material recovery chain: collection as the interface between consumers and waste management and treatment with an overview of technologies applied for the removal of hazardous materials and the recovery of valuable materials such as steel, copper, plastics and others. Challenges for these situations are identified.

The greenhouse gas benefit of recycling waste electrical and electronic equipment above the legal minimum requirement: An Austrian LCA case study

Article

Jun 2017
J CLEAN PROD

The increase in recycling targets is seen as an important contribution towards a circular economy as envisioned by the European Union. Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) is highly complex and heterogeneous and one of the fastest growing waste streams in the EU. Its recycling typically consists of pre-treatment, recovery of secondary resources (materials and energy), and disposal. Legal recycling targets, stated by the European Commission, are exceeded by leading pre-treatment operators driven by economic needs. While recycling has been shown in the past to have greenhouse gas benefits, no study could be found that compares WEEE recycling at two different recycling rates using industry data. Therefore, this study investigates: (1) How much secondary material is recovered from WEEE at a certain recycling rate and (2) what is the associated greenhouse gas impact of the WEEE end-of-life system? The results of two end-of-life systems operating at different recycling rates are compared and analysed. A leading Austrian pre-treatment facility provided data and know-how for this case study.

Environmental impact assessment of different end-of-life LCD management strategies

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2016

The strong growth of the electrical and electronic equipment production combined with its short lifespan are causing the production of a significant amount of waste to treat. In particular, the present paper focuses on end-of-life liquid crystal displays (LCDs) for their significant content of valuable materials, like plastic, glass and metals that could be recovered after dismantling. In the recent literature, traditional LCD recycling processes are combined with innovative treatments, which allow to recover critical raw materials, such as indium. In this context, we have evaluated the environmental impact of four different strategies of end-of-life LCD management: the disposal in landfilling sites, the incineration, the traditional recycling treatment and an innovative process also addressed to the recovery of indium. The traditional recycling treatment resulted to be the best scenario for the environment. Indeed, a life cycle assessment study gave following environmental burdens (if negative they are credits): 18, 81, ?68, ?60 kg CO2-equiv. and 0.08, 0.01, ?0.25, ?0.18 mol H?-equiv., for the four scenarios in the categories of global warming and acidification, respectively. The limit of the variability of LCD composition was overcome including additional literature data in the study. In order to improve the innovative process sustainability, a system of water recirculation was optimized with a consequent impact decrease of 35% in the global warming category. Nevertheless, this action should be combined with an increase of indium concentration in the panel because the low metal content represents the bottleneck of the overall approach. In this regard, a sensitivity analysis showed that an increase of at least five times in indium concentration in the waste is needed to observe an advantage of the innovative vs the traditional recycling process, when the impact category of climate change is considered. As a whole, the life cycle assessment was confirmed as a key tool for the choice of the best option of WEEE management.

Recycling of Waste Toner in the Republic of Croatia – An Environmentally Friendly Approach

Article

Jan 2013

Large amounts of waste toner cartridges have been generated as a consequence of their use in printers and duplicators on an everyday basis. Waste toner cartridges contain heavy metals, plastics, as well as toxic residual toner powder, and have been characterized as hazardous waste. Therefore the management of waste toner cartridge content presents a significant issue in environmental protection. The use of hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, as well as promoting the collection, recycling and recovery targets for all types of electrical goods was prescribed by EU legislation, particularly the WEEE Directive and, together with the RoHS Directive, has been in force since February 2003. In order to concur with the WEEE Directive, a system for the management of electrical and electronic waste has been established in the Republic of Croatia five years ago, but there was no practical possibility for the treatment of collected waste toner cartridges. In this work, a study of the possibility of waste toner cartridges and further recycling and reuse has been performed, with special emphasis on the reuse of the residual toner powder. In order to decrease explosive properties of the residual toner powder, the material was mixed with calcite. After performed analyses of the mixture it was found that the mixture cannot be disposed of on landfill sites as inert waste material, since the value of the total organic carbon content (TOC) has found to be above the limit prescribed by the law. All other analyzed parameters have found to be below the limits prescribed by the law. Moreover, it was found that the mixture of residual toner powder, which contains 10 % of calcite, is an excellent bitumen additive, since it improves its application properties. So, the mixture of the residual toner powder and calcite can be used as a valuable raw material in the production of bituminous products and in different construction works.

Recovery of precious metals from waste electronic equipment

Article

May 2013
ENVIRON ENG MANAG J

Printed circuit boards-PCBs are particularly rich in copper and precious metals. Recoveries of metals in our work started with tests for electrodeposition of Au, Ag and Cu from synthetic solutions on graphite and copper electrodes. Processes were studied using cyclic voltammetry in ranges: (-1200)-500 mV and (-800)-(-200) mV and (-400)-1400 mV. Different supporting electrolytes like: H2SO4 0.5M, HCl 0.1M and HNO3 0.1M were used. Electrodeposition of studied metals from real solutions was followed by atomic absorption analyses. The deposit of metals was characterized by scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive-X-ray analysis. Two techniques were applied for recovery the metals from PCBs: aqua regia dissolution (one step) and dissolution in nitric acid and then in aqua regia (two steps). A new conceptual laboratory installation was constructed. Obtained deposits have been contained more than 95% Au and Ag and 97% Cu.

Recycling indium from waste LCDs: A review

Article

Sep 2015
RESOUR CONSERV RECY

As one of the most widely used scarce metals located at the column of IIIA in the periodic table, indium has drawn more and more attention due to its semiconductor and optoelectronic performance. While the reduction of indium minerals, as one of secondary resources, the amount of waste liquid crystal display (LCD) has been accumulated considerably. Indium tin oxide (ITO) film which is the main functional fraction of LCD has consumed more than 70% of the indium production worldwide. Therefore, it is necessary to recycle indium from waste LCDs. Some researches have been done for proper treatment to recycle indium from waste LCD which is a primary part of waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE). In this paper, the main characteristics of indium and the waste management status of end-of-life LCDs are introduced. And we mainly focus on the highly developed single recycling and reusing techniques. In addition, several combined recycling processes are evaluated. Furthermore, on the foundation of techniques and processes mentioned above, the promising related single techniques and the improvements on whole treatment process of waste LCDs are suggested.

Kunststoffe in Österreich – Eine Analyse der Entwicklungen in den letzten 15 Jahren

Article

Feb 2015

Die vorliegende Studie hat zum Ziel, den österreichischen Kunststoffhaushalt sowohl quantitativ (Mengenflüsse) als auch qualitativ (Polymertyp, Additive) mithilfe der Methode der Stoffflussanalyse zu beschreiben. Als erster Schritt wurde dazu ein Stoffflussmodell des Kunststoffhaushaltes Österreichs für das Jahr 2010 erstellt. Ein Vergleich mit bereits bestehenden Studien für die Jahre 1994 und 2004 zeigt, dass sich die Primärproduktion, Verarbeitung zu Halbzeugen bzw. der Einsatz von Kunststoff in zehn ausgewählten Konsumsektoren in den letzten ca. 20 Jahren mengenmäßig kaum verändert hat. Die Konsumsektoren Verpackung (30 %), Bau- und Infrastruktur (18 %) als auch Nicht-Kunststoffanwendungen (20 %) wie Lacke und Farben auf Polymerbasis, zählen heute wie damals zu den wichtigsten Anwendungssektoren. Große Lagerzuwächse waren vor allem im Bausektor zu verzeichnen, gefolgt von anderen Anwendungen (Freizeitgeräte, Büroartikel), dem Möbelsektor und dem Transport- und Elektroniksektor. Aufgrund der langen Lebensdauer von Produkten im Baubereich fallen diese aber erst zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt als Abfall an und machen sich daher in der Abfallwirtschaft im Jahr 2010 noch nicht bemerkbar. Hier stellen kurzlebige Verpackungen den größten Massenfluss dar. Aufgrund größerer Einsatzmengen und ebenfalls kurzlebigerer Produkte sind im Vergleich zu 1994 und 2004 Anstiege der Menge an Abfall aus den Sektoren Landwirtschaft und Medizin zu erkennen. Auf die Verwertung von Kunststoffabfällen hatte die Deponieverordnung durch das Verbot der Deponierung von organikhaltigen Abfällen ab dem Jahr 2004 einen maßgeblichen Einfluss. Wurden 1994 noch 80 % der Kunststoffabfälle deponiert, sind es heute nur ca. 2 % der gesamten Kunststoffabfälle, die in Form von MBA-Reststoffen auf die Deponie gelangen. Zudem werden 18 % stofflich oder in der Stahlindustrie recycelt und die verbleibenden 80 % thermisch verwertet. Die Quantifizierung des Kunststoffhaushaltes im Jahr 2010 macht deutlich, dass die Datengrundlage in Bezug auf Inputströme an Kunststoffen in die Konsumsektoren (Produktionsdaten) als sehr unzureichend zu bezeichnen ist. Außerdem lassen sich die Kunststofflager in den einzelnen Sektoren nur mit großen Unsicherheiten abschätzen. Da die Kenntnis der Lager und ihrer Dynamik jedoch für die Vorhersage der Quantität und Qualität zukünftiger Abfallströme wesentlich ist, sollen in einem nächsten Schritt dynamische Modelle und entsprechende Prognosen erstellt werden.

An In-Depth Literature Review of the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Context: Trends and Evolution

Article

Nov 2014

The consumption of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) is continuously increasing worldwide and, consequently, so is the amount of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) it generates at its end-of-life. In parallel to this growth, legislation related to this issue has been passed in different countries with the aim of improving the management of WEEE. In order to raise awareness about the situation in which the generation, composition, management or final treatment of this kind of waste currently finds itself, an extensive number of articles have been published around the world. The aim of this paper is to define and analyse the main areas of research on WEEE by offering a broader analysis of the relevant literature in this field published between 1992 and August 2014. The literature researched comprises 307 articles, which are analysed according to the topic they focus on (WEEE management, WEEE generation, WEEE characterisation, social aspects of WEEE, re-use of EEE or economic aspects of WEEE). In addition, a deeper analysis is also presented, which takes into account the temporal evolution (globally and by topic), location of the study, categories and subcategories analysed, etc. © The Author(s) 2014.

Monitoring of WEEE plastics in regards to brominated flame retardants using handheld XRF

Article

Nov 2014
WASTE MANAGE

This contribution is focused on the on-site determination of the bromine content in waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), in particular waste plastics from television sets (TV) and personal computer monitors (PC) using a handheld X-ray fluorescence (XRF) device. The described approach allows the examination of samples in regards to the compliance with legal specifications for polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) directly after disassembling and facilitates the sorting out of plastics with high contents of brominated flame retardants (BFRs). In all, over 3000 pieces of black (TV) and 1600 pieces of grey (PC) plastic waste were analysed with handheld XRF technique for this study. Especially noticeable was the high percentage of pieces with a bromine content of over 50,000 ppm for TV (7%) and PC (39%) waste plastics. The applied method was validated by comparing the data of handheld XRF with results obtained by GC-MS. The results showed the expected and sufficiently accurate correlation between these two methods. It is shown that handheld XRF technique is an effective tool for fast monitoring of large volumes of WEEE plastics in regards to BFRs for on-site measurements.

Kriterienkatalog zur Prüfung von Tonerstäuben

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2004
GEFAHRST REINHALT L

Up to now predominately time-expensive test chamber investigations have been used for assessing the emission behaviour of laser printers and photocopiers. The results of these tests are characteristic for the entire system of printer, print parameters, paper, and toner. The BG expert committee (FA) Verwaltung, the Landesgewerbeanstalt Bayern (LGA), and the BG-Institute for occupational safety and health (BIA) have now developed a concept for testing toner dusts (test module toner) in order to provide quality criteria for the procurement of toner cartridges. The test program proposed here allows for a rough estimate and limitation of the effect of the toner as part of the emission behaviour. Additionally, information on hazards by the toner is gained which is important in developing occupational safety and health protecting measures for maintenance and service staff and also for changing toner cartridges. Metals (e. g. cobalt, nickel, mercury, chromium, and tinorganic compounds), volatile organic compounds as benzene, styrene, and TVOC as a sum are analyzed. In addition the macrophages-test as a toxicological test procedure is proposed. The analytical methods were developed, modified and co-ordinated with the LGA who provides its own test mark. Furthermore recommendation values were defined which allow a risk assessment of toner dusts. A BG-PRÜFZERT-mark "schadstoffgeprüft" is scheduled to be granted by the FA Verwaltung, if required.

Substance flow analysis of the recycling of small waste electrical and electronic equipment - An assessment of the recovery of gold and palladium

Thesis

Full-text available

Dec 2009

Perrine Chancerel

Link to the thesis: http://www.user.tu-berlin.de/perrine.chancerel/ The demand for precious metals by manufacturers of electrical and electronic equipment has increased significantly over the past few years. Although precious metal concentrations in appliances are very low, these metals have a high economic and environmental relevance compared to other substances present at much higher levels (for example iron, copper, plastics). This thesis aims at describing and quantifying the flows of small waste electrical and electronic equipment (sWEEE) in Germany and in the USA for the year 2007, as well as the flows of gold and palladium associated with the sWEEE. Although collection systems have been set up, in many cases sWEEE is not collected separately for recycling but instead is disposed of. Regarding treatment of sWEEE, the model differentiates between reuse and treatments carried out by the formal and informal sector (including illegal export of sWEEE). The material flows were quantified based on a combination of expansive experimental investigations and a review of the relevant literature. The results revealed that, in 2007, 370 000 to 430 000 tonnes of sWEEE were generated in Germany, containing 1.9 to 2.4 tonnes of gold and 580 to 720 kg of palladium. In the USA, 26 to 36 tonnes of gold and 9 to 12 tonnes of palladium were contained in the 3.1 to 4.3 million tonnes of sWEEE generated in 2007. In Germany, the collection rates are much higher (77% of the generated sWEEE is collected) than in the USA (30%). In the USA, 6% of the generated sWEEE is reused, whereas in Germany the reuse rate amounts to 3%. 72% of the gold contained in the sWEEE was discarded in Germany and therefore lost for the recycling economy. The discarding rate is around 75% for the USA. The economic value of the discarded gold and palladium in 2007 amounted to 34 to 44 million US-dollars in Germany and 466 to 714 million US-dollars in the USA. In conclusion, the recycling infrastructures in Germany and in the USA do not allow an efficient recovery of the precious metals. The losses are caused by the non-separated collection of sWEEE and by inappropriate treatment, for instance during pre-processing. The characteristics of the different types of sWEEE considerably influence the recovery of precious metals. This has to be considered by developing strategies to improve it. Besides the recommendations how to improve the system, some suggestions to improve the data collection for the conduction of further substance flow analyses were formulated. The applied methodology can be used to assess waste management systems and develop improvement strategies. The method is not only useful for assessing the recovery of valuable substances as presented in this thesis, but in a more general way allows a quantitative analysis of the destination of substances fed into a waste management system. Die Nachfrage nach Edelmetallen von Herstellern elektrischer und elektronischer Geräte ist in den letzten Jahren bedeutsam gestiegen. Obwohl die Edelmetallkonzentrationen in den Geräten sehr niedrig sind, sind diese Metalle wirtschaftlich und ökologisch relevant, verglichen mit anderen in höheren Konzentrationen enthaltenen Stoffen (z.B. Eisen, Kupfer, Kunststoffe). Das Ziel dieser Dissertation ist es, die Stoffflüsse von kleinen elektrischen und elektronischen Altgeräten (Kleingeräten) in Deutschland und in den USA bezogen auf das Jahr 2007 zu beschreiben, sowie die mit den Kleingeräten verbundenen Flüsse von Gold und Palladium zu quantifizieren. Obwohl Sammelsysteme für Kleingeräte existieren, werden Kleingeräte häufig nicht erfasst sondern im Restabfall entsorgt. Bezüglich der Verwertung von Kleingeräten unterscheidet das Modell Wiederverwendung und Behandlung durch den formellen und den informellen Sektor (inklusive illegalen Export von Kleingeräten). Die Stoffströme wurden, basierend auf einer Kombination von aufwendigen experimentellen Untersuchungen und Literaturauswertung, quantifiziert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass 370 000 bis 430 000 Tonnen von Kleingeräten 2007 in Deutschland angefallen sind. Sie beinhalteten 1,9 bis 2,4 Tonnen Gold und 580 bis 720 kg Palladium. In den USA befanden sich in den 2007 angefallenen 3,1 bis 4,3 Million Tonnen Altgeräten 26 bis 36 Tonnen Gold und 9 bis 12 Tonnen Palladium. In Deutschland sind die Sammelquoten deutlich höher (77%) als in den USA (30%). In den USA wurden 6% der angefallenen Kleingeräte wieder verwendet, während die Wiederverwendungsquote in Deutschland 3% beträgt. 72% des in den Kleingeräten beinhalteten Goldes ging deshalb für die Kreislaufwirtschaft verloren. Die Verlustquote beträgt in den USA ca. 75%. Der wirtschaftliche Wert des verlorenen Goldes und Palladium betrug 2007 34 bis 44 Million US-Dollar in Deutschland und 466 bis 714 Million US-Dollar in den USA. Die Recyclinginfrastrukturen in Deutschland und in den USA ermöglichen keine effiziente Rückgewinnung der Edelmetalle. Die Verluste werden durch die nicht-getrennte Erfassung der Kleingeräte und durch die ungeeignete Behandlung, insbesondere bei der Aufbereitung, verursacht. Die Charakteristika der Kleingeräte beeinflussen stark die Rückgewinnung der Edelmetalle. Das soll bei der Entwicklung von Verbesserungsstrategien betrachtet werden. Neben Empfehlungen zur Systemverbesserung wurden Vorschläge zur Verbesserung der Datenerfassung zur Durchführung weiterer Stoffflussanalysen formuliert. Die angewandte Methode kann benutzt werden, um Abfallwirtschaftsysteme zu bewerten und Verbesserungsstrategien zu entwickeln. Die Methode ist nicht nur für die Bewertung der Verwertung von Wertstoffen nützlich, sondern ermöglicht im Allgemeinen eine quantitative Analyse des Verbleibs der in einem Abfallmanagementsystem behandelten Stoffe.

Beiträge elektronischer Bauteile und Gerätebatterien zur Schwermetallfracht im Restabfall

Article

Mar 2008

Charakterisierung elektrischer und elektronischer Altgeräte (EAG) – Teil 2: Gerätekennzahlen zur Ableitung von Erfassungs- und Verwertungsstrategien

Article

Aug 2006

Recycling-oriented characterization of small waste electrical and electronic equipment

Article

Jun 2009

As a result of the continuous change in the design and function of consumer electrical and electronic products, the mechanical and material properties of the obsolete products, called waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE), are highly variable. The variability within WEEE is explained by the number of different appliances, and the heterogeneity in composition of any given appliance. This paper reports on an extended investigation of the properties of WEEE, in particular small appliances. The investigation focuses on the analysis of the composition of about 700 single appliances. Firstly, analytical methods to characterize the waste equipment are described. The results of the experimental analyses show that the mechanical properties, the material composition, the polymer composition and the chemical composition of WEEE vary not only between equipment types with different functions, but also between single appliances within one equipment type. Data on hazardous and valuable substances in selected equipment types are presented. Using detailed data on the composition of individual appliances to calculate rates of recovery for assumed recycling processes demonstrates that the performance of recycling processes depends strongly on the composition of WEEE. Recycling-oriented characterization is, therefore, a systematic approach to support the design and the operation of recycling processes.

Metals, non-metals and PCB in electrical and electronic waste-Actual levels in Switzerland

Article

Feb 2007
WASTE MANAGE

The chemical composition of waste of small electrical and electronic equipment (s-WEEE), a rapidly growing waste stream, was determined for selected metals (Cu, Sb, Hg etc.) and non-metals (Cl, Br, P) and PCBs. During a 3-day experiment, all output products and the s-WEEE input mass flows in a WEEE recycling plant were measured. Only output products were sampled and analyzed. Material balances were established, applying substance flow analysis (SFA). Transfer coefficients for the selected substances were also determined. The results demonstrate the capability of SFA to determine the composition of the highly heterogeneous WEEE for most substances with rather low uncertainty (2 sigma +/- 30%). The results confirm the growing importance of s-WEEE regarding secondary resource metals and potential toxic substances. Nowadays, the thirty times smaller s-WEEE turns over larger flows for many substances, compared to municipal solid waste. Transfer coefficient results serve to evaluate the separation efficiency of the recycling process and confirm--with the exception of PCB and Hg--the limitation of hand-sorting and mechanical processing to separate pollutants (Cd, Pb, etc.) out of reusable fractions. Regularly applied SFA would serve to assess the efficacy of legislative, organizational and technical measures on the WEEE.

Characterisation of polymer fractions from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) and implications for waste management

Article

May 2007
CHEMOSPHERE

There is an increasing interest in the end-of-life management of polymers present in waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). This is mainly due to high recycling and recovery quotas set by the European WEEE directive, which can only be fulfilled by including the plastic fraction in recycling and recovery approaches. Previous studies identified a high material diversity and various contaminants in WEEE plastics, including heavy metals, polybrominated biphenyls (PBB), diphenyl ethers (PBDE), as well as polybrominated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (PBDD/F). These substances are regulated by European directives that limit their levels in marketable products. Consequently, both material diversity and contaminants are strong arguments against material recycling and point to hazardous waste treatment. However, recent developments in the production of flame retardants and electrical and electronic goods aimed to reduce contaminants and material diversity. Thus, the present study summarises updated contaminant levels of plastic fractions of European WEEE, as well as data on materials in waste housing polymers. Material characterisation revealed housing fractions to be interesting sources for polymer recycling, which however has to implement potent material separation and/or bromine elimination techniques. With respect to contaminants, our data indicate an effective phase-out of PBB, but still high levels of PBDE and PBDD/F are found. Sources and implications for the material recycling and thermal recovery approaches are discussed in detail.

Small WEEE: Determining recyclables and hazardous substances in plastics

Article

May 2008
J HAZARD MATER

An examination regarding the determination of recyclables and hazardous substances in small waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) found in the residual household waste stream of the city of Dresden, Germany, is described. Firstly, attitudes towards the disposal of small WEEE in the latter are assessed, and product types and categories which mostly contribute to its composition are identified. Physical parameters which could be used as mechanical sorting criteria are measured, and the material composition of the small WEEE found is determined. The hazardous substances' "base" charge in the residual waste is established by means of atomic absorption spectrometry and ionic chromatography, as a first step in estimating the contribution of small WEEE to its pollutant load. Consequently, the content of small WEEE plastics in key heavy metals and halogens is determined. Key conclusions are drawn concerning the future strategic development and practical implementation of the 2002/96/EC Directive, in relation to small WEEE management and recycling.

Assessment of gold recovery processes in Bangalore, India and evalu-ation of an alternative recycling path for printed wiring boards

Jan 2006

M Keller

M. Keller, Assessment of gold recovery processes in Bangalore, India and evalu-ation of an alternative recycling path for printed wiring boards, Diploma Thesis ETH Zürich, 2006.

LGA-schadstoffgeprüft

Jan 2007

Lga
Gmbh
Zertifizierungskriterien
Zertifikat

LGA QualiTest GmbH, Zertifizierungskriterien zum Zertifikat " LGA-schadstoffgeprüft ", Produktgruppe: Wiederaufbereitete Tonermodule, 2007 (in German).

Elektroaltgerätebehandlung in Österreich

Jan 2008

M Umweltbundesamt
A Tesar
Öhlinger

Umweltbundesamt, M. Tesar, A. Öhlinger, Elektroaltgerätebehandlung in Österreich, Zustandsbericht 2008, Reports Band 0199, Wien, 2009 (in German).

Exemption for the use of cadmium in portable batteries and accumulators intended for the use in cordless power tools in the context of the Batteries Directive

Jan 2006

Bipro
Umweltbundesamt
Enviroplan

Bipro, Umweltbundesamt, Enviroplan, Exemption for the use of cadmium in portable batteries and accumulators intended for the use in cordless power tools in the context of the Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC, Final Report, 2010.

Risks to Health and the Environment Related to the Use of Mercury Products

Jan 2002

P Floyd
P Zarogiannis
M Crane
S Tarkowski
V Bencko

P. Floyd, P. Zarogiannis, M. Crane, S. Tarkowski, V. Bencko, Risks to Health and the Environment Related to the Use of Mercury Products. Final Report prepared for the European Commission, DG Enterprise, 2002.

Emissionen aus Laserdruck-ern

Jul 2007

F Jungnickel
A Kubina
B Maciej
R Wildermann

F. Jungnickel, A. Kubina, B. Maciej, R. Wildermann, Emissionen aus Laserdruck-ern, 2007, Available at http://lga.de/tuv/de/aktuelles/veroeffentlichungen emissionen laserdrucker.shtml [Last accessed 17 June 2010] (in German).

Verwertungsverfahren für LC-displays, in: Workshop Nachhaltigkeit als Chance und Herausforderung für Unternehmen im Flachdisplaymarkt

Jan 2004

R Martin
W Becker
B Simon-Hettich

R. Martin, W. Becker, B. Simon-Hettich, Verwertungsverfahren für LC-displays, in: Workshop Nachhaltigkeit als Chance und Herausforderung für Unternehmen im Flachdisplaymarkt, Berlin, 2004 (in German).

Ver-fahrensvergleich zur Gewinnung von Wertstoffen aus Elektroaltgeräten Tagungsband zur Fachtagung

Jan 2009
23-29

S Salhofer
M Spitzbart
D Schöps
C E M Meskers
M Kriegl
G Panowitz

S. Salhofer, M. Spitzbart, D. Schöps, C.E.M. Meskers, M. Kriegl, G. Panowitz, Ver-fahrensvergleich zur Gewinnung von Wertstoffen aus Elektroaltgeräten, in: Bilitewski, Werner, Janz (Hrsg.): Tagungsband zur Fachtagung " Brennpunkt ElektroG, Umsetzung – Defizite – Notwendigkeiten ", Beiträge zu Abfall-wirtschaft/Altlasten, Band 62, 2009, 23–29 (in German).

Sammlung und Sortierung zur Verwertung von Altbatterien, Müllhandbuch 8528

Jan 1999

A Bräutigam
Aufkommen
Umweltrelevanz

A. Bräutigam, Aufkommen, Umweltrelevanz, Sammlung und Sortierung zur Verwertung von Altbatterien, Müllhandbuch 8528.1, 1999 (in German).

Überprüfung der Schwermetallgehalte von Batterien – Analyse von repräsentativen Proben handelsüblicher Batte-rien und in Geräten verkaufter Batterien – Erstellung eines Probenahmeplans

2007

Bam
Bundesamt
Materialprüfung

BAM, Bundesamt für Materialprüfung, Überprüfung der Schwermetallgehalte von Batterien – Analyse von repräsentativen Proben handelsüblicher Batte-rien und in Geräten verkaufter Batterien – Erstellung eines Probenahmeplans, Probenbeschaffung und Analytik (Hg, Pb, Cd), 2007 (in German).

Assessment of removal of components containing hazardous substances from small WEEE in Austria

Abstract

No full-text available

Recommendations

China Fluorescent Lamps collection and treatment demonstration project (Project CFL) (Fluorescent Lamps China)

Development and optimisation of the recovery of critical resources from WEEE

Developing an e-waste implementation toolkit to support the recycling and the secondary raw material recovery strategy in metropolitan areas in Africa (EWIT)

Invisible Markets – The role of households and waste collectors for resource management in urban China (Invisible Markets)

Small WEEE: Determining recyclables and hazardous substances in plastics

World at work: The electronics industry

Respiratory effects in the aftermath of a major fire in a chemical waste depot

Medical surveillance of HAZMAT response fire fighters