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Social Comparison 2.0: Examining the Effects of Online Profiles on Social-Networking Sites
Abstract
Through their features--such as profile photographs or the personal vita--online profiles on social-networking sites offer a perfect basis for social comparison processes. By looking at the profile photograph, the user gains an impression of a person's physical attractiveness, and the user's vita shows which career path the person is pursuing. Against the background of Festinger's Social Comparison Theory, the focus of this research is on the effects of online profiles on their recipients. Therefore, qualitative interviews (N = 12) and two online experiments were conducted in which virtual online profiles of either physically attractive or unattractive persons (N = 93) and profiles of users with either high or low occupational attainment (N = 103) were presented to the participants. Although qualitative interviews did not initially give reason to expect online profiles to constitute a basis for comparison processes, results of the experiments proved otherwise. The first study indicates that recipients have a more negative body image after looking at beautiful users than persons who were shown the less attractive profile pictures. Male participants of the second study, who were confronted with profiles of successful males, showed a higher perceived discrepancy between their current career status and an ideal vita than male participants who looked at profiles of less successful persons.
... One reason is that, so far, filters focus on the face and not on the body. Also, users post more pictures of their face on SNSs than full body pictures [16]. The face is usually more salient in pictures of oneself [13]. ...
... As individuals engaging in photo editing behavior focus more on their appearance [16], it is tempting for them to anticipate the reactions of other users to the edited photo and look at themselves from an outside viewers' perspective. Since the focus on many SNSs is on the user's appearance, SNS users tend to expect to be evaluated based on their appearance [25]. ...
... In general, the nature of photo editing behavior activates feelings of self-objectification [12; 14] and physical appearance comparisons. Taking an outsider's perspective makes users focus on their appearance rather than unobservable attributes such as abilities [16,27,30]. Additionally, photo editing behavior reinforces the evaluation of their appearance [31]. ...
Background
As photo editing behavior to enhance one?s appearance in photos becomes more and more prevalent on social network sites (SNSs), potential risks are increasingly discussed as well. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between photo editing behavior, self-objectification, physical appearance comparisons, self-perceived attractiveness, and self-esteem.
Methods
403 participants completed self-report questionnaires measuring the aformentioned constructs. A parallel-sequential multiple mediation model was conducted to examine the relationship between photo editing behavior and self-esteem considering multiple mediators.
Results
The results indicate that photo editing behavior is negatively related to self-perceived attractiveness and self-esteem mediated via self-objectification and physical appearance comparisons.
Conclusions
The postulated mediation model was justified by our data. Thus, SNS users should be aware of potential negative consequences when using photo editing applications or filters.
... In addition to providing an avenue for self-presentation, social media also provides an arena for social comparison with others (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2010). From a developmental perspective, this is a particularly common behavior in adolescence (Krayer et al., 2008), as youth typically engage in social comparison in an effort to affirm and re-affirm that their actions, decisions, and abilities are being accepted by others (Griffin et al., 2017). ...
... Be it upward or downward, these types of comparisons can have a strong impact on adolescents' competence need satisfaction and overall self-esteem (Krayer et al., 2008). Specifically, while downward social comparison to others with inferior status, attractiveness, or success may foster feelings of competence, upward social comparison can thwart competence need satisfaction (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2010). SNS, in particular, may make it especially easy for adolescents to compare themselves to their peers by providing constant access to information about others. ...
... Specifically, while SDT is theorized to apply across cultures (Ng et al., 2012;Slemp et al., 2018;Van den Broeck et al., 2016;Yu et al., 2017), implications for the attainment of developmental milestones may be more culturally dependent (e.g., development of a sense of self; Markus & Kitayama, 2010) and thus differently impact youths' well-being across cultures. Similarly, gender identity may play a role in adolescents' self-presentations and experiences of social comparison (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2010;Krayer et al., 2008;Meier & Gray, 2013) and thus may also hold different implications in terms of their basic need satisfaction and well-being. Lastly, while this paper discussed adolescence broadly, adolescence is a large developmental period that spans a wide age range. ...
This article provides a theoretical review of how, within notions of Self-Determination Theory, adolescents’ use of social media can contribute to both the satisfaction and/or frustration of their basic psychological needs, and thus contribute to (or impede) their attainment of key developmental goals in adolescence, such as identity formation and peer affiliation, and how these may impact their overall well-being. In this way, this work provides important insights into the motivational (i.e., basic psychological needs satisfaction) and developmental (i.e., identity formation and peer affiliation) processes underlying youth’s social media engagement and has important implications for future research, as well as the development of intervention and prevention efforts targeting youth experiencing negative outcomes related to their social media engagement.
... One reason is that, so far, lters focus on the face and not on the body. Also, users post more pictures of their face on SNSs than full body pictures (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011). The face is usually more salient in pictures of oneself (Tiggemann et al., 2020). ...
... As individuals engaging in PEB focus more on their appearance (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011), it is tempting for them to anticipate the reactions of other users to the edited photo and look at themselves from an outside viewers' perspective. Since the focus on many SNSs is on the user's appearance, SNS users tend to expect to be evaluated based on their appearance (Siibak, 2009). ...
... In general, the nature of PEB activates feelings of self-objecti cation (Lamp et al., 2019;Mills et al., 2018). Taking an outsider's perspective makes users focus on their appearance rather than unobservable attributes such as abilities (Aubrey, 2006;Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011;Sun, 2021). Additionally, PEB reinforces the evaluation of their appearance (Zheng et al. 2019). ...
As photo editing behavior (PEB) to enhance one’s appearance in photos becomes more and more prevalent on social network sites (SNSs), potential risks are increasingly discussed as well. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between PEB, self-objectification, physical appearance comparisons, self-perceived attractiveness, and self-esteem. 403 participants completed self-report questionnaires measuring these constructs. A parallel-sequential multiple mediation model was conducted to investigate the impact of PEB on self-esteem via multiple mediators. The results indicate that PEB has a negative effect on self-perceived attractiveness and self-esteem mediated via self-objectification and physical appearance comparisons. Therefore, SNS users should be aware of potential negative consequences when using photo editing applications or filters.
... However, due to its design, this type of research does not enable us to evaluate the direction of causality or rule out the existence of possible confounding variables. As for experimental studies, they have shown the effect of exposure to attractive bodies or bodies representative of the thin ideal on different variables such as self-esteem (Lee et al., 2014;Vogel et al. 2014), body satisfaction (Haferkamp et al., 2011;Harper et al., 2008;Krawczyk et al., 2015;Yu et al., 2018), motivation to diet (Jin et al., 2019;Lewallen et al., 2016) or concern over physique ( Seekis et al., 2020;Tiggemann et al., 2015). However, the results are heterogeneous and less consistent. ...
... Meanwhile, some studies have shown that body dissatisfaction may increase after exposure to social network content. For example, when participants have been exposed to profiles of attractive versus unattractive people (Haferkamp et al., 2011) or underweight versus overweight people (Lee et al., 2014) differences in body dissatisfaction have indeed been found. However, studies that have involved experimental manipulations that are more similar to those in this study have not found such differences either (Fardouly et al., 2015;Lee et al., 2014;Sherlock & Wagstaff, 2019;Yu & Yung, 2018). ...
... In most of the studies analyzed as well as our own study, exposures are of low duration, not over a long period of time. It is therefore to be expected, as is the case, that the effects found are of small or moderate size (d= 0.25 in the present study, d= 0.43 in Haferkamp et al., 2011, d= 0.36 in Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2015. Thus, discrepancies in the results observed between the different experimental studies may derive from the specific power of each study or the intensity of the materials used in the exposure. ...
Social networks use is related to the occurrence of eating disorders (ED). In this study, we experimentally evaluated the effect of exposure to social networks and stereotypical images of the thinness ideal on ED symptomatology and analyzed the mediator role of anxiety in this process. A sample of 321 young adults of both sexes (166 females) were randomly assigned to two experimental conditions: high and low exposure to the thin ideal. Our results indicate a decrease in self-esteem in the group exposed to the thin images and an increase in anxiety. We found the effect of the images on self-esteem is completely mediated by the increase in anxiety. No changes in body satisfaction or drive for thinness were found. Our study shows how brief exposure to images and profiles representative of the thin ideal seems to influence participants' self-esteem. These results show the need to raise awareness of the possible consequences of social media, as well as to promote a healthy use of social networks.
... Sin embargo, por su diseño, este tipo de investigaciones no permite evaluar la dirección de la causalidad ni descartar la existencia de posibles variables de confusión. Por su parte, los estudios experimentales han mostrado el efecto de la exposición a cuerpos atractivos o representativos del ideal de delgadez sobre distintas variables como la autoestima (Lee et al., 2014;Vogel et al. 2014), la satisfacción corporal (Haferkamp et al., 2011;Harper et al., 2008;Krawczyk et al., 2015;Yu et al., 2018), la motivación para hacer dietas (Jin et al., 2019;Lewallen et al., 2016) o la preocupación por el físico (Seekis et al., 2020;Tiggemann et al., 2015). Sin embargo, los resultados son heterogéneos y menos consistentes. ...
... Por su parte, algunos estudios han mostrado que la insatisfacción corporal puede incrementarse tras la exposición a contenidos propios de las redes sociales. Por ejemplo, cuando los participantes han sido expuestos a perfiles de personas atractivas frente a no atractivas (Haferkamp et al., 2011) o a personas con bajo peso frente a personas con sobrepeso (Lee et al., 2014) sí se han encontrado diferencias en cuanto a la insatisfacción corporal. Sin embargo, los estudios que han realizado manipulaciones experimentales más similares a las del presente estudio tampoco han encontrado estas diferencias (Fardouly et al., 2015;Lee et al., 2014;Sherlock y Wagstaff, 2019;Yu y Yung, 2018). ...
... En la mayoría de los estudios analizados y en el nuestro, las exposiciones utilizadas son de baja duración y no se prolongan en el tiempo. Por lo que es esperable, como así ocurre, que los efectos encontrados sean de tamaño pequeño o moderado (d= 0,25 en el presente estudio, d= 0,43 en Haferkamp et al., 2011, d= 0,36 en Tiggemann y Zaccardo, 2015. De esta manera, las discrepancias en los resultados observados entre los distintos estudios experimentales pueden derivar de la potencia concreta de cada estudio o la intensidad de los materiales empleados en la exposición. ...
Social networks use is related to the occurrence of eating disorders (ED). In this study, we experimentally evaluated the effect of exposure to social networks and stereotypical images of the thinness ideal on ED symptomatology and analyzed the mediator role of anxiety in this process. A sample of 321 young adults of both sexes (166 females) were randomly assigned to two experimental conditions: high and low exposure to the thin ideal. Our results indicate a decrease in self-esteem in the group exposed to the thin images and an increase in anxiety. We found the effect of the images on self-esteem is completely mediated by the increase in anxiety. No changes in body satisfaction or drive for thinness were found. Our study shows how brief exposure to images and profiles representative of the thin ideal seems to influence participants' self-esteem. These results show the need to raise awareness of the possible consequences of social media, as well as to promote a healthy use of social networks. // El uso de redes sociales está relacionado con la aparición de trastornos de la conducta alimentaria (TCA). Hemos evaluado experimentalmente el efecto de la exposición a redes sociales e imágenes estereotípicas del ideal de delgadez sobre la sintomatología de TCA, analizando el papel mediador de la ansiedad. Trescientos veintiún adultos jóvenes (166 mujeres) fueron asignados aleatoriamente a dos condiciones: de alta y baja carga comparativa con el ideal de delgadez. Encontramos una diminución de la autoestima en el grupo expuesto a imágenes de carga comparativa alta y un aumento de la ansiedad. El efecto de las imágenes sobre la autoestima está completamente mediado por el incremento en la ansiedad. No se encontraron cambios en la satisfacción corporal o la obsesión por la delgadez. Nuestro estudio muestra cómo la exposición breve a imágenes y perfiles representativos del ideal de delgadez parece tener un efecto sobre la autoestima de los participantes. Estos resultados evidencian la necesidad de dar a conocer las posibles consecuencias de las redes sociales, así como de promover un uso sano de las mismas.
... These comparisons define our capabilities and social standing so that human needs, need for belonging, and self-esteem. It can be in its fullest form, especially if the user has friends from other cultures (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011). ...
... The social comparison process requires choosing a target for comparison (a person who is superior in one trait and another inferior in another), and the outcome of the comparison (accommodating the amount of variance between the two sides of the comparison). High achievers who have positive characteristics if the other is superior to him in ability while declining social comparison occurs when comparing oneself with inferior others who have negative characteristics (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011;Vogel, Rose, Roberts & Eckles, 2014). One denotes more negative in his feelings when one compares oneself with someone inferior (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011). ...
... High achievers who have positive characteristics if the other is superior to him in ability while declining social comparison occurs when comparing oneself with inferior others who have negative characteristics (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011;Vogel, Rose, Roberts & Eckles, 2014). One denotes more negative in his feelings when one compares oneself with someone inferior (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011). Responses may be frustrating, and this may be reflected in one's identity as one differs oneself based on the perceived opinions of others (Nesi & Prinstein, 2015). ...
The study aimed at Predictive Accuracy of Social Comparison, Five Big Factor of Personality in predicting of Mood Contagion among Social Networking Users of Universities students. The sample consisted of 288 students from volunteers' university stage students. The scales application was performed electronically by the google form platform. The study depended on a correlational approach. The paper used the Mood contagion, five big factors of personality in social networking scales, then the study produced the social comparison scale. The findings proved that two factors Neuroticism and Extraversion had positive effects on mood contagion. Finally, the social comparison had a positive effect on mood contagion.
... Notwithstanding, exposure to social media content can increase the risk of poor mental health outcomes [9,10], particularly among those with higher tendencies to engage in social comparisons [11]. Comparisons with others who are perceived to be better off than oneself (upward comparisons) tend to have a more marked negative impact on well-being than comparisons with others who are perceived to be on an equal level (lateral comparisons) or who are perceived to be worse off than oneself (downward comparisons) [12]. ...
... Comparisons with others who are perceived to be better off than oneself (upward comparisons) tend to have a more marked negative impact on well-being than comparisons with others who are perceived to be on an equal level (lateral comparisons) or who are perceived to be worse off than oneself (downward comparisons) [12]. Upward social comparisons have consistently been related to more negative self-judgments, lower self-esteem [9], and the presence of disordered eating behaviors [13,14]. The visual nature of many social media platforms creates a rich environment for upward social comparisons, particularly with respect to performance and physical appearance, which can have negative consequences for well-being [12,15,16]. ...
Background:
Literature has underscored the dark aspects of social media use, including associations with depressive symptoms, feelings of social isolation, and diminished self-esteem. Social comparison, the process of evaluating oneself relative to another person, is thought to contribute to these negative experiences such that people with a stronger tendency to compare themselves with others are particularly susceptible to the detrimental effects of social media. Social media as a form of social connection and communication is nevertheless an inevitable-and arguably integral-part of life, particularly for young adults. Therefore, there is a need to investigate strategies that could alter the manner in which people interact with social media to minimize its detrimental effects and maximize the feelings of affiliation and connection.
Objective:
This pilot study examined the feasibility, acceptability, and effectiveness of a brief web-based intervention designed to alter engagement with social media and promote psychological well-being by encouraging social savoring as an alternative to social comparison. Social savoring was operationalized as experiencing joyful emotions related to the happiness of someone else's experiences (ie, feeling happy for someone else).
Methods:
Following an intensive longitudinal design, 55 college students (mean age 19.29, SD 0.93 years; n=43, 78% women and n=23, 42% White) completed baseline measures (individual differences, psychological well-being, connectedness, and social media use) and then 14 days of daily surveys on their social media activity and well-being. On day 8, the group that was randomized to receive the intervention watched a video instructing them on the skill of social savoring and was asked to practice this skill during days 8 to 14.
Results:
Overall, participants reported positive perceptions of the intervention. Participants who watched the intervention video reported significantly higher performance self-esteem (P=.02) at posttest than those in the control condition, after controlling for baseline levels. Participants also reported significantly higher state self-esteem (P=.01) on days in which they engaged in more social savoring while using social media, and the use of social savoring increased significantly (P=.01) over time, suggesting that participants found it helpful. Participants in both conditions reported significantly lower levels of social comparison (control: P=.01; intervention: P=.002) and higher levels of connectedness (control: P<.001; intervention: P=.001) at posttest than at baseline.
Conclusions:
Initial evidence from this pilot study suggests that a web-based social savoring intervention may help minimize the potentially harmful consequences of social media use, at least in some domains. Future work is needed to examine the effectiveness and acceptance of this intervention in different age groups and in clinical samples that are in part characterized by higher levels of comparison with others (eg, people with eating disorders).
... This advantage helps them increase the opportunities of receiving information on job offers from potential employers when they need to look for jobs. Besides, the social comparisons on Facebook tend to induce job seekers to act in accordance with what others in their peer groups are doing, to meet career expectations (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011). Hence, the following hypotheses are formulated: H4: Peer influence positively influences perceiving Facebook as a job searching tool. ...
... Additionally, its associations with OI (β = 0.271; p < 0.01) and SM (β = 0.505; p < 0.01) were positive and significant. The results are consistent with Haferkamp & Krämer (2011) that social comparisons on Facebook tend to induce people to act on what others in peer groups are doing to meet career expectations, such as improving the efficiency of building career-oriented online images and using social media skills. ...
Although Facebook is regarded as a common social network to connect everyone, it has not yet attracted much attention from researchers from the perspective of job searching. Based on the theories of job searching via social media networks, self-efficacy and social exchange, this study is conducted to investigate the impacts of social media self-efficacy and peer influence on perceiving Facebook as a job searching tool and maintaining a career-oriented online image by the youth in Vietnam. The empirical data collected from 317 respondents were examined using Covariance-based Structural Equation Modeling (CB-SEM) followed by Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). The results show that social media self-efficacy and peer groups on Facebook motivate users' perception of Facebook as a job searching tool. In addition, this perception positively impacts the building and maintaining a career-oriented online image. Job seekers can use Facebook as a source of job search information, while organizations can use Facebook to review and recruit potential candidates.
... These results suggest that while both Active and Passive social media use might impact men's body image, Passive use is alone enough to encourage men to undergo cosmetic surgery. Existing literature has demonstrated that, for all genders, simply viewing profile pictures is enough to trigger social comparisons with viewing of attractive profile pictures on social media resulting in more negative body image (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011). Thus, it might be the case that for men this initial 'blow' to body image is enough to trigger a greater interest in cosmetic surgery. ...
Men’s cosmetic surgery rates are increasing globally. Existing literature suggests that social media engagement encourages women to undergo cosmetic surgery, yet the relationship between social media and cosmetic surgery for men remains underexamined. The aim of this study was therefore to explore if social media engagement impacted men’s interest in undergoing cosmetic surgery. Using an adapted version of the Passive and Active Use Measure to assess social media engagement, the relationship between social media engagement and cosmetic surgery consideration was explored. Among 311 American adult men (Mage = 37.7), passive social media engagement (e.g., viewing photos, browsing profiles) was found to have a small positive relationship with consideration of cosmetic surgery (p < .05, 95% CI [0.12, 0.49]). Conversely, Active Non-social media engagement (e.g., posting videos, tagging) and Active Social media engagement (e.g., posting statuses, commenting) did not predict cosmetic surgery consideration. These results demonstrate that the ways in which men use social media (rather than whether or not they use social media in general) determines their interest in cosmetic surgery. While social media engagement is a known correlate for appearance dissatisfaction in women, this study provides evidence that social media engagement is potentially also harmful to men’s body image. This preliminary research may contribute to informing best clinical practice for men experiencing body dissatisfaction. Namely, reducing passive social media use may alleviate men’s likelihood of pursing cosmetic surgery, in turn reducing their exposure to the physical and psychological risks associated with undergoing cosmetic surgery.
... An abundance of research has evaluated the potentially harmful role of social media on individuals' eating disorder symptoms (Holland & Tiggemann, 2016;Hummel & Smith, 2015;Mabe et al., 2014;Rodgers et al., 2020;Saunders & Eaton, 2018;Turner & Lefevre, 2017). However, the majority of this research has focused on adolescents and young adults and considered eating disorder attitudes, including body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness (Haferkamp & Kramer, 2011;Lee et al., 2014; S. H. Thompson & Lougheed, 2012;Tiggemann & Slater, 2013), with some research examining disordered eating behaviors, including bulimic symptoms and dietary restraint (Hummel & Smith, 2015;Smith et al., 2013;Tiggemann & Slater, 2014). Further, although one study has evaluated the effects of Facebook on body dissatisfaction among women in middle age (Stronge et al., 2015), a period during which women experience an increased vulnerability to disordered eating (Baker & Runfola, 2016), no studies have examined the associations between multiple social media platforms and disordered eating behaviors in this population. ...
Evidence suggests social media use is strongly linked to disordered eating (e.g., binge eating and dietary restraint) among adolescent and young adult women, in part because it promotes engagement in social comparison (the tendency to evaluate one's own standing or ability by comparing it to another's). Yet no study has examined the impact of social media use and comparison on disordered eating among middle-aged women. Participants (N = 347), ages 40-63, completed an online survey about their social media use, social comparison, and disordered eating (bulimic symptoms, dietary restraint, and broad eating pathology). Results indicated that 89 % (n = 310) of middle-aged women used social media in the past year. Most participants (n = 260; 75 %) used Facebook, and at least a quarter used Instagram or Pinterest. Approximately 65 % (n = 225) used social media at least daily. Controlling for age and body mass index, social media-specific social comparison was positively associated with bulimic symptoms, dietary restriction, and broad eating pathology (all ps < 0.001). Multiple regression models evaluating frequency of social media use and social media-specific social comparison together revealed that social comparison explained a significant amount of unique variance in bulimic symptoms, dietary restriction, and broad eating pathology (all ps < 0.001) above and beyond frequency of social media use. Instagram explained a significant proportion of variance of dietary restraint compared to other social media platforms (p = .001). Findings suggest a large percentage of middle-aged women frequently engage with some type of social media. Further, social media-specific social comparison, rather than frequency of social media use, may be driving disordered eating in this age group of women.
... Similar to other social judgments, judgment of exaggeration most likely relies on processes of social comparison (Chambers & Windschitl, 2004;Festinger, 1954;Gerber, 2020;Schwarz & Bless, 1992). Clearly, such processes affect both online and offline behaviors (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011;Latif et al., 2021;Vogel et al., 2014), but the current study focuses on the basic comparative process to better understand the role of communication norms across different SNA. Thus, in Study 2, we examined the reference points to which people compare a response in order to determine whether it is exaggerated or appropriate. ...
... On the one hand, the sociocultural pressure to comply with aesthetic canons is higher in women than men, further pointing out that this aesthetic ideal seeks a low weight in women, while for men it focuses on muscularity (Schaefer et al., 2019). In addition, women attach too much value and judgment to body size and weight, being more likely to compare with others on the basis of physical appearance (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011;Ratcliffe & Ellison, 2015). Overall, women's self-worth is largely weight-based (Stefanone et al., 2011). ...
Weight bias internalization refers to the negative weight-related attributions applied to oneself, but it does not just occur in the highest weight statuses, but rather exists across the entire weight spectrum. There is a negative impact associated to increase psychological problems in adults, however, it has been less studied among the adolescent Spanish population. In this study, we assess the relationship between the internalization of weight bias, social attitudes towards appearance, body appreciation and self-esteem, and potential differences regarding gender and weight status. A community sample of 1258 Spanish adolescents between 12 and 18 years old (46.3% male gender; Mage = 15.58; SD = 1.59; 49.5% female gender; Mage = 15.59; SD = 1.67; and 4.1% non-binary gender; Mage = 14.86; SD = 2.86) participated in the study. The Modified Weight Bias Internalization Scale (WBIS-M), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), and the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (SATAQ-4) were used. ANOVA’s test and bivariate correlations were performed. The results suggest that females (t = -.55; p ≤ .001) and non-binary adolescents (t = .64; p ≤ .01) have higher levels of WBI-M compared to males. Regarding weight status, the group with obesity (t = 1.39; p ≤ .001) and the group with overweight (t = -.81; p ≤ .001) have higher levels of WBI-M compared to the normal weight group. Significant correlations between WBI-M and the assessed psychological variables were found in the total sample, and across all-gender and weight categories, except for the underweight group. These results are a first approximation to the internalization of weight bias in a Spanish adolescent sample and highlight the need to introduce this concept in prevention and psychological interventions in school context.
... It is not surprising that some individuals exhibit negative behavior related to spending too much time online, given how reliant our culture has evolved on such technologies. These social networks are also utilized for self-evaluation, social comparisons, and self-perception (2). Particularly, some studies indicate that increased use of social media may heighten body dissatisfaction due to an increase in remarks from friends about one's looks (3). ...
OBJECTIVE To investigate the impact of use of social applications and appearance-related consciousness on Body dysmorphic disorder symptoms and lower self-esteem among females. STUDY DESIGN Cross-sectional study PLACE AND DURATION OF STUDY The study was conducted in 6 months at Ripha International University from January to August 2022. SUBJECT AND METHOD A total of 200 females were approached via convenience sampling for this study from universities, colleges, and workplaces in Pakistan. Female participants of age range young adults, i.e. 17-35 years, were included in the study. Females actively using social media for more than 6 months were recruited. RESULTS It was found that social application use and appearance-related conciseness both were positively related to symptoms of body dysmorphic disorder. However, it was showed that social application use and appearance-related conciseness were negatively related to self-esteem. CONCLUSION The present study demonstrated that individuals who excessively use social applications are more likely to be unhappy with their own body image and experience more negative feelings after viewing appealing self-images on social media. Higher body dysmorphic and worse self-esteem were revealed to be positively correlated with appearance-related awareness.
... This premise is important for understanding the impact of using SM on well-being, as comparative information may matter more in the digital environment of SNSs than in offline interactions [34,35]. Design features that signal social status (such as "likes") [36], the asynchronous nature of communication that provides ample time to filter one's messages or comments, selection or editing practices to enhance one's images [22,37], and the tendency to boast of successes and hide failures [17] are thought to induce a notable positive selfrepresentation bias in SNSs [38]. ...
... Self-presentation is the attempt to guide or control others' impressions of ourselves through the verbal and non-verbal signals we use (Haferkamp and Krämer, 2011). People are generally thought to modify their self-presentation online to seem more favorable to others (Rosenberg and Egbert, 2011;Harris and Bardey, 2019;Huang et al., 2021). ...
Social media use increased during the COVID-19 pandemic with platforms providing an important forum for communication and self-expression. In this study, we explore shifts in online posting behaviors and self-presentation following the onset of lockdown. Content analysis of active Instagram accounts (n = 73) was conducted for the 3-month period before and immediately following the start of lockdown in the UK, and compared to psychological well-being, social media dependency and motives for online self-presentation during lockdown. Changes in the nature of images and captions used by profile owners were found following the start of lockdown, with more selfies and throwback photographs of past events being posted. Images in contexts depicting users as ‘social’, and positive or explanatory message captioning decreased during lockdown. Limited evidence was found to support the hypothesis that images posted were predictive of psychological well-being in lockdown. More followers and the degree to which online portrayals represented ‘real-self’ appeared more critical to well-being during lockdown.
... Festinger (1954) has developed the theory of social comparisons in the middle of the last century. Prior studies show that Need for Social Comparison is also salient in the context of SNSs (Ozimek & Förster, 2021;Vogel et al., 2015), because information about others is constantly provided and accessible (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011). ...
... It is not surprising that some individuals exhibit negative behavior related to spending too much time online, given how reliant our culture has evolved on such technologies. These social networks are also utilized for self-evaluation, social comparisons, and self-perception (2). Particularly, some studies indicate that increased use of social media may heighten body dissatisfaction due to an increase in remarks from friends about one's looks (3). ...
OBJECTIVE To investigate the impact of use of social applications and appearance-related consciousness on Body dysmorphic disorder symptoms and lower self-esteem among females. STUDY DESIGN Cross-sectional study PLACE AND DURATION OF STUDY The study was conducted in 6 months at Ripha International University from January to August 2022. SUBJECT AND METHOD A total of 200 females were approached via convenience sampling for this study from universities, colleges, and workplaces in Pakistan. Female participants of age range young adults, i.e. 17-35 years, were included in the study. Females actively using social media for more than 6 months were recruited. RESULTS It was found that social application use and appearance-related conciseness both were positively related to symptoms of body dysmorphic disorder. However, it was showed that social application use and appearance-related conciseness were negatively related to self-esteem. CONCLUSION The present study demonstrated that individuals who excessively use social applications are more likely to be unhappy with their own body image and experience more negative feelings after viewing appealing self-images on social media. Higher body dysmorphic and worse self-esteem were revealed to be positively correlated with appearance-related awareness.
... Individuals can complete self-evaluation and selfaffirmation by observing and comparing others' presentations, which provides incentives for social comparison behavior [9]. They will unconsciously make upward comparison in the process of browsing, and it is positively correlated with the time spent on social media [10]. Meanwhile, upward social comparison can also make people more inclined to show their good side, in order to obtain positive feedback and recognition from friends, family or even fans. ...
... This premise is important for understanding the impact of using SM on well-being, as comparative information may matter more in the digital environment of SNSs than in offline interactions [34,35]. Design features that signal social status (such as "likes") [36], the asynchronous nature of communication that provides ample time to filter one's messages or comments, selection or editing practices to enhance one's images [22,37], and the tendency to boast of successes and hide failures [17] are thought to induce a notable positive self-representation bias in SNSs [38]. ...
This study aims to review the evidence for the reciprocal relationship between envy and social comparison (SC) on social networking sites (SNSs) and depression. We searched PsychINFO, PubMed, and Web of Science from January 2012 to November 2022, adhering to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. A total of 9 articles met our inclusion criteria. In all articles reviewed, a simple correlation was found between SC on SNSs, envy, and depression. Three cross-sectional studies successfully tested a model with envy as a mediator between SNSs and depression. The moderating role of additional variables such as self-efficacy, neuroticism, SC orientation, marital quality, and friendship type was also evident. The only two studies that were suitable to determine direction found that depression acted as a predictor rather than an outcome of SC and envy, and therefore depression might be a relevant risk factor for the negative emotional consequences of SNSs use.
... The main-effect model of social support suggests that social support not only directly affects loneliness but also imposes indirect effects through individual psychological states and other relevant factors (Uchino et al., 1996). The use of social features of the Internet is sometimes stressful and may threaten individuals' perceptions of social support (Trepte et al., 2015), which can lead to lower levels of self-esteem (Haferkamp and Krämer, 2011). The failure to receive expected social support may result in lower selfesteem (Li et al., 2018). ...
The outbreak of COVID-19, especially the demands of social interaction and spatial distancing behavior, has led to a surge in Internet use, which has also led to an increase in loneliness. Therefore, we investigated the role of online social support and self-esteem in the relationship between Internet use preference and loneliness. In this study, 1053 college students were surveyed with a questionnaire based on the framework of Ecological System Theory, and a chain mediation model was established to clarify the mechanism between Internet use preference and loneliness. The results show that Internet use preference not only positively predicts loneliness, but also indirectly influences loneliness through the mediators of online social support and self-esteem, thereby impacting loneliness through the “online social support → self-esteem” chain. The results also indicate the need to pay attention to college students’ mental health status during COVID-19. The advent of COVID-19 has impacted people’s lifestyles and has changed the impact of the Internet on individual mental health. This study provides a new way to further understand college students’ Internet use preferences, online social support, self-esteem, and loneliness status during COVID-19. It provides targeted interventions for college students’ loneliness during COVID-19.
... This is supported by studies on Facebook use, which have found both beneficial and detrimental outcomes depending on whether the behaviors involved align with the distinction between connection-promoting and nonconnection-promoting use. For example, one study [79] found that the number of Facebook friends was positively correlated with college adjustment for seniors, while it was negatively correlated with college adjustment for first-year students. This suggests that seniors use Facebook to connect with local friends and maintain their existing social networks, while first-year students use it to focus on social networks they have left behind, which can inhibit feelings of integration and connection within their current environment. ...
Cyberpsychology is the study of the psychological effects of technology on human behavior. This relatively new field has gained popularity in recent years due to the rapid advancement of technology and the increasing reliance on the internet for communication and socialization. Behavioral science has shown that social networking can positively and negatively affect individuals and society. On the positive side, social networking allows people to connect and communicate with others in ways that were previously impossible, creating new opportunities for socializing, networking, and sharing information and ideas. It can also provide a sense of community, support, and belonging for those who may feel isolated or marginalized in their offline lives. However, social networking platforms have also been linked to negative psychological outcomes such as excessive use leading to addictive behavior and cyberbullying. This paper also discusses the concept of nudging in the digital space and its relevance to social networking services.
... For example, negatively comparing oneself with others might cause depressive symptoms [62]. Frequent social comparison on Facebook may make users feel unhappy or unworthy and may bring feelings of envy, leading to stress for the users [63,64]. Yang et al. [65] conducted a meta-analysis to investigate the effect of Facebook social comparison on an individual's well-being. ...
We could view the phenomenon of fear of missing out (FoMO) as a dilemma of too many choices about social media. Although there are already various studies on FoMO, there is still a lack of studies on what personality traits concerning media use decisions will contribute to FoMO or how FoMO mediates these personality traits and people’s social media use behavior, and, thus, corresponding negative emotions. This study explored the causes of FoMO in a FoMO moderated mediation model using maximizing tendency before the choice was made, social comparison orientation when making choices, and regrets tendency after the choice was made. The results showed that (1) there is a non-significant influence between maximizing tendency and FoMO, (2) regret tendency is a positive influence on FoMO, (3) social comparison orientation is a positive influence on FoMO, (4) FoMO is a positive influence on the compulsive use of social media and surveillance use of social media, (5) FoMO exhibited a full mediating effect on the relationship between regret tendency and social media surveillance use, (6) FoMO exhibited a full mediating effect on the relationship between social comparison orientation and social media compulsive use.
... According to the theory of SC, this psychological process begins with thinking about or evaluating one or more individuals based on information and relations (Wood, 1996) in a comparative manner (Collins, 1996). Regarding the availability and accessibility of information about others, social media outlets are suitable for SC (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011;Lim & Yang, 2015;Vogel et al., 2014). SC assumes downward and upward forms. ...
Envy is an impactful emotion on consumer behaviors, yet envy is quite complex to be comprehended due to its two different forms (malicious and benign). Therefore, it is significant to find out the factors occurring envy to consume to understand the impact and consequences of envy. This empirical study improves our understanding of envy occurrence (malicious or benign) in Generation Z (Gen Z) consumers by comparing two countries (the United States and Mexico) as representing individualistic and collectivistic cultures. We apply complexity theory as a basis for the configurational model, which we test using fuzzy‐set qualitative comparative analysis. We use three configurations—personality, attitudes, and attached importance to participants on social networking sites—to explore causal recipes leading to malicious and benign envy. The findings of this study highlight the differences in Gen Z consumers' envy occurrence regarding configurational factors. In addition to said factors, this research indicates that culture plays a significant role in Gen Z's envy occurrence, thus contributing to the current knowledge set.
... Social networking sites (SNSs) have aroused concerns about whether they might be making users lonelier and less happy. Recent work has revealed that the detrimental effects of SNS use are partially dependent on the way they are used, such as looking at others' posts without actively contributing [93] or engaging in social comparison [94,95]. Other ways of engaging with SNSs, such as self-disclosure [96], are associated with increased well-being and reduced loneliness [97,98]. ...
Subjective well-being is characterized by relatively frequent positive emotions, relatively infrequent negative emotions, and high life satisfaction. Although myriad research topics related to subjective well-being have been explored – from how it should be measured to how it affects physical health – a key finding is that social connections are crucial. Researchers are therefore increasingly exploring whether subjective well-being can be improved through interventions that encourage specific types of social behaviors, including prosociality, gratitude, extraversion, and brief social interactions. We review this recent work, highlighting potential behavioral and psychological mechanisms underlying the effectiveness of such interventions, along with their boundary conditions.
... Before the advent of social networking sites (SNSs), the traditional mass media (e.g., TV commercials and programs, magazines, etc.) consumed in Western societies were the most pervasive and powerful influence [11,12], exerting negative effects on body image [13][14][15][16][17][18]. Currently, SNSs and specially appearance-based SNSs (i.e., those involving appearance-oriented activities such as the posting and viewing of photos) are recognized as problematic in terms of body image and eating behaviors [19][20][21], given the importance assigned to physical appearance [22,23]; SNSs users selectively self-present their-and are presented with-most attractive and idealized body photos [24][25][26]. ...
Background
Previous studies testing for a direct relationship between social networking sites (SNS) addiction and body dissatisfaction (BD) have yielded inconsistent results. Here, we aimed to identify underlying processes that could mediate this relationship. Specifically, we studied the relationship between SNS addiction symptoms and BD through the awareness of appearance pressures and the internalization of beauty ideals, both individually and serially: SNS addiction → Awareness → BD; SNS addiction → Internalization → BD; SNS addiction → Awareness → Internalization → BD.
Method
A total of 368 female undergraduates with SNS accounts completed scales to assess SNS addiction symptoms (Social Network Addiction Questionnaire), BD (Body Shape Questionnaire), awareness, and internalization (Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-4; awareness and internalization scales). A theoretical serial mediation model was constructed to examine the proposed relationships. Body mass index was included as a covariate to control the influence of this important variable.
Results
The results indicated that both awareness and internalization independently mediated the relationship between SNS addiction symptoms and BD. Also, there was a significant serial mediation effect; women with more SNS addiction symptoms tended to be more aware of appearance pressure, which was associated with the internalization of beauty ideals. In turn, this internalization was positively related to BD symptoms.
Conclusions
These findings shed light on the indirect relationship between SNS addiction and BD, demonstrating independent and accumulative mediating effects of awareness and internalization.
... The adolescent girls who spend more time in social networks experience more concerns about their body image and body weight (37). Using social networks leads to body dissatisfaction, negative comparisons and poor performance in the school (38). ...
... As discussed earlier, online self-optimization of one's body via presenting incorrect information or omission or leading to false conclusions is considered deception. Past literature has demonstrated how social media users generally try to present their best version online (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011;Manago et al., 2008). But the focus groups revealed that posting pictures of their semi-naked appearances seemed to be exclusively reserved for women who already had a "good" body in real life: ...
This chapter examines how body image deception is created and understood in social media. The authors focus specifically on the beach body, which is a narrower form of bodily representation online, but where deception is especially likely to occur. Focus group discussions with young adults revealed that editing and perfecting the beach body is commonplace and even normalized on social media. However, participants distinguished between celebrities and friends in expected use of manipulation and seemed to place a limit on the acceptable types of manipulation: body tan but not body shape, for example. The authors discuss the implications of these discussions and how applying deception theory in body image research can provide useful insights.
... Such uploads trigger Instagram users to make negative social comparisons, which lead to negative feelings and decreased selfesteem. 15,16 Respondents in this study have used Instagram for quite a long time, with an average length of use of 5.8 years. More than half of respondents have used Instagram longer than average, of whom 21.7% have low self-esteem. ...
Background: Instagram is one of the social media that is growing rapidly in Indonesia. However, the impact of Instagram usage intensity, especially on the users’ emotional well-being, is still unclear. This study aimed to explore the impact of the intensity of using Instagram on the self-esteem among preclinical medical students in Jakarta.
Methods: This study was an observational analytic study with a cross-sectional approach in preclinical medical students in Jakarta, Indonesia, conducted from January 2020 to January 2021. Sampling was performed by stratified random sampling followed by simple random sampling. Instagram usage intensity and self-esteem were measured using the Instagram Intensity Scale Questionnaire (IISQ) and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). Data were analyzed using the Chi-Square test.
Results: Of the108 students, 45.4% had used Instagram above the usage intensity average (average 3.01), of whom 30.6% had low self-esteem (15 out of 49). There was a significant relationship between Instagram usage intensity and self-esteem (p=0.031).
Conclusion: Instagram usage intensity has an impact on the self-esteem of preclinical medical students. Further studies are needed to explore this issue, as to see other contributing factors and a larger population with different characteristics.
... Selfie activities (e.g., posting, viewing, or commenting on selfies) on SNS play a substantial role in body image concerns (Holland & Tiggemann, 2016;Lyu et al., 2022;Salomon & Brown, 2019). Although both men and women take selfies for self-presentation reasons (Chua & Chang, 2016;Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011), the literature has reported gender differences in selfie-related behaviors. For example, women post more selfies than men (Sorokowski et al., 2015). ...
Since social networks have become an essential part of young people’s lives, the present study examined the relationship between sharing and manipulating selfies on Instagram and related outcomes on body image. A total of 350 young adults from Italy and Portugal participated in the study. They completed measures on selfie-sharing, selfie-manipulation, appearance-based comparison, internalization of beauty ideals, and shame for their bodies. Gender, nationality, and type of account (public/private) were hypothesized to moderate the examined relationships. The results partially confirmed the hypothesized model, indicating that sharing selfies was positively associated with body shame through appearance-based comparison, which was also positively associated with beauty-ideal internalization. In contrast with the hypotheses, selfie manipulation was negatively associated with body shame. Gender and type of social networks account moderated these relationships, whereas no moderation role was found with regard to nationality. Findings showed that there are specific behaviors on Instagram associated with the feeling of shame about one’s own body. Limitations of the present study and implications for future research are discussed from a sociocultural perspective.
... Additionally, Vogel et al. [16] proposed that social media users were inclined to proceed upward with a social comparison with others on social networking sites, which negatively influenced their self-perception and psychological functioning, including experiencing low self-esteem and a sense of competition. Thus, it can be seen that some studies argue that social comparison on social media have adverse effects on personal well-being [17][18][19]. Nevertheless, other scholars have elaborated that upward social comparison, as a motivator, helps the individual set a goal and endeavor to actualize self-improvement [12]. ...
Flourishing indicates one’s emotional status and functioning level and is essential for adolescents’ further development. Adolescents’ social media use has been rising, with various potential effects on their development. Therefore, in this study, we shifted the emphasis from a traditional deficit-based approach to a strength-based approach by exploring how social comparison and social media usage influence Chinese adolescents’ flourishing. Altogether, 786 Chinese adolescents aged 12–19 years completed a self-report questionnaire. The results indicate that (1) both social media social comparison of ability (SCA) and social media social comparison of opinion (SCO) have no significant effect on Chinese adolescents’ flourishing; (2) integration into social routine has a positive indirect effect on the relationship between social media social comparison and flourishing; and (3) social integration and emotional connection negatively affect the relationship between social media social comparison and flourishing. These findings highlight the interaction between social media social comparison and social media usage. Furthermore, the results of this study clarify that the potentially harmful effect of social media usage on adolescents’ flourishing is not determined by the frequency or time spent on using social media, but how much adolescents are connected to or invested in social media.
... Σε έρευνα σε νεαρούς ενήλικες κολεγίου, η χρήση των μέσων κοινωνικής δικτύωσης συσχετίστηκε θετικά με την πεποίθηση ότι οι άλλοι είναι καλύτεροι (Chou & Edge, 2012) και η πεποίθηση αυτή με τη σειρά της, συσχετίστηκε αρνητικά με τη συναισθηματική ευεξία (Feinstein κ.α., 2013). Η τάση των ανθρώπων στα μέσα κοινωνικής δικτύωσης να παρουσιάζουν τις πιο θετικές πλευρές του εαυτού τους (Lin & Utz, 2015;Qiu κ.α., 2012) προωθώντας μια ναρκισσιστική συμπεριφορά (Mehdizadeh, 2010) και η εμφάνιση ενός νέου τύπου διασημότητας, γνωστoύ ως influencer, που συνήθως παρουσιάζει ό,τι οι άλλοι δεν έχουν, αλλά επιθυμούν να έχουν (Saul, 2016) μπορεί μέσα από την οπτική της κοινωνικής σύγκρισης να έχει αρνητικές επιπτώσεις στη διάθεση μέσω του φθόνου και του συναισθήματος ότι οι άλλοι έχουν καλύτερη ζωή (Chou & Edge, 2012;Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011;Sagioglou & Greitemeyer, 2014;Tandoc κ.α., 2015). Ο φθόνος ως αποτέλεσμα της κοινωνικής σύγκρισης (Festinger, 1954), παράγεται όταν το άτομο γνωρίζει την πλεονεκτική κατάσταση ενός άλλου ατόμου ή μιας ομάδας ατόμων (Smith & Kim, 2007) και βιώνεται ειδικά όταν ο στόχος της ανοδικής σύγκρισης είναι παρόμοιος με αυτούς (Smith, 2004). ...
Social network sites such as Facebook and Instagram have become an online venue where people nowadays form and maintain relationships, socialize and exchange social or other information. This study explores the Instagram experience and its effects on feelings, anxiety and a series of other related variables. Results of the self-report quantitative correlative method (n=289) revealed indifference as the primary feeling associated with Instagram use in general, slightly surpassed by happiness, love and pride only in cases when Instagram use was positively personalized. Regarding Instagram anxiety, results showed no sex differences, a negative correlation with age and a positive correlation with amount of use. Instagram anxiety was also found to correlate with social comparison, passive and active use as well as social presence, indicating that content and type of involvement is likely to have emotional and psychological effects. A high correlation was found between Instagram anxiety and problematic use. Self-esteem was found to correlate negatively with Instagram anxiety. A positive relationship was found between social comparison and use, active or passive. Finally, the number of users one follows was found to play a role in the amount of Instagram anxiety.
Face-swap models have increasingly gained popularity in recent years because of their improvement in generation quality and applications in privacy protection and entertainment. The study primarily examines underlying factors that influence individuals’ intention to purchase Face swap apps. A research framework drawing upon the social comparison theory was proposed to explain the relationship between four categories of social comparison (upward identification, upward contrast, downward identification, downward contrast) on self-esteem, appearance dissatisfaction, curiosity, perceived enjoyment, privacy concern, and purchase intention toward paid apps. The PLS-SEM technique was employed to analyze data from a survey of 315 respondents. The results indicated that upon the aforementioned variables, curiosity and privacy concerns were two key factors driving users a higher intention to purchase Face-swap apps. Meanwhile, perceived enjoyment had no significant impact on purchase intention. These exploratory findings contributed a number of theoretical and practical implications.
Mit dem Voranschreiten der Digitalisierung im 21. Jahrhundert hat sich die Lebensweise vieler Menschen aufgrund der neuen Möglichkeiten moderner Technologien zunehmend verändert. Insbesondere das Kommunikations- und Kaufverhalten entwickelt sich durch den Einsatz von Socialmedia-Angeboten in eine neue Richtung. Hervorzuheben ist dabei das Heranwachsen einer neuen Generation, der Digital Natives. Werbebotschaften erreichen diese Generation über klassische Medien kaum mehr. Lieber erhalten Digital Natives ihre Informationen von Influencern, die sie um einiges glaubwürdiger einschätzen und zu denen sie teilweise intensive Bindungen aufbauen. Es findet sich bislang vielfach Evidenz für den Einfluss der Influencer:innen auf das Kaufverhalten ihrer Zielgruppe. Weniger untersucht wurden jedoch die Einflussfaktoren, die die Bedeutung und den Einfluss der Meinungsführer:innen auf die Kaufentscheidung der Digital Natives überhaupt erklären, allen voran die Intensität der Beziehung zwischen den Beteiligten. Der vorliegende Beitrag liefert auf Basis der Antworten aus einer empirischen Befragung erste Ergebnisse dafür, dass insbesondere das Geschlecht der potenziellen Käufer:innen sowie die wahrgenommene Glaubwürdigkeit der Influencer:innen diesbezüglich eine Rolle spielen.
Body image concern (BIC) is a prevalent issue thought to be exacerbated by social media. In addition to sociocultural factors, cognitive biases may also contribute to BIC. We explore whether cognitive biases in memory for body image-related words, presented in a mock social-media context, are associated with BIC in young adult women. A sample of 150 University students was presented with a series of body image-related comments aimed at either themselves, a close friend, or a celebrity in a recognisable social media context. Afterwards, a surprise memory task was completed that assessed the participant's memory for body image-related words (item memory), their insight (metamemory), and to whom a specific word was directed (source memory). Self-referential biases were identified for both item memory and source memory. Individuals with greater BIC displayed a greater self-referential bias for correctly and incorrectly sourcing negative words to themselves compared with both friend and celebrity. A greater self-referential effect in metacognitive sensitivity was also associated with higher BIC. We provide novel evidence for a cognitive bias in sourcing negative body image-related information to the self in individuals with higher BIC. The results should inform cognitive remediation programmes aimed at treating individuals with body and eating-related disorders.
This study is aimed to test a theoretical model of the critical thinking, self-efficacy, and adaptation ability prediction towards competitive behavior, with social comparison as a mediator. Participants comprised 334 active university students in Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia. This study applied a predictive-correlational design, with data obtained using questionnaires and analyzed with Structural Equation Modeling. The analysis indicated that the theoretical model corresponds to empirical data (RMSEA = 0.00, NNFI = 1.00) showing that sample data is an accurate representation of the data that would be present in the population (RMSEA < 0.05, NNFI > 0.90). However, critical thinking ability can not predict competitive behavior as mediated by social comparison. This present study provides a deeper understanding that competition is a complex behavior that involves the dimensions of a person's cognitive, self, and adaptive qualities, that cannot be separated from the social context.
Purpose
This study aimed to expand and inform the emerging body of research on the negative experiences of social media use among youths and how youths deal with them, in an Asian setting, using a qualitative approach.
Methods
Data were collected using 11 focus group discussions (FGDs) and 25 semi-structured interviews (SIs) among youths aged 15 to 24 years residing in Singapore who were recruited via purposive sampling. Data were analysed using thematic analysis.
Results
The salient negative effects mentioned by participants include the development of negative reactions and feelings from upward comparisons with others (e.g., others’ achievements and lifestyle), receiving hurtful comments, exposure to controversial content (e.g., political events and social movements), as well as the perpetuation of negative feelings, behaviours, and sentiments (e.g., rumination, unhealthy eating behaviour, and self-harm). Participants also described strategies which they have employed or deemed to be useful in mitigating the negative effects of social media use. These include filtering content and users, taking breaks from social media, cognitive reframing, and self-affirmation, where they identify and change stress-inducing patterns of thinking by setting realistic social, physical, and lifestyle expectations for themselves, and focusing on self-development.
Conclusion
The current results highlight that while youths experience negative effects of social media use, they have high media literacy and have employed strategies that appear to mitigate the negative effects of social media use. The findings can inform various stakeholders involved in helping youths navigate the harms of social media use or provide directions for intervention studies aimed at reducing the harms of social media use.
With the proliferation of social technologies in today's digital world, adolescents need to adapt to ever-shifting social, cultural, and technological environments. We describe the impact of these technologies on the development of adolescents and the mental health processes relevant to these technologies. We not only explore mental disorders and risky behaviors (e.g., depression, anxiety, fear of missing out, self-harm, etc.) but also the positive dimensions of social media on mental health, including social connectedness, resilience, and access to supportive online relationships. We connect these psychological processes to core elements and affordances of social media, to describe patterns of usage across different platforms. We conclude with future research challenges and recommendations for interventions utilizing these findings such as advice for pediatricians guiding their patient families to collaborations with user-centered computing industry experts which can further co-create technological solutions centering on the needs of adolescent wellbeing.
The goal of the present study was to examine the social repercussions of preadolescents’ SNS use by testing two differential pathways regarding the role of technology in interpersonal relationships. Specifically, we expected preadolescents’ social media use to be associated with heightened self-disclosure, which we then predicted to relate to increased feelings of belonging to their friends. At the same time, we investigated whether such use would also hinder real-life peer interactions, thus constituting a negative indirect association with preadolescents’ belonging. We examined both pathways for overall usage of SNS platforms as well as use specifically directed at communication-oriented activities, and SNS use that was nonsocial in nature. Results from a cross-sectional survey (n = 367/489, Mage = 10.94, SDage = 0.85, 52.4% girls) showed that social media played a predominantly beneficial role in the social lives of preadolescents: both overall and socially-oriented SNS use were positively and indirectly related to belonging through shared time with friends. Gender moderated the association between specific SNS activities and self-disclosure, however, such that social activities were positively related to self-disclosure for boys, but not for girls. Conversely, nonsocial activities were negatively related to girls’ self-disclosure.
This work identifies the differences in the relevance of online endorsers’ physical attractiveness and expertise depending on whether an endorsed product is related to attractiveness. It provides a new perspective regarding the source-credibility model and explores unprecedented relationships. To date, many studies investigating online endorsers have focused on attractiveness-related products, but online endorsers are also employed for attractiveness-unrelated products. Practitioners therefore need to know which requirements are relevant to attractiveness-unrelated products. However, no existing study has compared online endorsers of attractiveness-related or attractiveness-unrelated products. Our investigation is based on an empirical experiment including 576 participants, analyzed with structural equation modeling. The subsamples are compared by multigroup analysis, resulting in counterintuitive results. Both online endorsers and practitioners can greatly benefit from our findings. Our findings indicate that attractiveness is a relevant requirement for both types of products, although attractiveness has a stronger impact on brand-related variables of attractiveness-related products. Male attractiveness is also more relevant than female attractiveness regarding attractiveness-related products. Concerning expertise, we find no differences between the two types of products.
The present study investigates differences between gay and heterosexual Italian men regarding both social networking behaviors and addiction. Furthermore, it explores the possible mediation effects of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism, fear of missing out, and physical appearance on social networking behaviors and addiction. A total of 586 Italian men (334 gay and 252 heterosexual) were recruited with snowball sampling, and they completed an online questionnaire. Results showed a significant difference between the two groups, with men who identify themselves as gay having higher levels of social networking addiction, narcissism, fear of missing out, and the importance of one’s appearance. A direct effect of sexual orientation on social networking behaviors and addiction can be seen, which is only partially mediated by the variables posed as mediators.
Social networks are platforms that allow users of private and public profiles to have different types of interaction with other users. Given the increasing use of social networks, especially among the younger population, this paper aims to point out the impact of the use of social networks on mental health. A review of the relevant literature on the potential impact of social networks on mental health has been made. The use of social networks has advantages: establishing interpersonal relationships, personal and business relationships with others, sharing photos, expressing creativity, ideas and feelings, promoting health-related behaviour, and facilitating the interaction of shy and socially anxious individuals. However, the use of social networks is also associated with negative implications for mental health such as the development of anxiety, feelings of loneliness, low self-esteem, depression and dependence on the use of social networks. Given the recognized negative implications of the use of social networks on the mental health of users, it is important to emphasize the need for continuous information on rational use to prevent negative outcomes, as well as the inevitable consideration of this factor in treating mental health problems.
This chapter dissects the effect of online life on each youngster in both the negative and positive bearing of their development utilizing the social impact hypothesis. Reliance of youth via web-based networking media has both negative and beneficial outcomes. This hypothesis portrays social effect concerning social power handle that encroach upon us, pushing us to think or keep thinking about a specific goal. These social powers have been stood out from physical powers that control the transmission of light, solid, gravity, interest, and so forth. The discoveries uncovered that the utilization of internet-based life impacts adolescent conduct when contrasted with positive aspects. This study shows a connection among contradictory and imaginative qualities of online life and displays roads for future investigations by encouraging a superior comprehension of electronic interpersonal organization use. In the chapter, the social effect felt by a person as a component of the quality, instantaneousness, and number of source people is exhibited and examined.
Background:
Research suggests there is an association between high levels of recreational screen time and depression among adolescents; however, mechanisms driving this association remain unknown. The present study examined appearance and weight satisfaction and disordered eating behaviors as mediators in the relationship between recreational screen time and depressive symptoms in adolescents.
Method:
Longitudinal data on screen time, depressive symptoms, disordered eating behaviors, and appearance and weight satisfaction from 304 adolescents (194 females, Mage = 13.40) were analyzed through a moment structure model.
Results:
Results revealed appearance dissatisfaction mediated the direct effect of recreational screen time on depressive symptoms (Estimate = 0.48, SE = .18, 95% CI [0.12, 0.84]), and that recreational screen time was significantly related to lower appearance satisfaction (Estimate = -0.06, SE = .02, 95% CI [-0.10, -0.01]), which was significantly predictive of more severe depressive symptoms (Estimate = -1.49, SE = .62, 95% CI [-2.71, -0.28]).
Conclusions:
These findings suggest that modulating screen time may be an efficacious strategy to reduce appearance dissatisfaction and depressive symptoms during adolescence.
Social media has widely permeated the workplace because of its potential benefits. Nowadays, it is not surprising that employees browse what friends are sharing on social media (e.g., Facebook and WeChat) during working hours. But interestingly, people tend to present themselves in a positive manner and thus selectively share positive information (e.g., positive profiles, images, or living situations) on social media platforms for others to browse. This would easily cause feelings like “how successful they are” and “I am so inferior to them” when employees browse social media information. What does this mean for their job performance? Findings from our two-wave longitudinal survey suggest that employees comparing themselves with friends who are better off on social media would fall into ego-depletion, which further reduces their job performance. Moreover, employees’ preferences for online social interaction can exacerbate this process. Although short breaks obtained from using social media may help employees better engage in subsequent work tasks, the present research suggests managers be wary of the dark side of social media stemming from social comparison. This research contributes to the literature regarding employee social media use by focusing on its dark side from the lens of online social comparison.
People frequently engage in social comparisons. Whenever they are confronted with information about how others are, what others can and cannot do, or what others have achieved and have failed to achieve, they relate this information to themselves. And, whenever they try to determine how they themselves are or what they themselves can and cannot do, they do so by comparing their own characteristics, fortunes, and weaknesses to those of others. In fact, such social comparisons are so deeply engraved into our psyche that they are even engaged with others who are unlikely to yield relevant information concerning the self (Gilbert, Giesler, and Morris, 1995). Social comparisons are also engaged with others who – phenomenologically – are not even there, because they were perceived outside of conscious awareness (Mussweiler, Rüter, and Epstude, 2004a). In this respect, comparisons with others appear to be one of the most fundamental, ubiquitous, and robust human proclivities. The proclivity to compare, however, goes much further. People not only compare themselves to others, they pretty much compare any target to a pertinent standard. This is apparent in psychophysical as well as social judgments. To evaluate how heavy a target weight is, for example, judges compare it to a given standard weight (Brown, 1953; Coren and Enns, 1993). Similarly, to evaluate how aggressive a target person is, judges compare him or her to an accessible standard (Herr, 1986). This essential relativity of human judgment has played a particularly prominent role in the domain of social cognition research. © Cambridge University Press 2006 and Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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Despite the popular belief that the thinstandard of female attractiveness currently presented inthe media is a primary contributor to the high level ofconcern with body weight among women, experimental studies have not shown that exposure to mediaimages increases women's weight concern. Threeexperiments are reported demonstrating that exposure tomedia images does often result in increased weightconcern among women, but that body dissatisfaction, astable personality characteristic, is a moderator ofvulnerability to this effect. Although most womenreported higher weight concern when exposed to media vs. neutral images, women with low initial bodydissatisfaction did not. In addition, this researchsuggests that negative effects on weight concern mayresult from even passive exposure to media images, but that exposure to realistic attractivenessis less likely to cause increased weight concern. Theethnicity of the participants in these studies reflectedthat of the local population, with over 90% white. The nonwhite participants primarily belonged toone of the following groups; Asian, Pacific Islander,Latino.
This study investigates self-presentation strategies among online dating participants, exploring how participants manage their online presentation of self in order to accomplish the goal of finding a romantic partner. Thirty-four individuals active on a large online dating site participated in telephone interviews about their online dating experiences and perceptions. Qualitative data analysis suggests that participants attended to small cues online, mediated the tension between impression management pressures and the desire to present an authentic sense of self through tactics such as creating a profile that reflected their “ideal self,” and attempted to establish the veracity of their identity claims. This study provides empirical support for Social Information Processing theory in a naturalistic context while offering insight into the complicated way in which “honesty” is enacted online.
Although investigators have postulated that the thin ideal for women espoused in the media is related to the high rates of eating disorders among females, little research has examined the relation between media exposure and eating pathology. This study assessed the relation of media exposure to eating disorder symptoms and tested whether gender-role endorsement, ideal-body stereotype internalization, and body satisfaction mediated this effect. In data from 238 female undergraduates, structural equation modeling revealed a direct effect of media exposure on eating disorder symptoms. Furthermore, mediational linkages were found for gender-role endorsement, ideal body stereotype internalization, and body satisfaction. The results support the assertion that internalization of sociocultural pressures mediate the adverse effects of the thin ideal.
The effect of experimental manipulations of the thin beauty ideal, as portrayed in the mass media, on female body image was evaluated using meta-analysis.
Data from 25 studies (43 effect sizes) were used to examine the main effect of mass media images of the slender ideal, as well as the moderating effects of pre-existing body image problems, the age of the participants, the number of stimulus presentations, and the type of research design.
Body image was significantly more negative after viewing thin media images than after viewing images of either average size models, plus size models, or inanimate objects. This effect was stronger for between-subjects designs, participants less than 19 years of age, and for participants who are vulnerable to activation of a thinness schema.
Results support the sociocultural perspective that mass media promulgate a slender ideal that elicits body dissatisfaction. Implications for prevention and research on social comparison processes are considered.
The present research examined how narcissism is manifested on a social networking Web site (i.e., Facebook.com). Narcissistic personality self-reports were collected from social networking Web page owners. Then their Web pages were coded for both objective and subjective content features. Finally, strangers viewed the Web pages and rated their impression of the owner on agentic traits, communal traits, and narcissism. Narcissism predicted (a) higher levels of social activity in the online community and (b) more self-promoting content in several aspects of the social networking Web pages. Strangers who viewed the Web pages judged more narcissistic Web page owners to be more narcissistic. Finally, mediational analyses revealed several Web page content features that were influential in raters' narcissistic impressions of the owners, including quantity of social interaction, main photo self-promotion, and main photo attractiveness. Implications of the expression of narcissism in social networking communities are discussed.
Although researchers have postulated that the thin-ideal body image portrayed in the media contributes to eating pathology among females, little research has directly examined the effects of these images on women. The central aim of the present study was to experimentally assess the effects of exposure to the thin-ideal on women's affect, body satisfaction, and endorsement of the thin-ideal stereotype. The secondary aim was to link these putative mediators to bulimic symptomatology. Female undergraduates (N = 157) were randomly exposed to pictures from magazines containing either ultra-thin models, average-sized models, or no models. Results indicated that exposure to the thin-ideal produced depression, stress, guilt, shame, insecurity, and body dissatisfaction. Further, multiple regression analyses indicated that negative affect, body dissatisfaction, and subscription to the thin-ideal predicted bulimic symptoms.
This study focused on how individuals used personal home pages to present themselves online. Content analysis was used to examine, record, and analyze the characteristics of personal home pages. Data interpretation revealed popular tools for self-presentation, a desire for virtual homesteaders to affiliate with online homestead communities, and significant relationships among home page characteristics. Web page design was influenced, to a certain extent, by the tools Web page space providers supplied. Further studies should consider personality characteristics, design templates, and Web author input to determine factors that influence self-presentation through personal home pages.
The objective of this study was to understand the utility of personal home pages for their creators. Combining survey research and content analysis, the study investigated how demographic and medium use variables, home page motives, unwillingness to communicate, and contextual age were reflected through Web page design. Data analysis revealed that most Web authors hosted a page for information and entertainment purposes, some for self-expression and for communicating with friends and family, and fewer for professional advancement or to pass time. Design tools supplied by the personal home page providers, Web page location, expertise with computers and the Internet, and Web author motivation influenced the look of personal home pages.
This study examined whether exposure to TV ads that portray women as sex objects causes increased body dissatisfaction among women and men. Participants were exposed to 15 sexist and 5 nonsexist ads, 20 nonsexist ads, or a no ad control condi- tion. Results revealed that women exposed to sexist ads judged their current body size as larger and revealed a larger discrepancy between their actual and ideal body sizes (preferring a thinner body) than women exposed to the nonsexist or no ad condition. Men exposed to the sexist ads judged their current body size as thinner, revealed a larger discrepancy between their actual and ideal body size (preferring a larger body), and revealed a larger discrepancy between their own ideal body size and their percep- tions of others' male body size preferences (believing that others preferred a larger ideal) than men exposed to the nonsexist or no ad condition. Discussion focuses on the cognitive, attitudinal, and behavioral consequences of exposure to gender stereotypic television advertising.
The authors propose that superstars are most likely to affect self-views when they are considered relevant. Relevant superstars provoke self-enhancement and inspiration when their success seems attainable but self-deflation when it seems unattainable. Participants' self-views were affected only when the star's domain of excellence was self-relevant. Relevant stars provoked self-enhancement and inspiration when their success seemed attainable in that participants either still had enough time to achieve comparable success or believed their own abilities could improve over time. Open-ended responses provided rich evidence of inspiration in these circumstances. Relevant stars provoked, if anything, self-deflation when their success seemed unattainable in that participants either had already missed the chance to achieve comparable success or viewed their abilities as fixed and so unlikely to improve. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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In recent studies of the structure of affect, positive and negative affect have consistently emerged as two dominant and relatively independent dimensions. A number of mood scales have been created to measure these factors; however, many existing measures are inadequate, showing low reliability or poor convergent or discriminant validity. To fill the need for reliable and valid Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales that are also brief and easy to administer, we developed two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The scales are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period. Normative data and factorial and external evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the scales are also presented.
Many authors have implicated the media's promotion of an unrealistically thin ideal for women as a major causal factor in the current high levels of body dissatisfaction and increasing incidence of eating disorders. The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between exposure to one medium, television, and body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness.
Questionnaires were administered to 94 adolescent women who reported how much and what television they had watched in the previous week. Body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness were also assessed.
Amount of television watched did not correlate with either body dissatisfaction or drive for thinness, but category of program did. Specifically, amount of time spent watching soaps, movies, and (negatively) sport predicted body dissatisfaction, and the watching of music videos predicted drive for thinness.
The results are consistent with sociocultural explanations for body dissatisfaction and for the emergence of eating disorders in young women.
The aim of the study was to investigate prospectively the direction of the relationship between adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction and self-esteem. Participants were 242 female high school students who completed questionnaires at two points in time, separated by 2 years. The questionnaire contained measures of weight (BMI), body dissatisfaction (perceived overweight, figure dissatisfaction, weight satisfaction) and self-esteem. Initial body dissatisfaction predicted self-esteem at Time 1 and Time 2, and initial self-esteem predicted body dissatisfaction at Time 1 and Time 2. However, linear panel analysis (regression analyses controlling for Time 1 variables) found that aspects of Time 1 weight and body dissatisfaction predicted change in self-esteem, but not vice versa. It was concluded that young girls with heavier actual weight and perceptions of being overweight were particularly vulnerable to developing low self-esteem.
University of Mü nster Department of Communication Bispinghof 9-14 48143 Mü nster Germany E-mail: nina.haferkamp@uni-muenster
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Address correspondence to: Nina Haferkamp, Ph.D., M.Sc. University of Mü nster Department of Communication Bispinghof 9-14 48143 Mü nster Germany E-mail: nina.haferkamp@uni-muenster.de
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