Article

An Investigation of Mediums Who Claim to Give Information About Deceased Persons

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Abstract

Growing public interest in the phenomenon of mediumship, particularly among bereaved persons, suggests the need for renewed controlled studies of mediums, both to provide potential clients with criteria for judging mediums and to help researchers learn whether they can produce specific and accurate information to which they have had no normal access and, if so, under what conditions. Two research studies were conducted in which mediums provided readings about particular deceased persons to a proxy sitter. The real sitters then blindly rated the reading that was intended for them along with several control readings. In the first study, the results were not significant. In the second, much larger study the results were highly significant (z = -3.89, p < 0.0001, 2-tailed). The authors discuss 2 possible weaknesses of the successful study and indicate some directions for further research.

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... 1,8 One of the main methodological challenges is the investigation of the possibility of mediums obtaining anomalous information (i.e., accurate information not obtained through the five major sense or explained by conventional means such as fraud, sensory leakage, lucky chance or cryptomnesia). In the last two decades, studies have been conducted using blind, controlled methods 2,3,11,14,15,25 , with conflicting results. However, a meta-analysis of recent studies found an outcome that suggests actual anomalous reception of information which cannot be explained by chance or through publication bias. ...
... 32 Several authors have questioned if the use of too artificial controls might not prejudice the manifestation of possible genuine abilities. 2,15 Thus, one of the main methodological challenges today with the study of mediumship has been the creation of ecologically viable protocols, but which also permit adequate scientific control. 2 Experimenting with semi-naturalistic methods has become a promising alternative which, despite checking for leakage of information through conventional channels, does not excessively artificialize the conditions for the medium's activities. This article describes the application of an intermediate methodological proposal, combining ecological validity and control (of fraud and leakage of information), for the production and evaluation of the accuracy of information produced in automatically written letters purportedly deriving from deceased individuals. ...
... 3 Psychography does not permit immediate feedback, making it difficult to perform a cold reading. 15 Moreover, the mediums did not have prior knowledge of the sitters, and vice-versa, and any contact that they had in the sessions was controlled and recorded. Cold reading may have still taken place during the brief interviews. ...
Article
Introduction: In the current resurgence of studies investigating anomalous information reception (AIR) in mediumship, it has become a major challenge to balance ecological validity and rigorous control. Objective: To describe the method and present preliminary findings of a new controlled semi-naturalistic protocol combining ecological validity and control to investigate AIR in psychography (automatic writing), a form of mediumship that does not allow for instantaneous feedback. Method: Experienced Brazilian psychography mediums and bereaved sitters were selected and blinded to each other until the automatic writing experimental sessions began. Mediums were continually monitored and filmed during all the procedures. Sitters filled in questionnaires on grief, spirituality, and paranormal beliefs. Investigators controlled all information received by the mediums: names of the sitter and deceased, age and cause of death and short interviews (usually ≤ 1 min). The experimental automatic writing sessions took place under the view of sitters and researchers. Immediately after the sessions, and then a few months later, sitters rated how likely the letter is to have come from their deceased loved ones. Results: A total of 142 sitters and three mediums participated, producing 26 automatically written letters to 21 sitters. Mediums felt comfortable with the protocol. Most sitters were women (82.4%) and had completed higher education (57.8%). Sitters who received letters had higher grief scores. At the time, 96.2% of letters were considered definitely or probably from the deceased relative, with a small but significant decline (92.3%) a few months later. Conclusion: The new controlled semi-naturalistic method was well accepted and seems to be promising as a complementary method for investigating AIR in mediumship. Information obtained by mediums during sitters` brief interviews is a limitation, but they were registered by video recording and will be taken in consideration in the future analysis that will explore further the accuracy and probability of leakage of verifiable items of information in the letters.
... Ideally, the proxy has little or no knowledge about the person whom the reading is for or the deceased, and the person requesting the reading does not know when or even if a reading will occur (Kelly, 2010). Kelly and Arcangel (2011a) reported that 14 of 38 readings were correctly identified as intended for the sitter who selected them as their own. Sitters seemed to be convinced by specific statements such as, "There's something funny about black licorice… Like there's a big joke about it, like, oh, you like that?" (p. ...
... Beischel argued that such methodological issues are problematic regardless of the results of the study, as they fail to control for alternative explanations for the findings. Kelly and Arcangel (2011a) conceded that a general criticism of proxy research is its highly artificial nature, which may reduce the motivation for discarnates to communicate and interfere with certain psychological conditions conducive to a successful reading. For example, William James (1890) believed that if the medium or control had at least some personal information pertaining to the sitter, the reading would be less likely to halt to a standstill. ...
... However, Beischel (2011) argued that prescreening participants to ensure they perform consistently well under laboratory conditions eliminates this limitation. And that, in effect, Kelly and Arcangel (2011a) have presented as research what should merely be considered as participant recruitment and screening. Maraldi, Machado and Zangari (2010) have stressed the need to view mediumship as a psychosocial construction, a phenomena that is simultaneously individual and collective. ...
... During the last decade, there has been a renewed interest in the research on mediumship, with a number of studies on the phenomenon of anomalous information reception that have been published in medical and psychological journals. These studies, using experimental controlled conditions, have yielded conflicting findings (Beischel and Schwartz, 2007;Kelly and Arcangel, 2011;O'Keeffe and Wiseman, 2005), suggesting that different mediums might provide diverse levels of veridical information compared with each other and even the same medium in different occasions. In addition, a recent neuroimaging study with 10 mediums using SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography) found decreased brain activity in areas related to cognitive processing during a dissociative state on which the mediums produced complex written content in comparison with their brain activity during normal (nontrance) writing (Peres et al., 2012). ...
... Recent studies have provided statistical results from controlled studies of several mediumistic readings (Beischel and Schwartz, 2007;Beischel et al., 2015;Kelly and Arcangel, 2011;O'Keeffe and Wiseman, 2005). However, to advance our understanding of mediumistic phenomena, in addition to quantitative analysis of a large group of readings, we also needed in depth qualitative and quantitative analysis of mediumistic phenomena attributed to specific deceased personalities, especially those provided by mediums who are "good specimen of the class." ...
... Our analysis of Xavier's letter found that it conveyed 29 items of highly specific and veridical information. The usual explanation for the apparent accuracy of medium's statements is that these statements are so general or vague that "they can apply to many people or be interpreted in a variety of ways" (Kelly and Arcangel, 2011). However, the information conveyed by this letter was very specific (e.g., names, dates, and specific events), ruling out the hypothesis that the fit of the information was the result of overinterpretation on the part of the family. ...
Article
The scientific study of mediumship can contribute to the understanding of the mind-brain relationship. This study investigated a letter written by the influential Brazilian “medium” Chico Xavier, whose authorship was attributed to a deceased person. We identified the letter's pieces of information that were objectively verifiable, and we analyzed their accuracy based on documents and on interviews with the deceased's relatives, and the likelihood of Xavier's access to the information via ordinary means. All the 29 items of verifiable information conveyed on the letter were rated as “clear and precise fit.” The information conveyed was highly specific (e.g., names, dates, and specific events). Fourteen items (48.3%) conveyed information that was also very private. We concluded that ordinary explanations for accuracy of the information (i.e., fraud, chance, information leakage, and cold reading) were highly unlikely. We recommend further research on the phenomenon of mediumistic writing, particularly experimental controlled studies with exceptionally gifted mediums.
... Numerous mediumship studies (e.g., Beischel & Schwartz 2007, Kelly & Arcangel 2011, Rock, Beischel, Boccuzzi, & Biuso 2014 have reported statistically significant results, thus suggesting that various contemporary mediums are able to demonstrate anomalous information reception (AIR) under laboratory conditions. Importantly, however, such studies are unable to address the source of mediums' AIR. ...
... The survival topic referred to as mediumship is the focus of the present article. A medium may be defined as an individual who ostensibly communicates with a deceased person (Kelly & Arcangel 2011). ...
... 127). For example, several recent single-blind studies , Schwartz, Russek, Nelson, & Barentsen 2001, double-blind studies (Jensen & Cardeña 2009, Kelly & Arcangel 2011, 2004, Schwartz, Russek, & Barentsen 2002, and triple-blind studies (Beischel & Schwartz 2007) have yielded positive results concerning mediums' accuracy. We also note that one double-blind study (O'Keeffe & Wiseman 2005) that failed to obtain positive results was published; however, the experimental protocol contained various methodological flaws (discussed in Beischel 2007). ...
Article
Full-text available
Numerous mediumship studies (e.g., Beischel & Schwartz 2007, Kelly & Arcangel 2011, Rock, Beischel, Boccuzzi, & Biuso 2014) have reported statistically significant results, thus suggesting that various contemporary mediums are able to demonstrate anomalous information reception (AIR) under laboratory conditions. Importantly, however, such studies are unable to address the source of mediums' AIR. Indeed, the source-of-psi problem (survival-psi and living agent psi [LAP] being the most likely contenders) cannot be resolved using current methodologies (Beischel 2012). However, innovative mediumship-Testing techniques may produce results that indicate a convergence whereby sets of outcomes may evidentially favor one hypothesis over another (e.g., see Jamieson & Rock 2014 for a neurophenomenological approach). We present an innovative methodology focused on investigating whether mediums and well-rehearsed proxy-sitters, working under well-beyond double-blind conditions, create telepathic links that we refer to as dyad-Telepathy, thereby producing response sets that indicate the psi source is more likely to be dyad-Telepathy than a discarnate entity.
... Numerous mediumship studies (e.g., Beischel & Schwartz 2007, Kelly & Arcangel 2011, Rock, Beischel, Boccuzzi, & Biuso 2014 have reported statistically significant results, thus suggesting that various contemporary mediums are able to demonstrate anomalous information reception (AIR) under laboratory conditions. Importantly, however, such studies are unable to address the source of mediums' AIR. ...
... The survival topic referred to as mediumship is the focus of the present article. A medium may be defined as an individual who ostensibly communicates with a deceased person (Kelly & Arcangel 2011). ...
... 127). For example, several recent single-blind studies , Schwartz, Russek, Nelson, & Barentsen 2001, double-blind studies (Jensen & Cardeña 2009, Kelly & Arcangel 2011, 2004, Schwartz, Russek, & Barentsen 2002, and triple-blind studies (Beischel & Schwartz 2007) have yielded positive results concerning mediums' accuracy. We also note that one double-blind study (O'Keeffe & Wiseman 2005) that failed to obtain positive results was published; however, the experimental protocol contained various methodological flaws (discussed in Beischel 2007). ...
Research
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Rock, A. J., & Storm, L. (2015). Testing Telepathy in the Medium/Proxy-Sitter Dyad: A Protocol Focusing on the Source-of-Psi Problem. Journal of Scientific Exploration, 29(4), 565–584.
... The question behind the investigations performed by psychical researchers was if the hypothesis that brain creates human consciousness is adequate to explain the full range of human experiences (Kelly and Arcangel 2011;Kelly et al, 2007). These works, however, are virtually unknown today by most current academic authors, and have rarely been used as contribution to the debate regarding mind-brain relationship. ...
... Because of this, double-blind protocols (mediums do not have direct contact with sitters, and sitters rate control and direct communications to them without knowing which is intended to have been proposed and tested with some positive (Roy and Robertson 2004;Schwartz et al 2002) and negative results (Jensen and Cardeña 2009;O'Keeffe and Wiseman 2005;Schwartz et al. 2003). However, several methodological limitations to these studies have been pointed (Kelly and Arcangel 2011). One of the major challenges facing this kind of research (as well as other studies in psychology and psychiatry) is to balance between rigor and providing a more naturalistic environment for the study that allows the target phenomena to occur. ...
... One of the major challenges facing this kind of research (as well as other studies in psychology and psychiatry) is to balance between rigor and providing a more naturalistic environment for the study that allows the target phenomena to occur. Specifically regarding mediumship, it is necessary to avoid sensory leakages that could be clues for the medium, but also it is necessary to take in account the mediums' need of an environment that allows them to work in a comfortable way, to be able to connect with the communicating personality (Kelly Arcangel 2011;Jensen and Cardeña 2009;Beischel 2007Beischel /2008. Also, based on previous studies, it is necessary to take in account that mediums do not get similar levels of veridical information compared to each other and even the same medium in different occasions (like any other human skill). ...
Chapter
Mediumship, an experience widespread throughout human history, can be defined as an experience in which an individual (the so-called medium) purports to be in communication with, or under the control of, the personality of a deceased. Since the nineteenth century, there is a substantial, but neglected tradition of scientific research about mediumship and its implications for the nature of mind. This chapter will review studies investigating the origins, the sources of mediumistic communications. Since one crucial aspect of mediumistic experience is the claim for the persistence of mind activity and the communication of personalities after bodily death, I discuss what would be the evidence for personal identity and its persistence beyond the brain. After that, empirical evidence provided by studies on mediumship is presented and analyzed, including a brief biography of two very productive mediums: Mrs. Leonora Piper and Chico Xavier. Finally, I discuss the implications of these data for our understanding of mind and its relationship with the body. Applying contemporary research methods to mediumistic experiences may provide a badly needed broadening and diversification of the empirical basis needed to advance our understanding of the mind–body problem.
... Esses estudos buscavam usar uma abordagem científica rigorosa e, ao mesmo tempo, com abertura para investigar e compreender experiências que habitualmente são analisadas a partir de dois pólos extremos: aceitação ingênua ou rejeição dogmática 44 . Uma das principais questões subjacentes às investigações desses pesquisadores foi se a hipótese de que o cérebro cria a consciência humana é adequada para explicar o amplo leque das experiências humanas 43,45 . Esses estudos, contudo, são virtualmente desconhecidos pela maioria dos autores acadêmicos da atualidade e raramente têm sido usados como contribuições para debates sobre a relação mente-cérebro. ...
... Protocolos duplo-cegos (médiuns não têm contato direto com os consulentes ii , e os consulentes pontuam as comunicações iii controles e as direcionadas para eles sem saberem a qual categoria cada uma pertence) têm sido propostos 79 e testados com alguns resultados positivos 80,81 e negativos 59,82,83 . Vários desafios metodológicos têm sido debatidos 45 , um deles refere-se à necessidade de equilibrar entre o rigor metodológico para evitar vazamento de informações e o proporcionar de um ambiente mais natural de estudo para que o fenômeno desejado ocorra 45,58,82 . Com base nos estudos prévios, é também necessário levar em conta que os médiuns não obtêm os mesmos níveis de informações verídicas, se comparados uns aos outros, assim como um mesmo médium em diferentes ocasiões. ...
... Protocolos duplo-cegos (médiuns não têm contato direto com os consulentes ii , e os consulentes pontuam as comunicações iii controles e as direcionadas para eles sem saberem a qual categoria cada uma pertence) têm sido propostos 79 e testados com alguns resultados positivos 80,81 e negativos 59,82,83 . Vários desafios metodológicos têm sido debatidos 45 , um deles refere-se à necessidade de equilibrar entre o rigor metodológico para evitar vazamento de informações e o proporcionar de um ambiente mais natural de estudo para que o fenômeno desejado ocorra 45,58,82 . Com base nos estudos prévios, é também necessário levar em conta que os médiuns não obtêm os mesmos níveis de informações verídicas, se comparados uns aos outros, assim como um mesmo médium em diferentes ocasiões. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background: Mediumship, an experience widespread throughout human history, can be defned as an experience in which an individual (the so-called medium) purports to be in communication with, or under the control of, a deceased personality or other non-material being. Since the 19th Century there is a substantial, but neglected tradition of scientifc research about mediumship and its implications for the nature of mind. Objective: To discuss the historical and current importance of mediumship to the mind-brain problem, focusing on studies investigating the origins, the sources of mediumistic communications. Methods: Tis paper starts discussing what would be evidence for personal identity and its persistence beyond the brain, then empirical evidence provided by studies on mediumship are presented and analyzed, including a more detailed analysis of two very productive mediums: Mrs. Leonora Piper and Chico Xavier. Results: Old and recent well controlled studies suggest that mediums can exhibit skills and knowledge unlikely to have been acquired by ordinary means and compatible with deceased personalities. Discussion: Applying contemporary research methods to mediumistic experiences may provide a badly needed broadening and diversifcation of the empirical basis needed to advance our understanding of the mind-body problem.
... Por exemplo, o estudo clássico de Pierre Janet 16 sobre a dissociação examinou vários médiuns; a tese de doutorado de Carl Jung 17 envolveu um estudo de caso mediúnico; e William James 14 pesquisou a médium Leonore Piper. Mais recentemente, apesar de alguns resultados apresentarem acertos de informações altamente significativos por parte dos médiuns 18,19 , outras investigações obtiveram resultados não significativos 20,21 , provocando consideráveis debates metodológicos 19,20 . Persiste, portanto, a necessidade de estudos controlados sobre a mediunidade, com critérios adequados para que pesquisadores investiguem se os médiuns podem manifestar informações específicas e precisas não obtidas por vias conhecidas e, em caso afirmativo, em que condições isso ocorre 19 . ...
... Por exemplo, o estudo clássico de Pierre Janet 16 sobre a dissociação examinou vários médiuns; a tese de doutorado de Carl Jung 17 envolveu um estudo de caso mediúnico; e William James 14 pesquisou a médium Leonore Piper. Mais recentemente, apesar de alguns resultados apresentarem acertos de informações altamente significativos por parte dos médiuns 18,19 , outras investigações obtiveram resultados não significativos 20,21 , provocando consideráveis debates metodológicos 19,20 . Persiste, portanto, a necessidade de estudos controlados sobre a mediunidade, com critérios adequados para que pesquisadores investiguem se os médiuns podem manifestar informações específicas e precisas não obtidas por vias conhecidas e, em caso afirmativo, em que condições isso ocorre 19 . ...
... Mais recentemente, apesar de alguns resultados apresentarem acertos de informações altamente significativos por parte dos médiuns 18,19 , outras investigações obtiveram resultados não significativos 20,21 , provocando consideráveis debates metodológicos 19,20 . Persiste, portanto, a necessidade de estudos controlados sobre a mediunidade, com critérios adequados para que pesquisadores investiguem se os médiuns podem manifestar informações específicas e precisas não obtidas por vias conhecidas e, em caso afirmativo, em que condições isso ocorre 19 . Outras linhas de pesquisa devem ser associadas à investigação da mediunidade e consideramos que a neurociência pode contribuir significativamente com geração de dados neurofuncionais relativos ao conhecimento mais amplo sobre os fenômenos mediúnicos em que, supostamente, a consciência e a volição do médium estão atenuadas ou mesmo dissociadas 22 . ...
Article
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The mind-body relationship has prompted debate from the times of millennial religious traditions and the ancient Greeks through to contemporary neuroscience, and although these questions have yet to be decisively answered, therapeutic interventions today are guided by assumptions made in this respect. Research on the neural correlates of consciousness and mental expressions has made progress over the last 15 years by developing functional brain imaging methods. This approach may open up new perspectives for studies of the expression of presumed instances of spiritual consciousness, which would have major ethical, social and philosophical implications. We pose a promising new line of research in the neurosciences and discuss certain issues pertaining to the effective use of neuroimaging to investigate mediumship and advance the consensus comprehension of consciousness, alleged spiritual communication and its relations with the brain. We highlight methodological challenges and lessons gleaned from our neurofunctional study of mediumship to be considered for further research in this field when formulating hypotheses to address these phenomena, and discuss useful guidelines for neuroimaging studies of spiritual experiences in general.
... Scientific research on mediumship has also witnessed a small resurrection within the last decade. More recent research has examined the accuracy of statements provided by mediums under double-and triple-blind conditions (e.g., Roy and Robertson, 2004;O'Keefe and Wiseman, 2005;Beischel and Schwartz, 2007;Jensen and Cardeña, 2009;Kelly and Arcangel, 2011) as well as mediums' phenomenology (e.g., Rock and Beischel, 2008;Rock et al., 2009), psychology (e.g., Roxburgh and Roe, 2011), neurobiology (e.g., Hageman et al., 2010), and the therapeutic potential of mediumship readings for the bereaved (Beischel et al., in press). Recent research has also confirmed previous findings that mediumship is not associated with conventional dissociative experiences, pathology, dysfunction, psychosis, or over-active imaginations (Roxburgh and Roe, 2011). ...
... Previous research with mediums has resulted in positive (e.g., Schwartz et al., 2002;Roy and Robertson, 2004;Beischel and Schwartz, 2007;Kelly and Arcangel, 2011) and negative (Schwartz et al., 2003;O'Keefe and Wiseman, 2005;Jensen and Cardeña, 2009) outcomes. Beischel and Schwartz (2007) performed an experiment similar in blinding to Experiment 1 with eight mediums and an experimenter serving as a proxy sitter in which blinded absent sitters scored target and decoy readings. ...
... Sitters provided significantly higher global scores for target readings than for decoy readings (p = 0.007) and sitters chose their target reading over a decoy reading 81% of the time when faced with a forced-choice task (p = 0.01). Kelly and Arcangel (2011) also performed an experiment employing a proxy sitter although they used a photograph of the deceased person instead of his first name and the proxy often knew personally or had information about the sitters and deceased individuals. In that study, each blinded sitter rated six transcripts. ...
Article
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During advanced meditative practices, unusual perceptions can arise including the sense of receiving information about unknown people who are deceased. As with meditation, this mental state of communication with the deceased involves calming mental chatter and becoming receptive to subtle feelings and sensations. Psychometric and brain electrophysiology data were collected from six individuals who had previously reported accurate information about deceased individuals under double-blind conditions. Each experimental participant performed two tasks with eyes closed. In the first task, the participant was given only the first name of a deceased person and asked 25 questions. After each question, the participant was asked to silently perceive information relevant to the question for 20 s and then respond verbally. Responses were transcribed and then scored for accuracy by individuals who knew the deceased persons. Of the four mediums whose accuracy could be evaluated, three scored significantly above chance (p < 0.03). The correlation between accuracy and brain activity during the 20 s of silent mediumship communication was significant in frontal theta for one participant (p < 0.01). In the second task, participants were asked to experience four mental states for 1 min each: (1) thinking about a known living person, (2) listening to a biography, (3) thinking about an imaginary person, and (4) interacting mentally with a known deceased person. Each mental state was repeated three times. Statistically significant differences at p < 0.01 after correction for multiple comparisons in electrocortical activity among the four conditions were obtained in all six participants, primarily in the gamma band (which might be due to muscular activity). These differences suggest that the impression of communicating with the deceased may be a distinct mental state distinct from ordinary thinking or imagination.
... Des études récentes ont privilégié les méthodes expérimentales pour contrôler la fraude, le hasard, les fuites sensorielles et la lecture à froid, susceptibles d'expliquer les informations fournies par les médiums. Certaines de ces études ont abouti à des résultats négatifs (O'Keeffe et Wiseman, 2005) et d'autres à des résultats positifs (Beischel et Schwartz, 2007;Kelly et Arcangel, 2011). Une méta-analyse a révélé des résultats positifs (Sarraf, Woodley ofMenie, Tressoldi, 2020). ...
... Ces résultats sont cohérents avec les informations rapportées par les médiums concernant 1' écriture automatique (non consciente) et leurs affirmations selon lesquelles une «source extérieure» déterminait le contenu des écrits (Peres et al., 2012). Il est intéressant de noter que, tout au long du siècle dernier, la grande majorité des scientifiques qui ont étudié la médiumnité de façon approfondie a fini par être convaincue que les explications conventionnelles (fraude et activité mentale inconsciente) pouvaient expliquer une partie mais non la totalité des données observées (Almeder, 1992;Gauld, 1982;Kelly, 2011;Moreira-Almeida, 2012;Stevenson, 1977). Bien entendu, certains chercheurs restent sceptiques quant au besoin de trouver des explications non conventionnelles au phénomène médiumnique (Lester, 2005;O'Keeffe et Wiseman, 2005). ...
... This study's protocol is based on the protocols of the most recent published controlled studies on mediumship 10,11,12,13 adapted to the particular context and nature of the modality of mediumistic writing as practiced by mediums in Brazil. We based our protocol on these studies because they tested alleged mediumistic communication under strict conditions and because they are the controlled studies published most recently in academic journals. ...
... A third explanation is that the mediums who participated in this study could not get anomalous information because the study's controlled conditions were too strict and the artificial presence of proxy sitters may have impaired proper psychological conditions for the occurrence of the mediumistic phenomenon 13 . This explanation concurs with the reasons for declining participation in the study given by three of the mediums initially invited by the research team who alleged that they would not be able to have good mediumistic contact with the deceased under the proposed protocol conditions. ...
Article
Context Mediumship is understood as a kind of spiritual experience in which a person (i.e., a medium) claims to be in communication with, or under the control of, spiritual beings. In the last decades there has been a resurgence of studies on psychological, psychiatric and neuroscientific aspects of mediumship, as well as studies assessing the claim that mediums can obtain anomalous information from deceased persons. Objective To assess the evidence for anomalous information reception about deceased people in texts produced through alleged mediumistic writing (psychographic letters) under strictly controlled experimental conditions. Method Eight mediums and ninety-four sitters participated in the study. Eighteen mediumistic writing sessions were carried out using blind proxy sitters. Later, each sitter received the target mediumistic letter and five control letters paired by gender and age. Sitters blindly scored the accuracy of the six letters both with a global score and for each of the objectively verifiable items of information presented on the letters. Scores from target and control letters were compared. Results There was no difference in global evaluation and specific fit scores between control and target letters. The mediums involved in the research were not able to show evidence for providing anomalous information about deceased people when under our strict controlled conditions. We argue for establishing a reasonable compromise between ecological validity and controlled condition.
... Since the publication of the AIR study, two quantitative studies of mediumsʼ accuracy have been published in which a total of 28 readings were performed. 15,16 The first 15 (n ¼ 7) obtained negative results; the second 16 collected data during two experiments, one (n ¼ 12) that was not significant and one (n ¼ 9) that was highly significant (P o .0001; although methodological issues 17 were present). ...
... Since the publication of the AIR study, two quantitative studies of mediumsʼ accuracy have been published in which a total of 28 readings were performed. 15,16 The first 15 (n ¼ 7) obtained negative results; the second 16 collected data during two experiments, one (n ¼ 12) that was not significant and one (n ¼ 9) that was highly significant (P o .0001; although methodological issues 17 were present). ...
Article
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Context: The examination of the accuracy and specificity of information reported by mediums addresses the existence of non-local information transfer. Objective: This study was designed to replicate and extend a previous methodology achieving positive findings regarding the anomalous reception of information about deceased individuals by research mediums under experimental conditions that eliminate conventional explanations, including cold reading, rater bias, experimenter cueing, and fraud. Design: Mediumship readings were performed over the phone under blinded conditions in which mediums, raters, and experimenters were all blinded. Participants: A total of 20 Windbridge Certified Research Mediums WCRMs participated in 86 readings. Main outcome measures: Accuracy and specificity were assessed through item scores, global reading scores, and forced-choice selections provided by blinded sitters. Results: (1) Comparisons between blinded target and decoy readings regarding the estimated percentage accuracy of reading items (n = 27, P = .05, d = 0.49), (2) comparisons regarding the calculated percentage accuracy of reading items (n = 31, P = .002, d = 0.75), (3) comparisons regarding hits vs. misses (n = 31, P < .0001 and P = .002 for different reading sections), (4) comparisons regarding global scores (n = 58, P = .001, d = 0.57), and (5) forced-choice reading selections between blinded target and decoy readings (n = 58, P = .01) successfully replicate and extend previous findings demonstrating the phenomenon of anomalous information reception (AIR), the reporting of accurate and specific information without prior knowledge, in the absence of sensory feedback, and without using deceptive means. Because the experimental conditions of this study eliminated normal, sensory sources for the information mediums report, a non-local source (however controversial) remains the most likely explanation for the accuracy and specificity of their statements.
... A triple-blind study, in which information about the deceased was collected by a research assistant without interacting with mediums, found that family members validated the readings as "correct" in 81 % of cases (13 out of 16 readings, p = .01;. 17 In another investigation, 30 out of 38 medium readings showed significant statistical results when the mediums viewed images of decreased people (p < 0.0001;. 10 Moreover, a recent study in psychography reported that 96,2 % of family members linked the medium's information to that of their deceased relatives. 18 A recent meta-analysis of 18 experiments between 2001 and 2019 supports the existing data. 2 After calculating the standardized effect size (0.18 with 95 % CI = 0.12-0.25), the authors concluded that some mediums are capable of retrieving accurate information about deceased people. ...
... In contrast, the medium with the poorest performance obtained similar scores on both intended and control readings, approximately 1.5 . This was also documented in a manuscript detailing the results of two studies: in the first study, one out of four mediums achieved a 100% hit rate, while in the second study, one out of nine mediums attained a 100% accuracy rate (Kelly & Arcangel, 2011). ...
Article
Mediums are individuals who claim to communicate with deceased persons or non-material beings. Rigorous studies have reported that mediums can provide accurate anomalous information (i.e. information not obtained through the conventional senses or inferential reasoning). This paper reviews the evidence about these claims and explores the main conventional explanatory hypotheses: fraud, sitter’s gullibility and wishful thinking, lucky chance, medium’s mental disorder, and involuntary personification of the unconscious mind. Additionally, we examine non-conventional explanations, specifically the hypothesis of the mind beyond the brain, highlighting the types of evidence that mediumship studies provide to support the existence of a mind independent of the physical brain. Through a critical analysis of both conventional and non-conventional explanations, this paper aims to contribute to the understanding of mediumship and its potential implications for our comprehension of consciousness and the mind-brain problem.
... LAP may also be responsible for psychokinesis (PK), the mind's ability to affect animate and inanimate physical systems without intervention from any recognized physical forces or energy forms (Braude, 2002;May & Marwaha, 2014, 2015bVarvoglis & Bancel, 2015). PK purportedly manifests in physical mediumship (paranormally facilitated actions, such as raps, table tilting, object movements, and "materializations" with the direct involvement of the medium; e.g., Beischel & Zingrone, 2015;Gauld, 1977;Kelly & Arcangel, 2011;May & Marwaha, 2015a) and poltergeists (recurrent spontaneous psychokinesis; movement of objects, noise, fires, water inundations, and other physical effects of unknown causal agency; e.g., Gauld & Cornell, 1979;Maher, 2015;Roll, 1977Roll, , 2003Roll, , 2014. Depending on whether a person's brain in NDEs/OBE can sustain conscious experience, the anomalous acquisition of information in these instances may also involve LAP (e.g., Braude, 2003;Gauld, 2005;Hasker & Taliaferro, 2019). ...
Article
The continued investigations of the paranormal facilitated the development of novel theories and methodologies. Psi functioning of the living and the deceased in survival phenomena suggested the living agent psi (LAP) and discarnate psi hypotheses, but neither has demonstrated sufficient explanatory power to claim superiority in explaining survival data. Mediumship studies cannot determine whether paranormal information is sourced by means of discarnate psi or LAP, presenting the source-of-psi problem. Anomalous information can be obtained from joint sources (LAP, survival, or some other source), which supports the multiple sources of psi (MSoP) hypothesis. The maximized explanatory potential of the MSoP hypothesis makes the inclusion of the LAP and discarnate psi factors in the calculation of a Drake-S equation for post-mortem survival required and appropriate. This paper concludes that 1) the aggregate effect of skeptical explanations for survival was calculated at 65.6%, leaving 35.4% to paranormal explanations, which contradicts skeptical claims and is inconsistent with the existing laws of conventional science; 2) 16% of paranormal experiences reported among the general population appeared genuine; and 3) the calculated purified probability for all paranormal phenomena equaling 40% can be attributed to paranormal causes. This suggests reasonable plausibility of the survival hypothesis. To refine the existing factors and find new empirical factors related to known confounds and anomalous effects, future research should include more robust procedures and methods of data selection, gathering, and analysis.
... .048 .038-.058 interpretation to these perceptions, as mediums sometime provide ostensibly specific or veridical information under blinded conditions and across independent studies and investigators (e.g., Beischel et al., 2015;Jensen & Cardeña, 2009;Kelly & Arcangel, 2011;Roy & Robertson, 2004). Table 2 shows that the literature contains two meta-analyses of peer-reviewed empirical studies on mental mediumship (Rock et al., 2021;Sarraf et al., 2021). ...
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This participatory team science project extended Laythe and Houran’s (2022) prior application of a famous probabilistic argument known as the "Drake equation" to the question of postmortem survival. Specifically, we evaluated effect sizes from peer-reviewed, empirical studies to determine the maximum average percentage effect that ostensibly supports (i.e., "anomalous effects") or refutes (i.e., "known confounds") the survival hypothesis. But unlike the earlier application, this research included a study-specific estimate of the hypothesized variable of "living agent psi" via a new meta-analysis of empirical studies (N = 17) with exceptional subjects vs participants from the general population. Our updated analysis found that putative psi was a meaningful variable, although it along with other known confounds still did not account for 30.3% of survival-related phenomena that appear to attest directly to human consciousness continuing after physical (biological) death. Thus, the popular conventional variables that we measured here are seemingly insufficient to account for a sizable portion of the purported empirical data that has been interpreted as evidence of survival. Our conclusion is nonetheless tempered by several assumptions and limitations of our speculative exercise, which ultimately does not affirm the existence of an ‘afterlife’ but rather highlights the need for measurements with greater precision and/ or a more comprehensive set of quantifiable variables. Therefore, we discuss how our probabilistic approach provides important heuristics to guide future research in this highly controversial domain that touches both parapsychology and transpersonal psychology.
... Procedures to reduce bias were based on recommendations noted in previous mediumship studies [34][35][36][37] . Regarding data assessment, we applied a triangulation of correspondence judging in order to reinforce the strength of our analyses, with one researcher blind to the others' assessments. ...
Article
Context Many cultures believe that the first traces of human consciousness during the incarnation may be present before birth. Practices based on this belief exist in many cultures. However, formal scientific inquiry into the possibility of communicating with prenatal consciousness has never been explored. Objective To evaluate if it is possible to communicate with a hypothetical prenatal consciousness of the fetus during pregnancy. Design This exploratory study used mixed methods and a triple-blind design. People (i.e., mediums) who could allegedly communicate with eleven pregnant women's prenatal consciousness (N=11) collected answers to ten questions that were then verified from parental reports. Ten mediums participated, with three to eight mediums providing answers per pregnant woman. Results More than 1,500 statements were generated from attempts to communicate with the prenatal consciousness. Quantitative analysis showed higher agreement in spontaneously reported information versus responses to structured questions, 69.40%, and 17.63%, respectively. These results did not differ by the number of mediums per pregnant woman (three to five versus six to eight). Qualitative analysis suggested that some sessions resulted in verifiable communication with the prenatal consciousness, while others did not. Conclusion The results, while preliminary and requiring follow-up studies, suggest the possibility to interact with a prenatal consciousness during pregnancy and the potential of novel scientific investigations into altered states of consciousness.
... and discussions of interpretations and the validity of the mediums' statements" (Schouten, 1994, p. 222). Many modern investigators work with mental mediums who do not undergo deep trance states (e.g., Jensen & Cardeña, 2009;Kelly & Arcangel, 2011;O'Keeffe & Wiseman, 2005;, 2004reviewed in Beischel, 2014;Beischel & Zingrone, 2015;and Rock et al., 2021), making it difficult to apply the findings from research with mediums from the 1880s to modern research and modern mediumship phenomena in general. ...
... Recognizing that all people are capable of self-awareness, have unique identities, are continually re-creating themselves, and have challenges that are part of the human condition may help mental health professionals better assess and assist individuals experiencing AIR and AIT. Studying Spirit Communication Kelly [21] investigated spirit communication in a triple-blind study that comprised 12 mediums and 40 sitters (those receiving a reading by a medium). The results showed 14 out of the 38 sitters provided correct readings. ...
... and discussions of interpretations and the validity of the mediums' statements" (Schouten, 1994, p. 222). Many modern investigators work with mental mediums who do not undergo deep trance states (e.g., Jensen & Cardeña, 2009;Kelly & Arcangel, 2011;O'Keeffe & Wiseman, 2005;, 2004reviewed in Beischel, 2014;Beischel & Zingrone, 2015;and Rock et al., 2021), making it difficult to apply the findings from research with mediums from the 1880s to modern research and modern mediumship phenomena in general. ...
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In this study, we quantitatively assessed mediums' phenomenology during readings in which survival psi is ostensibly used to telepathically communicate with physically deceased targets (discarnates) and during psychic readings for living targets to represent somatic psi which cannot be experimentally demonstrated. We also correlated dimensions of phenomenology with reading accuracy. Ten Windbridge Certified Research Mediums (WCRMs) participated in a baseline assessment and then in three counterbalanced conditions-a blinded reading for a living target, a blinded reading for a deceased target, and a control condition-and completed the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inven-Julie Beischel, PhD, is
... 4). Several authors advocate a parapsychological interpretation of these perceptions, since mediums sometimes seemingly provide specific or veridical information under blinded conditions (e.g., Beischel et al., 2015;Beischel & Schwartz, 2007;Jensen & Cardeña, 2009;Kelly & Arcangel, 2011;Roy & Robertson, 2004). Conversely, other researchers have noted the controversial methods and mixed results of research in this domain (Bastos et al., 2015;O'Keeffe & Wiseman, 2005), as well as the apparent dissociative nature of these particular experiences (e.g., Maraldi, 2014;Maraldi & Krippner, 2013;Ross & Joshi, 1992;Seligman, 2005;Wahbeh & Radin, 2017 Physical mediumship, on the other hand, involves "paranormal physical events in the medium's vicinity" (Gauld, 1982b, p. 4). ...
Article
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The idea of ‘life after death’ transcends philosophy or religion, as science can test predictions from claims by both its advocates and skeptics. This study therefore featured two researchers with opposite views, who jointly gathered hundreds of research studies to evaluate the maximum average percentage effect that seemingly supports (i.e., anomalous effects) or refutes (i.e., known confounds) the survival hypothesis. The mathematical analysis found that known confounds did not account for 39% of survival-related phenomena that appear to attest directly to human consciousness continuing in some form after bodily death. Thus, we concluded that popular skeptical explanations are presently insufficient to explain a sizable portion of the purported evidence in favor of survival. People with documented experiences under conditions that overcome the known confounds thus arguably meet the legal requirements for expert witness testimony. The equation that led to our verdict can also purposefully guide future research, which one day might finally resolve this enduring question scientifically. Keywords: anomalous experience, empiricism, paranormal belief, probability, survival
... 4). Several authors advocate a parapsychological interpretation of these perceptions, since mediums sometimes seemingly provide specific or veridical information under blinded conditions (e.g., Beischel et al., 2015;Beischel & Schwartz, 2007;Jensen & Cardeña, 2009;Kelly & Arcangel, 2011;Roy & Robertson, 2004). Conversely, other researchers have noted the controversial methods and mixed results of research in this domain (Bastos et al., 2015;O'Keeffe & Wiseman, 2005), as well as the apparent dissociative nature of these particular experiences (e.g., Maraldi, 2014;Maraldi & Krippner, 2013;Ross & Joshi, 1992;Seligman, 2005;Wahbeh & Radin, 2017). ...
... However, psychology has the problem that certain scientific investigations have tried to statistically contrast the occurrence of some apparently impossible experiences and obtained significant results. This is the case for pre-cognition (e.g., Tressoldi et al., 2009;Bem, 2011;Mossbridge et al., 2012;McCraty and Atkinson, 2014;Bem et al., 2016;Mossbridge and Radin, 2018), telepathy (e.g., Moss and Gengerelli, 1967;Krippner and Ullman, 1970;Honorton, 1985;Sheldrake and Avraamides, 2009), the anomalous reception of information or mediumship (e.g., Beischel and Schwartz, 2007;Kelly and Arcangel, 2011;Sudduth, 2013;Beischel et al., 2015), and the mind-matter interaction (e.g., Radin, 2006;Tressoldi et al., 2014). Studies of core "psi" phenomena experiences (see Cardeña, 2018;Jinks, 2019), such as these facilitate discussion regarding the possibility of the existence of alternative phenomena that transgress the bases of human perception (e.g., Utts, 2018;Cardeña, 2019). ...
Article
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This paper presents the English adaptation of the Multivariable Multiaxial Suggestibility Inventory-2 (MMSI-2), a questionnaire developed specifically for psychological assessment and prediction of anomalous phenomena. The sample consisted of 613 respondents from England (47.6% were women and 52.4% men). All of them were of legal age (mean = 34.5; standard deviation = 8.15). An exploratory factor analysis was applied, and three confirmatory factor models were adjusted. Omega coefficients and test-retest designs were used for reliability analysis. The MMSI-2 has a valid internal structure consisting of five macrofactors: Clinical Personality Tendencies (CPT), Anomalous Perceived Phenomena (APP), Incoherent Manipulations (IMA), Altered States of Consciousness (ASC), and Openness (OP). Omega coefficients for CPT and OP factors were low but acceptable. Furthermore, test-retest trials were excellent for all scales and factors. The psychological factors CPT, IMA, and ASC predicted 18.3% of the variance of anomalous experiences (APP). The authors concluded the English MMSI-2 was a valid and reliable test for the evaluation of anomalous phenomena but recommend that subsequent research reviews the predictive quality of the underlying model.
... A final noteworthy point is that no between-group differences were found regarding the empathy domain 'fantasy', which contradicts the common claim that the experiences reported by mediums are nothing but the fabrications of overexcited minds. 79 Our results showed that our sample of individuals with culturebound dissociative and psychotic-like experiences have normal CC areas, which is different from what is frequently found in individuals with psychotic disorders and pathological dissociations. This underscores the importance of refining the differential diagnosis between nonpathological forms of spiritual possession vs. psychotic and dissociative disorders, as empirical data has increasingly demonstrated that culturally well-integrated mediums are often mentally and physically healthy. ...
Article
Aim Evidence indicates that highly hypnotizable subjects may have larger area of the rostrum of the corpus callosum (CC). Mediumship can be defined as the alleged ability to communicate regularly with deceased personalities, and self-hypnosis is postulated as an underlying mechanism for this ability. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the CC area, hypnotic susceptibility, self-reported dissociation, and empathy in alleged mediums in comparison with healthy, non-medium controls. Methods The study sample consisted of 16 Spiritist mediums (medium group (MG)) and 16 non-medium controls. Magnetic resonance imaging scans were performed to measure the CC areas (total and subdivisions). The Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility was used to assess hypnotizability, and self-reported measures were used to investigate anomalous experiences, mental health using the Self-Reporting Questionnaire-SRQ, dissociative experiences using the Dissociative Experiences Scale, and empathy using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index. Results No between-group differences were found in the total or subdivided CC areas or in hypnotizability, with both groups showing intermediate levels. The rostrum of the CC area and hypnotizability were not correlated. The MG presented with significantly more anomalous experiences, but the two groups had similar scores for dissociation, empathy, and mental health. Conclusion The normal CC areas found in the MG are in contrast with the abnormal results typically observed in subjects with psychotic and dissociative disorders. Although hypnotizability was not different between groups, further studies are needed to replicate these findings in other samples.
... It is called "anomalous reception" because the sources and psychological mechanisms that allow access to the respective information are unknown. 7 There is a problem that certain scientific publications show statistical results in favor of the existence of AIR 6,4,26,43 ;Schwartz & Russek,2001). This represents a problem because it challenges the ontological foundations of science (related to materialist reductionism) and questions the psychological theories of cognition 34,40 . ...
Article
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Context An Anomalous Information Reception (AIR) experiment was developed. Objective To statistically examine the occurrence of AIR in multiple experimental tests and explore their predictive psychological mechanisms. Design First, we investigated whether human beings could guess the positive or negative content from 30 randomly selected images that would be presented on a computer screen, one at a time. Ninety participants reported being mediums and another 90 claimed to be nonbelievers in the paranormal. The participants were randomly assigned to three experimental conditions: (1) positive-relaxing environments, (2) neutral environments, and (3) negative-stimulating environments. Second, the prediction of successes recorded in the AIR experiment was tested using five Multivariable Multiaxial Suggestibility Inventory-2 (MMSI-2) scales that measured the altered state of consciousness (ASC) and suggestibility. Results The successes did not exceed the estimated chance. The only significant results revealed that mediums obtained a greater number of correct answers than the non-believing participants. Bayesian estimation also confirmed these results. In the same way, the altered states of consciousness and suggestibility negatively predicted 25.8% of successes in the AIR experiment. Conclusions Insufficient statistical evidence was obtained for AIR. The results raise doubts about previous theories on AIR. Further research is required. Nevertheless, mediums obtained more success answers than nonbelievers did. This means that the anomalous sheep-goat effect is also present in mediums and supports results obtained in previous studies.
... There is sufficient evidence that discredits or questions the scientific validity of 'psi' phenomena (see O'Keeffe and Wiseman, 2005 ;Reber and Alcock, 2019 ;Wagenmakers et al., 2011 ). However, this type of phenomenon is not incompatible with the scientific method, and numerous studies present significant results in favor of the 'psi' hypothesis (e.g., Bem, 2011 ;Bem et al., 2016 ;Honorton, 1985 ;Kelly and Arcangel, 2011 ;Maher, 1999Maher, , 2000Maher, , 2015Hansen, 1992 , 1995 ;Mossbridge et al., 2012 ;Roy, 2001 , 2004 ;Roy and Robertson, 2001 ;Schwartz and Russek, 2001 ). Thus, it is no longer a debate exclusive to the "philosophy of science. ...
Article
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Anomalous phenomena are human experiences that are characterized by challenging the foundations of current scientific ontology (i.e., psi phenomena). The problem lies in the fact that some studies have obtained significant results that support the existential validity of psi phenomena. This fact calls into question the role of psychology-and specifically that of psychological assessment-in scientifically justifying and objectively evaluating this type of behavior. This work examines the construct validity and reliability of the Multivariable Multiaxial Suggestibility Inventory-2 (MMSI-2), a psychometric test that measures both anomalous phenomena and the main psychological predictive variables that could generate them. The study included 804 participants without psychiatric history. The participants were evenly distributed into two groups: participants who believe in the existence of the paranor-mal and participants who are non-believers. Confirmatory factor analysis was applied, factorial invariance between both groups was examined, and Cronbach's alpha and Omega reliability coefficients were calculated. The results allowed accepting the 'strong factorial invariance' for the internal structure of the MMSI-2. In parallel, latent means analysis indicated that believers had higher scores than non-believers in the 4 latent variables of the test. Regression models indicated that the Clinical Personality Tendencies (CPT), Incoherent Manipulations (IMA) and Altered States of Consciousness (ASC) scales predicted 51.2% of anomalous phenomena. It is concluded that the MMSI-2, with its 174 items and 20 scales, is a valid and reliable psychometric instrument. This research is a continuation of the Escolà-Gascón (2020) report, in which the first psychometric properties of the MMSI-2 were published.
... This means that it is not just an ideological and epistemological debate (e.g., Carter, 2012). The most serious problem can be observed in the fact that some scientific research yields significant results in favor of the existence of these alleged anomalous phenomena (e.g., Beischel et al., 2015;Kelly and Arcangel, 2011;Schwartz and Russek, 2001) and contradicts conventional scientific knowledge related to the psychology of perception, sensation and cognition (e.g., Alvarez, 2007;Bunge, 2013;Reber and Alcock, 2019). This is an example of 'psi' phenomena, which include precognition, telepathy, mediumship and anomalous mind-matter interaction (see Jinks, 2019). ...
Article
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Anomalous phenomena are unexplained occurrences, such as paranormal experiences, that challenge the ontological bases of current scientific knowledge and are considered scientifically impossible. Problematically, some scientific research yields significant statistical results in favor of the existence of telepathy, precognition, mind-matter interaction, and mediumship. The current study presents and statistically justifies the Multivariable Multiaxial Suggestibility Inventory-2 (MMSI-2), a new psychological instrument to measure and detect the main psychological explanations for anomalous experiences. A nonprobabilistic sample of 3,224 subjects without a psychiatric history were recruited from the general population of Spain. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to examine the internal structure of the MMSI-2's 174 items. Direct oblimin and promax oblique rotations were applied as criteria for axis rotation. Cronbach's alpha coefficients and their ordinal transformation were also calculated, and gender-differentiated scales for the raw MMSI-2 scale scores were developed. The first-order factorial solution yielded a total of 16 factors that explained 92.84% of the variance. Of these, 10 corresponded to the psychological variables cited in the background literature, four classified the anomalous phenomena according to their sensory mode, and two represented prototype control scales for this class of psychometric inventory. The higher-order EFA grouped the MMSI-2 scales into four macrofactors that together explained 97.737% of the variance. Satisfactory reliability rates were obtained (alphas>0.8). The full version of the MMSI-2 with 174 items is a valid and reliable psychometric instrument for evaluating anomalous phenomena and the theoretically concomitant psychological variables. Similarly, the scaling of scores can be used in psychological assessment as a screening tool to identify clinically suspected psychological variables.
... Importantly, findings from multi-blinded mediumship experiments have been independently replicated in the US and the UK (e.g. Beischel et al., 2015;Kelly & Arcangel, 2011;Roy & Robertson, 2004). ...
Article
The majority of mainstream psychologists still adopt a materialist stance toward nature. They believe that science is synonymous with materialism; further, they are convinced that the view that mind and consciousness are simply by-products of brain activity is an incontrovertible fact that has been demonstrated beyond reasonable doubt. This is an incomplete view of what humans are. In this article, we review two categories of empirical evidence that support a shift toward a postmaterialist psychology. The first category of evidence includes mental events that seem to occur outside the spatial confines of the brain, whereas the second category includes mental events that seem to occur when the brain has ceased to function. Taken together, the two bodies of empirical evidence examined here indicate that the idea that the brain creates mind and consciousness is both incomplete and flawed. In the Discussion section, we argue that the transmission hypothesis of the mind-brain relationship can account for all the evidence presented in this article. We also discuss the emerging postmaterialist paradigm and its potential implications for the evolution of psychology.
... Some of these predictions are based on specific facial changes associated with cigarette smoking (Okada et al., 2013). But there are also individuals known as "intuitives" or "sensitives" who claim to be able to predict mortality based solely upon a brief examination of a facial photograph (Kelly and Arcangel, 2011). ...
Article
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Studies of various characteristics of the human face indicate that it contains a wealth of information about health status. Most studies involve objective measurement of facial features as correlated with historical health information. But some individuals also claim to be adept at intuitively gauging mortality based solely upon a quick glance at a person's photograph. To test this claim, we invited 12 such individuals to see if they could tell if a person was alive or dead based solely on a brief examination of his or her photograph. All photos used in the experiment were transformed into a uniform gray scale and counterbalanced across eight categories: gender, age, gaze direction, glasses, head position, smile, hair color, and image resolution. Participants examined 404 photographs displayed on a computer monitor, one photo at a time, each shown for a maximum of 8 seconds. Half of the individuals in the photos were deceased, and half were alive at the time the experiment was conducted. Participants were asked to indicate if they thought the person in a photo was living or deceased by pressing an appropriate button. Overall mean accuracy on this task was 53.6%, where 50% was expected by chance (p = 0.005, two-tail). Statistically significant accuracy was independently obtained in 5 of the 12 participants. We also collected 32-channel electrocortical recordings and observed a robust difference between images of deceased individuals correctly vs. incorrectly classified in the early event related potential at 100 ms post-stimulus onset. We then applied machine learning techniques to classify the photographs based on 11 image characteristics; both random forest and logistic regression machine learning approaches were used, and both classifiers failed to achieve accuracy above chance level. Our results suggest that some individuals can intuitively assess mortality based on some as-yet unknown features of the face.
... In addition, although Reinsel (2003) surveyed 18 American mediums using standard questionnaires as part of a pilot study, she specifically examined symptoms of dissociation, depersonalization, absorption, and temporal lobe dysfunction. Kelly and Arcangel (2011) examined the accuracy of 15 mediums and did not collect phenomenological data. Beyond the phenomenological research and accuracy testing described above, our own research with the 20 US-based Windbridge Certified Research Mediums has also included an examination of mediums' electrocortical activity (Delorme, Beischel, Michel, Boccuzzi, Radin, & Mills, 2013). ...
Article
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Mediums are individuals who report experiencing regular communication with the deceased; the phenomenon of mediumship has been reported in cultures all over the world since time immemorial. The current study examined similarities and differences in the reported experiences of secular American mediums (those not associated with any formal religious organization) during mediumship readings involving communication with the deceased and during psychic readings for/about the living. Participant responses to two counter-balanced, open-ended online survey items were quantitatively analyzed using Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) text analysis software and qualitatively analyzed using a content analysis methodology. Participants included 113 self-identified mediums and 14 Windbridge Certified Research Mediums; over 90% were white females; their average age was 54.2 ± 9.6 years; 97% reported being able to distinguish between mediumistic and psychic experiences; and 122 provided complete survey responses. Statistically significant differences between descriptions of mediumistic and psychic experiences were seen regarding the proportion of words included in the LIWC categories of: social processes (11.76% ± 5.8% vs. 9.93% ± 5.64%, p=0.004); perceptual processes (6.63% ± 4.31% vs. 4.81% ± 3.81%, p<0.001); ingestion (0.23% ± 0.57% vs. 0.05% ± 0.20%, p<0.001); past-focused time orientation (3.09% ± 3.23% vs. 2.06% ± 3.19%, p=0.001); religion (0.90% ± 0.11% vs. 0.34% ± 0.09%, p<0.001); and insight (5.06% ± 2.97% vs. 6.48% ± 4.30%, p=0.002). The proportion of words describing positive and negative emotions, present-focused and future-focused time orientation, health, and money were not different. Qualitative content analysis found three overarching, summative themes regarding mediumistic communication: preparation, communication triangulated, and experience of the communication. Four overarching, summative themes emerged from the text regarding psychic readings for the living: establishing the connection, experiencing the connection, content of the reading, and psychic information flowing from various sources. Perhaps most interesting is the finding that experiences of psychic connections during readings for the living included “non-specific discarnates” as a source of information; this strongly calls into question theoretical frameworks that posit separating mediums’ experiences into categories that do and do not involve communication with the deceased as well as the continued use of terminology reflecting such a separation. This study was supported by a research bursary (#372/14) from the Bial Foundation.
... Some of these predictions are based on specific facial changes associated with cigarette smoking (Okada et al., 2013). But there are also individuals known as "intuitives" or "sensitives" who claim to be able to predict mortality based solely upon a brief examination of a facial photograph (Kelly and Arcangel, 2011). ...
Article
Full-text available
Recent studies have shown that characteristics of the face contain a wealth of information about health, age and chronic clinical conditions. Such studies involve objective measurement of facial features correlated with historical health information. But some individuals also claim to be adept at gauging mortality based on a glance at a person’s photograph. To test this claim, we invited 12 such individuals to see if they could determine if a person was alive or dead based solely on a brief examination of facial photographs. All photos used in the experiment were transformed into a uniform gray scale and then counterbalanced across eight categories: gender, age, gaze direction, glasses, head position, smile, hair color, and image resolution. Participants examined 404 photographs displayed on a computer monitor, one photo at a time, each shown for a maximum of 8 s. Half of the individuals in the photos were deceased, and half were alive at the time the experiment was conducted. Participants were asked to press a button if they thought the person in a photo was living or deceased. Overall mean accuracy on this task was 53.8%, where 50% was expected by chance (p < 0.004, two-tail). Statistically significant accuracy was independently obtained in 5 of the 12 participants. We also collected 32-channel electrophysiological recordings and observed a robust difference between images of deceased individuals correctly vs. incorrectly classified in the early event related potential (ERP) at 100 ms post-stimulus onset. Our results support claims of individuals who report that some as-yet unknown features of the face predict mortality. The results are also compatible with claims about clairvoyance warrants further investigation.
... The second half of the 20 th century was generally dominated by quantitative research, which carried over to research in mediumship and parapsychology as well (Beischel, 2014;Cardeña, Lynn, & Krippner, 2000;Irwin & Watt, 2007). The 21 st century has recently seen an advance of interest in qualitative research in mediumship (Harris & Alvarado, 2014;; however, such research is generally described in the literature as studying the experiences of mediums and sitters, who, for the most part, are people other than the researcher (see for example Beischel & Schwartz, 2007;Rock, Beischel, & Schwartz, 2008;Robertson & Roy, 2004;Rock, Beischel, & Cott, 2009;Williams & Arcangel, 2011). What has been described in the context of qualitative research of mediumship may or may not involve actual mediumship sessions, researchers are at times not physically present with the medium, and typically researchers are bringing critical evaluation to the experiential reports of others rather than being able to apply such a perspective to their own firsthand experiences. ...
Article
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This paper presents results of an autoethnographic personal experiential research study of mediumship and the ostensible phenomenon of life after death. The researcher'sexperiences center on his attempt to make contact with his deceased brother, as part of a doctoral research project. The researcher concludes with a skeptical interpretation of the phenomenon of medium-facilitated communications regarding the deceased; he suggests these are likely to involve cold reading, sensory cues, coincidence, and subjective validation rather than constituting genuine evidence of life after death. The researcher'sconclusions leave room for the possibility of a paranormal interpretation, though this is not favored.
... Data from experiment 2 of the study of Kelly & Arcangel 33 was also excluded from this review because of lack of strict adherence to triple-blind protocol (mediums received pictures from the deceased individuals, many of the sitters were colleagues or friends of one of the investigators, and this investigator knew some of the deceased individuals). Altogether the results of the well-controlled studies included in this review show: (a) in two studies 30,34 (totaling 28 mediums and 102 readings) the sitters' accuracy ratings of specific information from target readings were statistically higher than for decoy readings; and (b) in three 33,35,36 studies (totaling 10 mediums and 44 readings) there was no statistical difference in the fit scores assigned by sitters for the target or decoy readings. ...
Article
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Background Mediumship can be defined as the alleged ability to communicate with deceased persons. The last decade has been particularly productive for this field of research and the study of mediumship can help the understanding of the human mind-brain relationship and provide objective data to the scientific community and to the general population. Objective The aim of this review is to summarize and discuss the results found on recent studies investigating mediumship. Furthermore, we aim to discuss the psychophysiology underlying mediumship and future perspectives for this study topic. Methods A literature search for articles in English, Portuguese and Spanish published from January 2000 up to June 2015 was conducted using three electronic databases (PubMed, Lilacs and Web of Science). Review articles, qualitative studies and studies investigating altered states of consciousness caused by psychoactive substances were excluded. The original search returned 150 articles, but the application of exclusion criteria resulted in the inclusion of 19 articles for final analysis. Results The general findings were: (1) an association of mediumship with good mental health, predominantly in experienced mediums, (2) heterogeneous findings regarding the ability of mediums to provide accurate information what may be due to different study methodologies and (3) incipient studies assessing physiological correlations during mediumistic communications (i.e. hypoactivation of brain regions responsible for cognitive processing and writing planning during psychography compared to a control task; electroencephalographic (EEG) changes and a slight predominance of the sympathetic nervous system). Discussion There is a paucity of empirical data available in this controversial research field. New studies employing rigorous design (e.g. triple-blind protocols to test accuracy of mediumistic communications), and sensitive methods are required.
... The present research explores this idea of mediumship as a helping profession from the point of view of mediums themselves. The lived experience of mediums and their working lives is a neglected area in research which has tended to focus predominantly on the veracity of mediumistic ability (Hansel, 1980;Kelly & Arcangel, 2011;Rock, Beischel, & Cott, 2008 or on levels of suggestibility and belief in psychic ability among sitters (Wiseman & Watt, 2006). This has important implications for neuropsychology and the assumption that human personality, cognition, and consciousness are dependent on a living brain (Kelly et al., 2007). ...
Article
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Despite widespread scepticism, it has been estimated that around 10% of the UK adult population regularly visit a medium and television programmes showing mediumship demonstrations draw in millions of viewers. While many assume mediumship to be purely for entertainment, an alternative discourse presents it as being a service offered to comfort and support the bereaved. In this qualitative study, data were collected through semi-structured interviews with nine working mediums and examined with an interpretative phenomenological analysis which aims to understand the lived experiences of participants. Three key superordinate themes emerged, Responsibility and Ethics, Passion to Help and Therapeutic Value. These themes are discussed in terms of mediums’ perception of their work as a helping profession and an ethical framework which illustrates awareness of the vulnerability of sitters. We also consider whether mediums may be equipped to deal with sitters experiencing complicated grief.
... Although mediumship has been examined scientifically by such great minds as William James and Oliver Lodge since the 1880s (reviewed in Blum, 2006), the current body of research involving mediumship (reviewed in Rock, 2014) includes studies of the accuracy of mediums' statements under controlled conditions (e.g., Beischel, Biuso, Boccuzzi, & Rock, 2011;Beischel & Schwartz, 2007;Kelly & Arcangel, 2011;Roy & Robertson, 2004) as well as examinations of their psychology (e.g., Roxburgh & Roe, 2011), physiology (e.g., Beischel, 2013a, Chapter 5), phenomenology (e.g., Beischel & Rock, 2009), and neurobiology (e.g., Hageman, Peres, Moreira-Almeida, Caixeta, Wichramasekera, & Krippner, 2010). This research has demonstrated that certain mediums are able to report accurate and specific information about the deceased using research protocols that eliminate fraud, cold reading, and similar "sensory" explanations for the source of their information (e.g., Beischel, 2007). ...
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Unresolved, complicated, prolonged, or traumatic grief can have detrimental effects on mental and/or physical health. The effects of traditional grief counseling, with its focus on the client's acceptance of separation and integration of loss, are unclear. Within the model of continuing bonds, however, grief resolution includes an ongoing relationship between the living and the deceased. Spontaneous and induced experiences of after-death communication (ADC) have been shown to be beneficial in the resolution of grief by demonstrating these continued bonds. Presently, many bereaved individuals are experiencing assisted ADCs by receiving readings from psychic mediums and though little is known about the effects of this selfprescribed treatment option, anecdotal reports and exploratory data posit a positive outcome. This article aims to inform those who work with the bereaved about the relationships between grief, spontaneous, induced, and assisted ADC experiences, and the continuing bonds paradigm. Suggestions for future research are also included.
... ix) is deemed to be believable by very rational people in other cultures (Shweder, 1986) and our own (Cardeña, 2013). Similarly, the authors' explanations, for instance, of the use of verbal and nonverbal information (cold reading) for correct information coming from a medium were well known and controlled for more than 100 years ago by parapsychology researchers through proxy sittings in which the medium had access only to a person who could not provide any relevant information (Gauld, 1982; see Kelly & Arcangel, 2011, for more recent research along these lines). ...
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Reviews the book, How to Think About Weird Things: Critical Thinking for a New Age (7th Ed.) by Theodore Schick Jr. and Lewis Vaughn (see record 2013-07440-000 ). This book is one of a number of books in recent years geared to courses on critical thinking, apparently a profitable market, seeing as this book is in its seventh edition. That much discourse in our society is indicative of an appalling lack of informed critical thinking can be easily seen in even a cursory inspection of our media. There are useful sections in this book that explain traditional logic, fallacious modes of argumentation, the limitations of various forms of purported evidence, the cognitive biases underlying many everyday heuristics (see also Tversky & Kahneman, 1974), and so on. Besides the problems adumbrated, this book suffers from epistemic egocentricity and lack of imagination manifested in the authors’ inability to even consider that what they consider “unbelievable” (p. ix) is deemed to be believable by very rational people in other cultures (Shweder, 1986) and our own (Cardeña, 2013). Schick and Vaughn offer an unscientific double-standard discussion instead of engaging in the difficult task of trying to think and argue about complex evidence that sometimes resists easy explanations (for a similarly biased and uninformed “how to think” book, see Stanovich, 2013). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
... A number of studies investigating whether mediumship provides evidence for anomalous information reception have been recently published in medical and psychological journals with conflicting findings. 3,[9][10][11] These studies found that mediums did not provide similar levels of veridical information compared to each other and even the same medium in different occasions. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out studies with particularly gifted mediums, those who have consistently and reliably provided evidence of anomalous information reception. ...
Article
Context The study of mediumship is important because if mediumistic abilities are real, they would provide empirical support for non-reductionist theories of the mind, thus having major implications to our understanding of the mind-brain relationship. This study investigated the alleged mediumship of Chico Xavier, a very prolific and influential ‘medium’ in Brazil. Objective To investigate the accuracy of the information conveyed in Xavier’s ‘psychographed’ letters (i.e., letters allegedly authored by a deceased personality) and to explore the possible explanations for it. Method After a systematic search for Xavier’s psychographed letters we selected one set of 13 letters allegedly written by a same spiritual author (JP). The letters were initially screened for the identification of items of information that were objectively verifiable. The accuracy of the information conveyed by these items and the estimated likelihood of the Xavier’s access to the information via normal means were rated using Fit and Leak scales based on documents and interviews carried out with the sister and friends of JP. Results We identified 99 items of verifiable information conveyed on these 13 letters; 98% of these items were rated as ‘Clear and Precise Fit,’ and no item was rated as ‘no Fit.’ We concluded that normal explanations for accuracy of the information (i.e., fraud, chance, information leakage, and cold reading) were only remotely plausible. These results seem to provide empirical support for non-reductionist theories of consciousness.
... A lot has already been written about methods to investigate this sort of phenomenon (Beischel 2007(Beischel / 2008Kelly, 2010). Some of these studies have found negative results (Jensen and Cardeñ a, 2009;O'Keeffe and Wiseman, 2005) and others have positive findings (Beischel and Schwartz, 2007;Kelly and Arcangel, 2011). ...
Article
While there has been a large increase in scientific studies on spirituality, there has been too few of studies of the core of spirituality: spiritual experiences (SE), which often involve altered states of consciousness, reports of anomalous experiences and of consciousness beyond the body. This paper argues that SE, although usually neglected in debates regarding mind-brain relationship (MBR), may provide the much needed enlargement of the empirical basis for advancing the understanding of the MBR. This paper briefly presents and discusses recent scientific investigations on some types of SE (meditative states, end of life and near death experiences, mediumship and alleged memories of previous lives) and their implications to MBR. Neurofunctional studies of SE have shown that they are related to but not necessarily caused by complex functional patterns in several brain areas. The study of meditative states, as voluntarily induced mind states that influence brain states has been a privileged venue to investigate top-down (mind over brain) causation. End of life and near death experiences offer cases of unexpected adequate mental function under severe brain damage and/or dysfunction. Scientific investigations of several types of SE have provided evidence against materialistic reductionist views of mind. The recent trend to scientifically investigate SE has already produced interesting and thought-provoking findings that deserve careful further exploration. Because of their potential implication, these findings may also contribute to the understanding of MBR, which remains an important, yet poorly explored way to investigate human nature.
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What makes certain scientific research controversial? And when does scientific research go beyond being merely controversial to be something far worse? We propose a diagnostic framework for distinguishing between scientific research that is merely controversial and that which is abhorrent. Our framework places research projects along two axes of a value‐harm map. Most research, fortunately, is both valuable and harmless. However, research may be controversial if it is either valuable but harmful or harmless but valueless. The most concerning quadrant of our value‐harm map includes research that is both valueless and harmful, which is abhorrent science. The article's analysis considers a series of case studies, highlighting “new genomic race science” as an exemplar of abhorrent science .
Chapter
Postmaterial spiritual psychology posits that consciousness can contribute to the unfolding of material events and that the human brain can detect broad, non-material communications. In this regard, this emerging field of postmaterial psychology marks a stark departure from psychology's traditional quantum measurements and tenets. The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality codifies the leading empirical evidence in the support and application of postmaterial psychological science. Sections in this volume include: personality and social psychology factors and implications; spiritual development and culture; spiritual dialogue, prayer, and intention in Western mental health; Eastern traditions and psychology; physical health and spirituality; positive psychology; and scientific advances and applications related to spiritual psychology. With articles from leading scholars in psychology, medicine, physics, and biology, this text is an interdisciplinary reference for a rapidly emerging approach to contemporary science.
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Background: Research on channeling and mediumship is small but growing. However, the terms used for these activities are varied; there is no accepted, coherent framework of terms or definitions for the process or the people involved in receiving information from nonmaterial sources. Objective: To examine terms and definitions of channeling used across existing, peer-reviewed studies and collate the data into a coherent framework. Methods: Lexscien databases and Google Scholar were searched for peer-reviewed studies examining information reception from purported discarnate beings of any type. Results: 92 unique, peer-reviewed studies were included in which 29 unique terms describing the person or the process were identified, defined, and tabulated. Conclusions: The terms and definitions have evolved over the past 150 years, with new terms being applied in recent decades. Often the same terms are applied to very different processes. Analysis of the processes suggests a possible framework for consideration by future researchers in describing their work.
Preprint
Background and purpose: Mediumship is the ostensible phenomenon of human-mediated communication between deceased and living persons. In this paper, we perform a meta-analysis of all available modern experimental evidence up to December 2019 investigating the accuracy of apparently anomalous information provided by mediums about deceased individuals.
Chapter
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There have been many attempts to provide evidential support for the notion that consciousness continues after death. One important line of investigation uses mediums—people who claim to act as conduits between the living and the dead. If one could produce evidence that some mediums can reliably acquire information about dead people that they never knew without relying on any possible normal source of information—evidence of " anomalous information reception " (AIR)—this would suggest the operation of some para-normal process. are unfortunately as flawed as they are numerous. Previous literature has reviewed common flaws in much current experimental mediumship research.
Article
Certain mediums are able to report accurate and specific information about the deceased loved ones (termed discarnates) of living people (termed sitters) even without any prior knowledge about the sitters or the discarnates and in the complete absence of any sensory feedback. This study aimed to investigate the phenomenology associated with, and accuracy of, readings for discarnates by claimant mediums under beyond double-blind conditions. At baseline, directly after a counterbalanced control condition, and after each of two identically formatted, scheduled phone readings for paired discarnates, 19 claimant mediums completed the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory (PCI). The two readings were then given global accuracy scores by the blinded sitters associated with the two discarnates. A significant anomalous information reception effect was demonstrated. However, this study did not identify any phenomenological variables that were correlates of mediums' abilities. It would be prudent for future researchers to focus on the development of a quantitative measure specifically designed to investigate the phenomenology of mediumistic experience.
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The study of mediums was part of a larger program of psychical research, begun in the late 19th century, intended to examine specifically whether human personality survives bodily death, and more generally whether the brain produces mind or consciousness, as most scientists since the late 19th century have assumed. Although a vast amount of high-quality research resulted from that effort, the study of mediumship was almost completely abandoned during the latter half of the 20th century, primarily because of the impasse reached over whether the phenomena are best-interpreted as attributable to deceased agents or to living agents. In this paper the author examines some types of mediumship research that have been considered particularly important for the survival question: cross-correspondences, drop-in communicators, and proxy cases. She argues that a revival of research on mediumship, particularly with proxy sittings, could contribute importantly to present-day psychical research and, perhaps ultimately, move us beyond the current impasse. Keywords: mediumship--survival--proxy research--cross-correspondences--drop-in communicators
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Most academic psychologists do not yet accept the existence of psi, anomalous processes of information or energy transfer (e.g., telepathy or other forms of extrasensory perception) that are currently unexplained in terms of known physical or biological mechanisms. It is believed that the replication rates and effect sizes achieved by 1 particular experimental method, the ganzfeld procedure, are now sufficient to warrant bringing this body of data to the attention of the wider psychological community. Competing meta-analysis of the ganzfeld database are reviewed, one by R. Hyman (see record 1986-05166-001), a skeptical critic of psi research, and the other by C. Honorton (see record 1986-05165-001), a parapsychologist and major contributor to the ganzfeld database. Next the results of 11 new ganzfeld studies that comply with guidelines jointly authored by R. Hyman and C. Honorton (see record 1987-12537-001) are summarized. Issues of replication and theoretical explanation are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Mediums claim to be able to communicate with the deceased. Such claims attract a considerable amount of public interest and, if valid, have important implications for many areas of psychology. For over 100 years, researchers have tested alleged mediums. This work has obtained mixed results and provoked a considerable amount of methodological debate. This paper reviews the key issues in this debate, describes how the authors devised a method of testing that aimed to prevent the many problems that have hindered past research, and how they then used this method to test several professional mediums. The results of this work did not support the existence of genuine mediumistic ability. Competing interpretations of these results are discussed, along with ways in which the methodology presented in the paper could be used to assess conceptually similar, but non-paranormal, claims made in clinical, occupational and forensic contexts.
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This paper argues that the IMF's traditional monetary conditionality--a ceiling on net domestic assets of the central bank and a floor on its net international reserves--should be adapted in IMF-supported adjustment programs with countries that have a framework of explicit inflation targets for the implementation of monetary policy. This adaptation should aim at enhancing correspondence and consistency between the monetary objectives of the central bank and the targets established under the IMF-supported adjustment program, as well as between the different instruments used to achieve the policy objectives and targets. The paper reviews various general options in this regard, and, using the case of Brazil as an example, demonstrates how these options may be implemented in practice. . Copyright 2002, International Monetary Fund
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The existence of psi—anomalous processes of information transfer such as telepathy or clair- voyance—continues to be controversial. Earlier meta-analyses of studies using the ganzfeld procedure appeared to provide replicable evidence for psi (D. J. Bem & C. Honorton, 1994), but a follow-up meta-analysis of 30 more recent ganzfeld studies did not (J. Milton & R. Wiseman, 1999). When 10 new studies published after the Milton-Wiseman cutoff date are added to their database, the overall ganzfeld effect again becomes significant, but the mean effect size is still smaller than those from the original studies. Ratings of all 40 studies by 3 independent raters reveal that the effect size achieved by a replication is significantly corre- lated with the degree to which it adhered to the standard ganzfeld protocol. Standard replica-
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The present study investigated possible associations between facial symmetry and actual personality as assessed by the ‘big-five’ personality factors: neuroticism (N), extraversion (E), openness (O), agreeableness (A), and conscientiousness (C). Digital photographs were taken of male and female faces, volunteers also completed the NEO-FFI personality inventory. Facial images were analysed for horizontal symmetry by means of digital image processing. Following previous reports we predicted that facial symmetry should be negatively related to neuroticism but positively related to extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. In general, our data on actual personality confirmed previous reports on perceptions of personality for neuroticism and extraversion. Neuroticism was found to be negatively but not significantly related to facial symmetry whereas extraversion was positively associated. In contrast to previous data, we found significant negative associations between facial symmetry and openness and agreeableness. Conscientiousness was non-significantly related to facial symmetry. The strongest associations with facial symmetry were found for extraversion and openness. Our results suggest that behavioural perceptions of an individual may reflect an individual’s actual personality, and facial symmetry is a correlate of personality. However, because of some inconsistencies between this and previous studies we suggest that (1) the associations between facial symmetry and personality traits require further investigation, and (2) future studies should urge for methodological consistency to make results comparable.
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In addition to signaling identity, sex, age, and emotional state, people frequently use facial characteristics as a basis for personality attributions. Typically, there is a high degree of consensus in the attributions made to faces. Nevertheless, the extent to which such judgments are veridical is unclear and somewhat controversial. We have examined the relationship between self-report and perceived personality using both faces of individuals and computer graphic composites. Photographs were taken of 146 men and 148 women who each also completed a self-report personality questionnaire from which scores on the big five personality dimensions were derived. In study 1, we identified a relationship between self-reported extraversion and perceived extraversion in individual faces. For male faces alone, we also found some accuracy in the perception of emotional stability and openness to experience. In study 2, composite faces were made from individuals self-reporting high and low scores on each of the five dimensions. These composites were rated for personality and attractiveness by independent raters. Discriminant analyses indicated that, controlling for attractiveness, independent ratings on congruent personality dimensions were best able to discriminate between composite faces generated from individuals high or low on the self-report dimensions of agreeableness, extraversion, and, for male faces only, emotional stability.
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Explores and extends statistical techniques for evaluating preferential-ranking data. After a brief review of previously used analysis procedures, especially in parapsychological research, a generalized weighted sum approach to the problem is developed whereby weights or scores are assigned to each rank with the sum of these weights over a series of N trials being the test statistic. Three possible weighting schemes are suggested, one of which is designed to test variance. The distributions of these schemes are explored to show how rapidly they approach normality with respect to number of trials and number of stimuli to be ranked. Tables of exact probabilities are provided for the non-normal cases. Continuity corrections are discussed for those cases where the normal approximation is valid. Included are several illustrations of the weighted sum statistics applied to actual data, suggestions for useful variants to parapsychological tests based on the weighted sum statistics, and a discussion of the use of weighted sum statistics in standard parametric analyses. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
It is well documented that people form reliable and robust impressions of a stranger's personality traits on the basis of facial appearance. The propensity to judge character from the face is typically thought to reflect cultural beliefs about mythical relations between aspects of facial appearance and personality. However, cross-cultural and developmental research does not support the mythical, cultural stereotype hypothesis. An alternative explanation of the data is that consensus in face-based impressions exists because those judgments are partially accurate. The authors describe a program of research generated by the ecological theory of social perception that evaluates the "kernel-of-truth" explanation of impressions based on static facial appearance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Presents a condensed overview of studies where statements of mediums or psychics have been quantitatively evaluated. The main questions asked in most of these studies were if a significant number of correct statements deviated significantly from chance expectation and if psi ability is necessary to explain the correct statements. The present study suggests that the number of studies with significant positive results is rather small, with one or more potential sources of error present that might have influenced the outcome. It seems there is little reason to expect psychics to make correct statements about matters unknown at the time more often than would be expected by chance. An explanation is offered for the apparent successes of psychics in everyday-life consultations, proposing that it is the client who makes the psychic. Nonetheless, under certain conditions, which are described, asking advice from a psychic can be meaningful. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Two studies were conducted to examine the accuracy of personality assessment at zero acquaintance. In Study 1, participants were asked to rate head and shoulder colour photographs of strangers in terms of the extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism dimensions. The stranger ratings were correlated with the targets’ self-report ratings on these dimensions using the EPQ-R. Significant self–stranger agreement was found for psychoticism but not for extraversion or neuroticism. Study 2 used the same general design, but the amount of visual information in head and shoulder colour photographs was manipulated and presented to strangers. In condition 1 head and shoulder colour photographs with profiles were used, in condition 2 head and shoulder colour photographs with profiles removed were used, and in condition 3 the images were cropped so that only the internal features of the face were visible. In all three conditions significant self–stranger agreement was found for psychoticism but not for extraversion or neuroticism as measured by the EPP. These consistent cross-study findings were discussed and further research suggested.
Article
Investigating the information reported by mediums is ultimately important in determining the relationship between brain and consciousness in addition to being of deep concern to the public. This triple-blind study was designed to examine the anomalous reception of information about deceased individuals by research mediums under experimental conditions that eliminate conventional explanations. Eight University of Arizona students served as sitters: four had experienced the death of a parent; four, a peer. Eight mediums who had previously demonstrated an ability to report accurate information in a laboratory setting performed the readings. To optimize potential identifiable differences between readings, each deceased parent was paired with a same-gender deceased peer. Sitters were not present at the readings; an experimenter blind to information about the sitters and deceased served as a proxy sitter. The mediums, blind to the sitters' and deceased's identities, each read two absent sitters and their paired deceased; each pair of sitters was read by two mediums. Each blinded sitter then scored a pair of itemized transcripts (one was the reading intended for him/her; the other, the paired control reading) and chose the reading more applicable to him/her. The findings included significantly higher ratings for intended versus control readings (p = 0.007, effect size = 0.5) and significant reading-choice results (p = 0.01). The results suggest that certain mediums can anomalously receive accurate information about deceased individuals. The study design effectively eliminates conventional mechanisms as well as telepathy as explanations for the information reception, but the results cannot distinguish among alternative paranormal hypotheses, such as survival of consciousness (the continued existence, separate from the body, of an individual's consciousness or personality after physical death) and super-psi (or super-ESP; retrieval of information via a psychic channel or quantum field).
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