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A residential location approach to traffic safety: Two case studies from Germany
Abstract
This paper aims to spatially differentiate the road accident risk associated with living at a certain place of residence. Official accident data usually record the place the accident occurred, but not the casualties' places of residence. Among those involved in an accident at a certain place there may obviously be some non-residents, such as in-commuters and transients. Hence spatial analysis based on place of accident may not be suitable for drawing conclusions about specific risk levels for people living in certain places. People's risk of encountering an accident in areas other than that where they live may vary with their mobility. We report on two case studies for the German states of North Rhine-Westphalia and Lower Saxony, which are based on casualties' places of residence. We draw on two data sets both of which have specific advantages and disadvantages. From the data we calculate population-based risk figures on the district level and, for Lower Saxony, on the municipality level. For North Rhine-Westphalia these are categorised by age group and transport mode. We also investigate to what extent accident related analyses can be used to estimate residential related risks. The results show that the risk of being killed or seriously injured in a road accident is considerably lower for the population of agglomeration cores than for the suburban and rural population. Macro-economically this means that suburban and rural areas have markedly higher accident costs than cities.
... Die Polizeistatistik erfasst umfangreiche Daten auf Punktebene, die räumlich verortet sind und somit eine integrierte räumliche und zeitliche Analyse mit geografischen Informationssystemen (GIS) ermöglichen. Solche differenzierten Datengrundlagen können mit den entsprechenden Studien einen wesentlichen Beitrag zur Gesundheitsprävention beitragen, werden in der sektoral zwischen Mobilität, Umwelt und Stadtentwicklung getrennten Gesundheitsberichterstattung in Deutschland bislang jedoch nur selten berücksichtigt [10]. Dies mag an unterschiedlichen Herangehensweisen der Analyse und Themen liegen. ...
... Basierend auf räumlich-zeitlichen Musteranalysen der Verkehrsunfallvorkommen können Hypothesen über zugrunde liegende Prozesse und Korrelationen formuliert und getestet werden. Eine erste komparative Studie auf der Ebene von Gemeinden schlussfolgert beispielsweise, dass die Wahrscheinlichkeit von Unfällen im urbanen Raum vergleichsweise niedriger ist als im suburbanen oder ruralen Raum [10]. Studien in den USA zeigen, dass die städtische Nutzung (z. ...
... Die Integration von unterschiedlichen Datenquellen zur Analyse von gesundheitswissenschaftlichen Phänomenen ist von großer Bedeutung. GIS ermöglichen dabei die Integration verschiedener Datenquellen und -typen über den Raumbezug, sodass der Mehrwert von geocodierten Daten und Koordinatenform deutlich wird [10]. Entscheidend wird in Zukunft die Dokumentation und Verfügbarmachung von verschiedenen Datenquellen sein. ...
Background:
In many German cities and counties, sustainable mobility concepts that strengthen pedestrian and cyclist traffic are promoted. From the perspectives of urban development, traffic planning and public healthcare, a spatially differentiated analysis of traffic accident data is decisive.
Objectives:
1) The identification of spatial and temporal patterns of the distribution of accidents involving cyclists and pedestrians, 2) the identification of hotspots and exploration of possible underlying causes and 3) the critical discussion of benefits and challenges of the results and the derivation of conclusions.
Material and methods:
Spatio-temporal distributions of data from accident statistics in Berlin involving pedestrians and cyclists from 2011 to 2015 were analysed with geographic information systems (GIS).
Results:
While the total number of accidents remains relatively stable for pedestrian and cyclist accidents, the spatial distribution analysis shows, however, that there are significant spatial clusters (hotspots) of traffic accidents with a strong concentration in the inner city area.
Conclusions:
In a critical discussion, the benefits of geographic concepts are identified, such as spatially explicit health data (in this case traffic accident data), the importance of the integration of other data sources for the evaluation of the health impact of areas (traffic accident statistics of the police), and the possibilities and limitations of spatial-temporal data analysis (spatial point-density analyses) for the derivation of decision-supported recommendations and for the evaluation of policy measures of health prevention and of health-relevant urban development.
... One common problem relates to injury severity. Some studies intermingle fatal crashes with injury crashes and property damage only crashes (Scheiner and Holz-Rau 2011). As a result, a handful of fender benders -which are more likely to occur in urban areas anyway -would outweigh one or two fatal crashes. ...
... Since we seek to understand these underlying issues, we joined each FARS crash in GIS with the home zip code of the driver (which is included in a different table within the overall FARS data-set) to determine where the deceased was likely from and differentiate between where the crash took place and the communities where the populations are being impacted. This effort is similar to the methods used by Scheiner and Holz-Rau (2011) in a Germany-based study where they found fatality rates increasing with decreasing population density to the point where the most rural places had twice the risk of the most urban (Scheiner and Holz-Rau 2011). ...
... This was done in order to differentiate between where fatal crashes physically took place and the communities being impacted by these fatalities. With respect to pedestrian and bicyclist road fatalities, we followed the methodology in the Scheiner and Holz-Rau (2011) paper and classified residence as the same location where the crash occurred (Scheiner and Holz-Rau 2011). This may overestimate the number of pedestrian and bicyclist fatalities in, for instance, downtown areas; however, this was unavoidable due to the limitations of our data-set and will be accounted for when interpreting the results. ...
Road fatalities erase more healthy years of life than cancer and heart disease combined. Considering safety as a health impact begs the question: Who is most impacted? Are there urban/rural differences? How equitable are impacts along racial/ethnic lines or with income differences? Via spatial analysis of over 970,000 geocoded US road fatalities over a 24-year period, our results show that Americans are not bearing these impacts equitably. We find road fatality disparities across racial/ethnic lines, particularly for pedestrians/bicyclists in predominantly black or Hispanic neighborhoods. Lower income neighborhoods suffer from vehicle occupant fatality rates 3.5X higher than wealthier neighborhoods. Also, residents of our most rural areas endure fatality rates approximately 6X higher than our most urban areas. This suggests that transportation and land use planning intended to facilitate more access with less mobility can reduce unnecessary exposure and lead to outcomes on par with the safest developed countries in the world.
... However this is not the reason for higher numbers of fatal accidents in developed countries. In these countries the government, by enacting series of regulations and promotions, has controlled the high frequency of fatal accidents (2). It is estimated that by 2020, fatalities of road accidents will become the third leading cause of fatalities in the world (3). ...
... Negative effect: in a developed region, the government has more mechanisms to control the high frequencies of road fatalities. In such regions the society is more educated and is aware of the dangers of bad driving (2,7,8). Also the road emergency system works efficiently and if an accident happens, it acts immediately to decrease the likelihood of fatalities (9). ...
... In a region with more urban population, accessibility to health care services is easier (32). In addition, in a region with higher percentage of rural population, the number of motorcycles, pedestrians and other vulnerable road users, which use intercity roads are higher than a province with higher percentage of urban population, so the risk of having more road fatalities is higher (2). The annual average income had a positive relationship with the likelihood of road fatalities. ...
... As per-capita miles driven did not differ that much, exposure could not account for the large differences. Holz-Rau and Scheiner Geographical Patterns in Road Safety: Literature Review and a Case Study from Germany Scheiner and Holz-Rau (2011) reported case studies for two German regions. They distinguished by severity of injury and age, but not by travel mode. ...
... In a prior study we examined POR-based accident risk in the same study area (Scheiner and Holz-Rau, 2011). However, as that study was based on regression analysis using composite factor scores as explanatory variables, we could not isolate the impact of real-world variables. ...
... We did not expect to encounter spatial autocorrelation due to the size of the districts, as autocorrelation was seen to be weak even on the municipality level in another case study (Scheiner and Holz-Rau, 2011). As our data include only 53 cases, significant effects are rare. ...
This paper aims to geographically differentiate the road accident costs associated with living at a certain place of residence. Official accident data in Germany record the place the accident occurred, but not the casualties' places of residence. Among those involved in an accident at a certain place there may obviously be some non-residents. Hence spatial analysis based on place of accident may not be suitable for drawing conclusions about specific cost (or risk) figures for people living in certain places. People's risk of encountering an accident in areas other than that where they live may vary with their mobility. We provide an extensive literature review of geographical accident analysis both for place of accident-based and place of residence-based approaches, including the question to what extent accident related analyses can be used to estimate residential related risks. Subsequently we report on a residence-based case study for the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia where we study per capita accident cost figures on the district level. We also examine impact factors of accident cost levels using structural equation modelling. The results show that the cost figures are considerably lower for urban residents than for suburban and rural dwellers. For children the picture is more mixed.
... Moreover, Levine et al., found that most deadly or severe injury crashes attributed to late night foolish driving occurred in remote suburban or rural areas instead of urban zones [25]. Scheiner and Holz-Rau studied the connection between the spatial distribution of road crashes and the place of residence in two case studies from Germany (North Rhine-Westphalia and Lower Saxony) [28]. They that the risk of being killed or seriously injured in a road accident is significantly lower for the residences of high-density cores than for the suburban and rural inhabitants. ...
... Arterial roads such as Rahmat Blvd and Chamran Blvd are characterized by their large number of motor vehicle. Previous studies confirmed that more vehicle lanes are associated with greater likelihood of crash occurrence [28,73]. The presence of recreational facilities and schools along arterials such as Mirzaye Shirazi and Rahmat Blvd are shown to be associated with crash occurrence [74]. ...
As a developing country, Iran has one of the highest crash-related deaths, with a typical rate of 15.6 cases in every 100 thousand people. This paper is aimed to find the potential temporal and spatial patterns of road crashes aggregated at traffic analysis zonal (TAZ) level in urban environments. Localization pattern and hotspot distribution were examined using geo-information approach to find out the impact of spatial/temporal dimensions on the emergence of such patterns. The spatial clustering of crashes and hotspots were assessed using spatial autocorrelation methods such as the Moran's I and Getis-Ord Gi* index. Comap was used for comparing clusters in three attributes: the time of occurrence, severity, and location. The analysis of the annually crash frequencies aggregated in 156 TAZ in Shiraz; from 2010 to 2014, Iran showed that both Moran's I method and Getis-Ord Gi* statistics produced significant clustering of crash patterns. While crashes emerged a clustered pattern, comparison of the spatio-temporal separations showed an accidental spread in distinct categories. The local governmental agencies can use the outcomes to adopt more effective strategies for traffic safety planning and management.
... Combinations of all these movements resulted to a dangerous and risky road area where the likelihood of crashes occurrences especially to vulnerable road users was high. This outcome is consistent with findings made by [13] who suggested that the share of crashes close to place of residence was likely to be higher among pedestrians and bicyclists than among motor vehicle occupants. ...
... Moreover, since the area is densely concentrated with business activities and residential areas at both sides of road, the risk in this area was most probably generated by short-distance road users where they usually used a more prevalent type of vehicles other than the car and drives at lower driving speeds than the long distance road users [13]. Therefore, based on the composite road environment risk index point of view, this area of road is definitely very risky based on below judgments: ...
Aware on the importance of upgrading and maintaining the safety level of existing road network, several attempts on localizing problematic road areas have been made. In current practice, the identification of those problematic sections was recognized based on the road’s safety level and one of the most common and acceptable method is by using crash data of the particular road network as a starting point for further actions. However, the information provided by crash data is far from providing good and broad pictures of the factors leading to crash. These circumstances have bringing out the needs to have another road safety indicator that can extensively describes actual situations at problematic road areas as well as can be used as a basis for further maintenance works. By focusing on the environment aspect of the roads, fourteen road environment indicators were chosen based on their abilities to portrayed current road environment conditions and its potential in triggering road traffic crashes. Data of these indicators were collected by means of naturalistic driving method within 80 km length road of Federal Road 2 connecting Kuantan and Maran Town in Pahang State. Composite road environment risk index was developed using these data where combination of risk generated from these environments aspects were evaluated and used in localizing problematic road sections. Apart from that, the outcomes were also used as basis in planning for road improvement plans. The development of composite road environment risk index as a proactive method in defining poor sections has proved to be very useful in identifications of problematic road sections requiring urgent road improvement works especially when crash data is not available or in poor quality.
... This judgment is consistent with past findings [13] that the share of accidents close to the place of residence is likely to be higher among pedestrians and bicyclists than among motor vehicles. Since bicycle is not a popular mode of transportation in Malaysia, the motorcycles are taken into account instead. ...
... Further, since the area is densely concentrated with business activities and residential areas on both sides of the road, the risk in this area is most probably generated by short distance road users. This is also in-line with the outcomes from past research [13] that most road accident risks in cities are contributed by short distance road users because they usually used motorcycles or bicycles and travels at lower speeds as compared to the long distance motorists. Therefore, from the outcome of composite road environment risk index, this road section is high risk based on the following judgments: 1) Since the development located on both sides of the road is rather dense, the existence of accesses (signalized and non signalized) near to each other can be a source of risks to road users. ...
In current road safety practices, the identification of hazardous road sections are normally based on crash data. However, the information provided by crash data may not be adequate to explain the causal factors that lead to a crash. Therefore, a different kind of road safety indicator that can extensively describe the actual road environment problems of a road section is considered essential. This paper considered fourteen road environment indicators based on their abilities to portray current road environment conditions and their potential towards road crash incidence. These indicators were collected using naturalistic driving technique within the 80-km road length connecting Kuantan and Maran town in the state of Pahang, Malaysia in which the composite road environment risk index was finally developed. This composite road environment risk index is found to be a useful proactive method to identify the potential problematic road sections that require urgent road improvement works as compared to the reactive crash data analysis method. Index Terms—Hazardous road sections, crash data, road environment, composite index, proactive method.
... This judgment is consistent with past findings [13] that the share of accidents close to the place of residence is likely to be higher among pedestrians and bicyclists than among motor vehicles. Since bicycle is not a popular mode of transportation in Malaysia, the motorcycles are taken into account instead. ...
... Further, since the area is densely concentrated with business activities and residential areas on both sides of the road, the risk in this area is most probably generated by short distance road users. This is also in-line with the outcomes from past research [13] that most road accident risks in cities are contributed by short distance road users because they usually used motorcycles or bicycles and travels at lower speeds as compared to the long distance motorists. Therefore, from the outcome of composite road environment risk index, this road section is high risk based on the following judgments: 1) Since the development located on both sides of the road is rather dense, the existence of accesses (signalized and non signalized) near to each other can be a source of risks to road users. ...
In current road safety practices, the identification of hazardous road sections are normally based on crash data. However, the information provided by crash data may not be adequate to explain the causal factors that lead to a crash. Therefore, a different kind of road safety indicator that can extensively describe the actual road environment problems of a road section is considered essential. This paper considered fourteen road environment indicators based on their abilities to portray current road environment conditions and their potential towards road crash incidence. These indicators were collected using naturalistic driving technique within the 80-km road length connecting Kuantan and Maran town in the state of Pahang, Malaysia in which the composite road environment risk index was finally developed. This composite road environment risk index is found to be a useful proactive method to identify the potential problematic road sections that require urgent road improvement works as compared to the reactive crash data analysis method.
... Similarly, a study on traffic accident patterns in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, found significant differences between suburban and urban accident patterns, with suburban areas incurring substantially higher accident costs. The authors recommended reinforcing traffic supervision in suburban areas as a preventative measure (Scheiner and Holz-Rau 2011). ...
Revealing the factors associated with traffic accident risk across cities nationwide, including demographic and economic elements, is crucial for supporting traffic safety policy, urban planning, and insurance evaluation. Spatial stratified heterogeneity models, such as Geographically Optimized Zone-based Heterogeneity (GOZH) model, are widely used for analyzing the spatial association in large scale. However, as their spatial discretization process heavily depends on a manually set complexity parameter (cp), introducing significant uncertainty. To address this, we developed a Robust GOZH (RGOZH), by analyzing the inter-parameter relationships within GOZH and introducing the Q function as an optimization function to achieve precise and controlled geographic partitioning. By selecting the optimal cp, RGOZH produces the most reliable spatial partitioning results. Testing RGOZH on Germany’s traffic accident dataset revealed strong geographic patterns, with RGOZH achieving superior spatial groupings while maintaining over 80% of explanatory power – a stark contrast to the less interpretable results from GOZH. RGOZH identified vehicle ownership, government employee proportion, and income level as primary factors shaping traffic accident risk. This study highlights the critical role of large-scale spatial pattern analysis in traffic management and establishes RGOZH as a robust framework for future interdisciplinary geospatial research. Furthermore, RGOZH provides a replicable method that can adapt to various regional datasets, enhancing its utility in international traffic safety studies. As a methodological advancement, RGOZH demonstrates the value of integrating optimized spatial parameters into predictive geospatial models.
... Studies in different countries, such as Germany, China, USA, and Colombia have investigated the spatial distribution of traffic crash risk and hotspots using various methods, including time-space cubes, spatial autocorrelation, and Bayesian maximum entropy. Scheiner and Holz-Rau (Scheiner and Holz-Rau, 2011) found that the risk of being killed or seriously injured in a traffic crash was higher in suburban and rural areas compared to highdensity cores in Germany. Cheng et al. (Cheng et al., 2019b) identified a hotspot for road traffic crashes in the Northeast part of Wujiang's major urban area in China, while Dezman et al. (Dezman et al., 2016) found that crashes mainly occurred in the high-density center of Baltimore in the USA. ...
Road traffic crashes pose a significant challenge worldwide, necessitating increased efforts to reduce them and promote sustainable transport systems. This study aimed to investigate spatiotemporal road traffic crashes and their causes in the State of Qatar by identifying hot spots of crashes and exploring whether they were primarily attributed to behavioural practices and/or the geometrical design of roads and intersections. The study employed various methods, including Time-Space Cube analysis, Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR), Emerging Hot Spot analysis, and Spatial Autocorrelation analysis, with historical traffic crash data from 2015 and 2019. The findings indicated that crashes were mainly concentrated in the central-eastern region of Qatar and are related to driver behaviour. The analysis also revealed that crashes during the weekdays in 2019 were more strongly clustered than in 2015, suggesting a probable systematic cause of crashes. The results provide valuable information for policymakers to target high-incidence locations, prioritize interventions and develop more effective measures and policies to reduce crashes and promote a sustainable transportation system in Qatar. Overall, this study highlights the importance of continued research and policy development in this area and could potentially be applicable and transferable to similar regions.
... In addition, pedestrian are highly likely to be more vulnerable as compared to other road users because they are actually less protected comparing to the occupants within closed vehicles. The relatively high vulnerability of pedestrians to tra c accidents in metropolitan areas is consistent with the results of international research (21)(22)(23). ...
Background Prevention of Road traffic deaths as a critical public health issue requires coordinated efforts. We aimed to determine influential factors related to traffic safety in Iran as a low-income country (LIC).
Methods In this study with a cross-sectional design, the information of 384,614 road traffic crashes recorded in Integrated Road Traffic Injury Registry System (IRTIRS) in a one-year period (March 2015 - March 2016) was analyzed. All registered crashes in Tehran, Isfan, Fras, Razavi Khorasan, Khuzestan and East Azerbaijan provinces, the six most populated provinces in Iran was included in this study. The data was in five main section namely crash scene, vehicle-, driver-, passenger- and pedestrian- related information. Multiple logistic regression applied through STATA software was used for data analysis.
Results Over all the final model could identified thirty-two out of seventy-one different variables to be effective in road collisions. The following factors were found to increase the rate of fatal crashes at least by two time: be the most five significant in predicting fatal outcome in road traffic crashes: presence of passenger, unlicensed driving, illegal driving maneuver, head-on collision, crashes in suburban areas, occurrence of multiple causes for collision, vehicles with not personal-regional plaques, presence of pedestrians, drivers with low-income jobs, driver misconduct, roads with double solid lines, non-residential areas, multiple road defects.
Conclusion This study reveals that driving behavior, infrastructure design and geometric road factors must be considered to avoid fatal crashes. Our results provide support for compulsory interventions in these areas.
... A higher level of population density could generate a higher traffic density and, as a result, increase the number of traffic accidents. Scheiner and Holz-Rau (2011) and Casares et al. (2019) find that urban residents have a higher risk of accidents with injuries than the population of other areas. ...
Introduction
The transport and mobility sector is experiencing profound transformations. These changes are mainly due to: environmental awareness, the increase in the population of large urban areas and the size of cities, the aging of the population and the emergence of relevant technological innovations that have changed consumption habits, such as electronic commerce or the sharing economy. The introduction of new services such as Uber or Cabify is transforming urban and metropolitan mobility, which has to adapt to this new scenario and the very concept of mobility.
Objective
Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate whether ride-hailing platforms substitute or complement public transport to reduce accident rates, considering the two basic transport zones of Madrid: “The Central Almond” and the periphery.
Methods
The data were collected from the 21 districts of Madrid for the period 2013–2019, and they were analyzed by a Random Effects Negative Binominal model.
Results
The results obtained in this study suggest that since the arrival of Uber and Cabify to the municipality of Madrid the number of fatalities and serious injuries in traffic accidents has been reduced. Traffic accidents on weekends and holidays, with at least one serious injury or death, have also been reduced. However, the number of minor injuries has increased in the central districts of Madrid.
Conclusion
Overall, what was found in this study supports the hypothesis that these services replace the urban buses. However, these services improve the supply to users with greater difficulties to access taxis or public transport, constituting an alternative mode of transport for high-risk drivers. Therefore, such findings may be quite useful for policy makers to better define regulatory policies for these services.
... The results indicated that the CBD area and neighboring districts had the highest crash density distributed along major arterial roads and intersections. Furthermore, an investigation of the spatial distribution of road crashes and residential locations in two states of Germany-North Rhine-Westphalia and Lower Saxony, revealed that the risk of getting killed or suffering major injuries was much lower for residential areas with high density than suburban or rural areas (Scheiner & Holz-Rau, 2011). ...
Pedestrians are one of the most vulnerable road users globally. Recent years have witnessed an increasing interest among the scientific community to analyze and enhance pedestrians' safety in an environment dominated by motor vehicles. This study proposes a three-step methodology to identify current and future critical pedestrian crash hotspots. Firstly, available multi-year crash data from two cities in India is digitized, and the spatial autocorrelation tool is used to determine the pedestrian crash hotspots. Secondly, space-time cube and emerging hotspot analysis are carried out to predict crash hotspots along urban streets. Finally, Hotspot Identification (HSID) methods, i.e., Equivalent Property Damage Only (EPDO) and Upper-tail Critical Tests are used to rank the road links based on spatio-temporal crash severity leading to the identification of links needing urgent interventions. The proposed three-step integrated methodology is novel and has never been used to simultaneously identify and prioritize the critical pedestrian crash locations as it has been done in the present study. The developed methodology identifies sections of arterial roads—Strand Road and AJC Bose Road in Kolkata and Gota Road in Ahmedabad, as the critical hotspot links that require urgent intervention.
... Pedestrians accounted for the largest proportion of fatalities (39.5%) and based on the impact factor measure, these road users were 2.1 times more likely to die in crashes involving public transport vehicles, 1.7 times more likely in crashes occurring on dirt roads and 1.3 times more likely in crashes occurring in metropolitan municipality areas. The relatively higher vulnerability of pedestrians in crashes occurring in metropolitan municipalities is consistent with local and international research [7,39,40]. Specifically, in the South African setting, a general increase in population-based fatality rates with increasing levels of urbanisation was demonstrated for pedestrians, measured using several area-and population-based measures of rurality [7]. In addition, high rates of serious injuries and crash severity (a ratio index of both fatal and serious injuries to number of collisions) were shown to be strongly related to area level deprivation proxied by the percentage population living in informal shack settlements [20]. ...
Background
Contextual effects from the physical and social environment contribute to inequitable protection for a large proportion of road users, especially in low- and middle-income countries like South Africa where distorted urban planning and socio-spatial disparities from the apartheid era prevail.
Objectives
This paper examines the differentiated risk of road traffic crashes and injuries to vulnerable road users in South Africa, including pedestrians, females and users of some modes of public transport, in relation to characteristics of the crashes that proxy a range of contextual influences such as rurality and socio-economic deprivation.
Methods
The study is based on a descriptive analysis of 33 659 fatal crashes that occurred in South Africa over a three-year period from 2016–2018. Measures of simple proportion, population-based fatality rate, “impact factor” and crash severity are compared between disaggregated groups using Chi-Square analysis, with the Cramer’s V statistic used to assess effect size.
Results and significance
Key findings show a higher pedestrian risk in relation to public transport vehicles and area-level influences such as the nature of roads or extent of urbanity; higher passenger risk in relation to public transport vehicles and rurality; and higher risk for female road users in relation to public transport vehicles. The findings have implications for prioritising a range of deprivation-related structural effects. In addition, we present a “User-System-Context” conceptual framework that allows for a holistic approach to addressing vulnerability in the transport system. The findings provide an important avenue for addressing the persistently large burden of road traffic crashes and injuries in the country.
... Weekends, especially Sundays had the least number of road accidents due to the reduced road activity in these days, whereas increased numbers on Mondays and Fridays may be related to weekly commuters. The excess in road accidents on Fridays, and Saturdays compared to Sundays might be due to alcohol consumption, risk-seeking, and leisure drives at night among young drivers [71]. ...
When meteorological conditions deviate from the optimal range for human well-being, the risks of illness, injury, and death increase, and such impacts are feared in particular with more frequent and intense extreme weather conditions resulting from climate change. Thermal indices, such as the universal thermal climate index (UTCI), can better assess human weather-related stresses by integrating multiple weather components. This paper quantifies and compares the seasonal and spatial association of UTCI with mortality, morbidity, and road accidents in the federal state of Bavaria, Germany. Linear regression was applied to seasonally associate daily 56 million hospital admissions and 2.5 million death counts (1995–2015) as well as approximately 930,000 road accidents and 1.7 million people injured (2002–2015) with spatially interpolated same day- and lagged- (up to 14 days) average UTCI values. Additional linear regressions were performed stratifying by age, gender, region, and district. UTCI effects were clear in all three health outcomes studied: Increased UTCI resulted in immediate (1–2 days) rises in morbidity and even more strongly in mortality in summer, and lagged (up to 14 days) decreases in fall, winter, and spring. The strongest UTCI effects were found for road accidents where increasing UTCI led to immediate decreases in daily road accidents in winter but pronounced increases in all other seasons. Differences in UTCI effects were observed e.g. between in warmer north-western regions (Franconia, more districts with heat stress-related mortality, but hospital admissions for lung, heart and external reasons decreasing with summer heat stress), the touristic alpine regions in the south (immediate effect of increasing UTCI on road accidents in summer), and the colder south-eastern regions (increasing hospital admissions for lung, heart and external reasons in winter with UTCI). Districts with high percentages of elderly suffered from higher morbidity and mortality, particularly in winter. The influences of UTCI as well as the spatial and temporal patterns of this influence call for improved infrastructure planning and resource allocation in the health sector.
... One common problem with road safety research relates to the handling of injury severity. For instance, some studies intermingle fatal crashes with minor injury crashes and property damage only crashes (Scheiner and Holz-Rau, 2011). Thus, a handful of property damage only crashes could outweigh one or two fatal crashes. ...
Introduction
Despite bicycling being considered ten times more dangerous than driving, the evidence suggests that high-bicycling-mode-share cities are not only safer for bicyclists but for all road users. We look to understand what makes these cities safer. Are the safety differences related to ‘safety-in-numbers’ of bicyclists, or can they be better explained by built environment differences or the people that inhabit them?
Methods
Based on thirteen years of data from twelve large U.S. cities, we investigated over 17,000 fatalities and 77,000 severe injuries across nearly 8700 block groups via multilevel, longitudinal, negative binomial regression models. We hypothesize three pathways towards better road safety outcomes: i) travel behavior differences (e.g. ‘safety-in-numbers’ or shifts to ‘safer’ modes); ii) built environment differences (e.g. infrastructure that helps promote safer environments); and iii) socio-demographic/socio-economic differences (e.g. some cities may be populated by those with lower road safety risk).
Results
The results suggest that more bicyclists is not the reason these cities are safer for all road users. Better safety outcomes are instead associated with a greater prevalence of bike facilities – particularly protected and separated bike facilities – at the block group level and, more strongly so, across the overall city. Higher intersection density, which typically corresponds to more compact and lower-speed built environments, was strongly associated with better road safety outcomes for all road users. The variables representing gentrification also accounted for much of our explainable variation in safety outcomes.
Conclusions
This paper provides an evidence-based approach to building safer cities. While the policy implications of this work point to protected and separated bike infrastructure as part of the solution, we need to keep in mind that these approaches are complementary and should not be considered in isolation. Moreover, our results – particularly the safety disparities associated with gentrification – suggest equity issues and the need for future research.
... A pioneering study (Blatt and Furman, 1998) showed that rural and small-town residents were involved in fatal crashes more than urban residents, and rural roadways on which most of the fatal crashes occurred were mostly used by rural residents. This finding was verified in (Scheiner and Holz-Rau, 2011) by two case studies conducted in Germany. Fatality rates among different age groups were also investigated in that work, as well as gender types in different population densities and environment characteristics (Blatt and Furman, 1998). ...
This paper investigates the proximity of crashes to the residential locations of the crash occupants. To this end, two years of crash data was disaggregated by the crash occupants' ZIP codes for a study area in Southwest Florida in order to calculate the roadway network distances between their residential ZIP code area centroids (origins) and crash spots (destinations). These distances are then used to create multiple O-D vectors, so that several different groups can be analyzed controlling for non-motorist types (e.g. pedestrians, cyclists), rural vs. urban origin ZIP codes, different levels of crash severity, DUI involvement, and different age groups. Then, the best-fitting statistical distributions were identified for each group to assess the proximity of crash spots to the residences of crash occupants. Finally, a selection model was implemented to identify the effects of several factors on the distance between the crash spots and the residence locations. Results indicate clear differences in crash involvement among the groups with respect to varying urban densities, people's ages and modes of travel. These findings can help in the development of more accurate crash prediction methods, as most current approaches only implement variables associated with traffic and roadway geometry.
... Scheiner and Holz-Rau [4] explored the connection between the spatial distribution of road crashes and the place of residence in Germany. The results indicated that the risk of being killed or seriously injured in a road accident was significantly lower for the residences of high-density cores than for the suburban and rural inhabitants. ...
Road traffic safety is a key concern of transport management as it has severely restricted Chinese economic and social development. With the objective to prevent and reduce road traffic crashes, this study proposes a comprehensive spatiotemporal analysis method that integrates the time-space cube analysis, spatial autocorrelation analysis, and emerging hot spot analysis for exploring the traffic crash evolution characteristics and identifying crash hot spots. These analyses are all conducted by the corresponding toolbox of ArcGIS 10.5. Then, a small sized-city of China (i.e., Wujiang) is selected as the case study, and the historical traffic crash data occurring at the road intersections of Wujiang for the year 2016 are analyzed by the proposed method. The analysis process identifies the high incidence locations of traffic crashes, then presents the spatial change trend and statistical significance of the crash locations. Finally, different types of crash hotspots, as well as their evolution patterns over time, are determined. The results illustrate that the traffic crash hotspots of road intersections are primarily distributed in the Northeast area of Wujiang’s major urban area, while the crash cold spots are concentrated in the Southwest of Wujiang, which points out the direction for crash prevention. In addition, the finding has a potential engineering application value, and it is of great significance to the sustainable development of Wujiang.
... This finding may relate to possible differences in traffic performance and patterns in less vs more inhabited areas. Previous analyses, based on place of residence (as opposed to place of accident) shown that the risk is lower for city population compared to suburban and rural population (Blatt and Furman, 1998;Scheiner and Holz-Rau, 2011). These differences may have been translated to driving behaviour and skills, and in turn to hazard perceptions of users living in cities. ...
Traffic risk perception has been defined as a subjective interpretation of the risk involved in traffic situations; this concept is important for road safety, since it may predict how road users behave in traffic. In addition risk perception is often reflected in safety assessments: both from experts (during road safety inspections or investigations) and lay persons (in road user safety complaints). Subjective risk perception is also valuable in cases when other safety data are missing, for example due to underreporting or newly-built infrastructure; hence it is of interest to study the factors which determine how we perceive traffic risk. In this respect an on-line test was prepared, consisting of general questionnaire (gender, age, driving experience), risk perception assessment (rating level of risk in video clips of traffic situations), personality questionnaire, and Driver Behaviour Questionnaire. With objective of studying the links between subjective risk assessment and personality traits, as well as differences across several dimensions (such as male vs female drivers, less/more experienced drivers, drivers vs other road users, or lay persons vs safety experts), the test was used with 144 respondents, including students and adults, certified road safety auditors or Traffic Police officers. In total 9 hypotheses were formulated and statistically tested: some of the identified relationships provided expected results, consistent with previous studies: for example high risk perception of females compared to males or lack of differences between students (non-professionals) and experts (professionals); other findings were less expected, for example lack of relationships of risk perceptions to age and experience. Nevertheless in order to reduce potential consequences of subjective assessments, based on risk perception, the identified differences should be considered in future road safety auditors’ or traffic conflict observers’ training procedures.
... Similarly, as public transit travel increases in a community total (pedestrians, cyclists, motorists and transit passengers), per capita traffic casualty rates tend to decline (Karim, Wahba, and Sayed 2012;Scheiner and Holz-Rau 2011). Various studies using various analysis methods indicate that relatively small transit ridership gains are associated with proportionately larger reductions in per capita crash rates (Duduta et al. 2012). ...
Public transportation is, overall, a relatively safe (low crash risk) and secure (low crime risk) transport mode. Transit travel has about one-tenth the traffic casualty (injury or death) rate as automobile travel, and residents of transit-oriented communities have about one-fifth the per capita crash casualty rate as in automobile-oriented communities. Transit also tends to have lower overall crime rates than automobile travel, and transit improvements can help reduce overall crime risk by improving surveillance and economic opportunities for at-risk populations. Despite its relative safety and security, many people consider transit travel dangerous and are reluctant to use it or support service expansions in their communities. Various factors contribute to this excessive fear, including the nature of transit travel, heavy media coverage of transit-related crashes and crimes, and conventional traffic safety messages that emphasize danger rather than safety. Transit agencies can help create a new transit safety narrative by better communicating transit's overall safety and security impacts and providing better guidance concerning how users and communities can enhance transit safety and security.
Rear-end crashes are one of the most common crash types. Passenger cars involved in rear-end crashes frequently produce severe outcomes. However, no study investigated the differences in the injury severity of occupant groups when cars are involved as following and leading vehicles in rear-end crashes. Therefore, the focus of this investigation is to compare the key factors affecting the injury severity between the front- and rear-car occupant groups in rear-end crashes. First, data is extracted from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) for two types of rear-end crashes from 2017 to 2019, including passenger cars as rear-end and rear-ended vehicles. Significant injury severity difference between front- and rear-car occupant groups is found by conducting likelihood ratio test. Moreover, the front- and rear-car occupant groups are modelled by the correlated random parameter logit model with heterogeneity in means (CRPLHM) and the random parameter logit model with heterogeneity in means (RPLHM), respectively. From the modeling, the significant factors are occupant positions, driver age, overturn, vehicle type, etc. For instance, the driving and front-right positions significantly increase the probability of severe injury when struck by another vehicle. Large truck-strike-car tends to cause severe outcomes compared to car-strike-large truck. This study provides an insightful knowledge of mechanism of occupant injury severity in rear-end crashes, and propose some effective countermeasures to mitigate the crash severity, such as implementing stricter seat belt laws, improving the coverage of the streetlights, strengthening car driver's emergency response ability.
Purpose:
The aim of this study was to determine, using geographic information system (GIS), the spatial characteristics and factors associated with injury crashes among vulnerable road users (VRUs) in Cotonou, Benin.
Patients and methods:
This study was based on road crash data collected by the police in Cotonou from 2008 to 2017. Spatial analyses were performed using density method of QGIS cartography software to identify road crash hotspot for VRUs. Logistic regression analysis was conducted using Stata 15 software. Finally, field observations were used to assess the physical characteristics of the road environment at each hotspot.
Results:
From 2008 to 2017, six main crash hotspots involving VRUs were identified on the roads of Cotonou. The majority were located at intersections of main roads. These sites did not meet the standards for traffic safety for VRUs. Factors associated with injury crashes among VRUs were intersections (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 3.3; 95% CI: 1.8-6.1) and pavement condition (aOR = 7; 95% CI: 2.9-17.1).
Conclusion:
The present study has made it possible to identify the locations on Cotonou's road network where road safety interventions could be implemented to protect VRUs.
Background and Objective:Traffic accidents are always a threat to the lives of all citizens. Most of these accidents
The rise in the number of urban road accidents is a challenge shared by all European cities, which seek to improve mobility while reducing transport problems. In recent years, urban road accidents in Spain have been constantly increasing and now account for a larger share of the total number of road accidents. This paper aims to analyse the impact of urban factors on road accidents. For this purpose, a small-scale analysis of land use and road infrastructure has been conducted in the town of Benidorm, one of the main tourist destinations in Spain. In addition, a regression analysis has been carried out using a Negative Binomial distribution. The results show that factors such as the level of mixed land uses, population density and road infrastructure are related to urban road accidents. The findings also reveal that tourism environments have a positive impact on pedestrian road safety. Small-scale analyses, particularly those related to exclusively-oriented environments, such as tourism developments, should be studied in detail in order to promote safety, liveability and sustainability in our cities.
South Africa (SA) faces an unprecedented burden of injuries from road traffic crashes, yet the distribution of these events has not yet been studied using a geographical approach in order to help understand the importance of putative social and environment drivers. Such an approach was used in this study to investigate the correlates of spatial variations in road traffic fatalities (RTFs) in SA. Variations in RTFs between 2002 and 2006 were studied for 993 police areas. A wide range of explanatory variables comprising physical, environmental and socio-demographic characteristics were generated, and multilevel negative binomial regression models were fitted to identify those associated with RTFs. An area measure of violence and crime was shown to be a significant predictor of RTFs in SA in addition to a range of factors associated with driver behaviour, traffic exposure and socio-economic deprivation. Our research provides new insights into the correlates of road traffic mortality in this less developed country, and our findings have implications for the development of integrated resource-efficient strategies that allow for enforcement and other broader structural interventions to target injuries and crime in general.
During the period between 1985 and 2000 the number of elderly people (65 years and older) holding a driver's licence will probably double in Germany. Under the broadly accepted assumption that the elderly drive less safely than other age groups, it is suspected that this will negatively affect traffic safety. The central topic of the study concerns the results of driving tests with 80 elderly drivers (60-82 years old), compared with a reference group of 30 middle-aged motorists (40-50 years), and their relation to laboratory performance data. In the laboratory marked differences were found concerning visual acuity by daylight (even when deficiencies were corrected by visual aids) and in the dark, performance in a traffic-related tachistoscopic perception test, and notably in the amount of time needed in tracking and reaction tests. The performance of elderly drivers proved worse in all of these laboratory tasks. On the other hand, in driving tests in the overwhelming number of traffic situations the elderly did not differ unfavorably from the middle-aged drivers. Possible explanations for these findings are considered.
Problem: Reducing gasoline consumption could sharply curtail greenhouse gas emissions. Ongoing research seeks to document factors associated with green travel behavior, like walking and transit use.Purpose: We seek to determine whether green beliefs and values are associated with green travel behavior. We measure whether residents of communities with environmentalist attributes drive less, consume less gasoline, and are more likely to commute by private vehicle. We explore several channels through which green beliefs and values may affect travel behavior and vice versa.Methods: We drew our demographic, transportation, and built environment data from the 2000 Census of Population and Housing including the Public Use Microdata Sample and the 2001 National Household Travel Survey, and constructed our indicators of green ideology using voting records, political party membership, and data on hybrid auto ownership. We estimated ordinary least squares regression and linear probability models using both individual households and small areas as units of analysis.Results and conclusions: We find green ideology is associated with green travel behavior. People with green values are more likely than others to be located in communities with high population densities and proximity to city centers and rail transit stations, which are attributes conducive to environmentally friendly travel. We also find that residents of green communities engage in more sustainable travel than residents of other communities, even controlling for demographics and the effects of the built environment. Green ideology may cause green travel behavior because greens derive utility from conservation or because greens locate in, or create, areas with characteristics that promote sustainable travel. We also discuss the possibility that green travel behavior may cause green beliefs.Takeaway for practice: If greens self-select into dense, central, and transit-friendly areas, the demand for these characteristics may rise if green consciousness does. Alternatively, if these characteristics cause green consciousness, their promotion promises to increase green behavior. The implications of our finding that residents of green communities engage in more sustainable travel patterns than others depends on the causal mechanism at work. If greens conserve because they derive utility from it, then environmental education and persuasion may bring about more sustainable travel. Alternatively, if green travel behavior causes green beliefs, it is possible that attracting more travelers to alternate modes and reducing vehicle miles traveled may increase environmental consciousness, which may in turn promote other types of pro-environment behavior.Research support: None.
We sought to determine the association between urban sprawl and traffic fatalities.
We created a sprawl index by applying principal components analysis to data for 448 US counties in the largest 101 metropolitan areas. Regression analysis was used to determine associations between the index and traffic fatalities.
For every 1% increase in the index (i.e., more compact, less sprawl), all-mode traffic fatality rates fell by 1.49% (P <.001) and pedestrian fatality rates fell by 1.47% to 3.56%, after adjustment for pedestrian exposure (P <.001).
Urban sprawl was directly related to traffic fatalities and pedestrian fatalities. Subsequent studies should investigate relationships at a finer geographic scale and should strive to improve on the measure of exposure used to adjust pedestrian fatality rates.
This paper examines the spatial transformation of the city from children’s point of view. Three important daily living domains – children’s outdoor play spaces, leisure centres and caring institutions – are examined. Empirical findings are made from studies in Amsterdam, where new urban developments affecting children are most apparent in the Netherlands. Conclusions show that developments are both diverse and paradoxical. On the one hand, we see processes that progressively contribute towards the exclusion of children from urban public space. Safety considerations underpin these processes heavily. Children’s marginal position in the public domain is further reinforced in the planning and design of new residential areas. Children do not seem to be a factor that merits consideration. On the other hand, never before has so much attention been paid to children. Adults’ efforts to give due consideration to children’s position lead to the creation of many new domains especially created for children. These give children a ‘face’ in the city, but these spaces are characterised by privatisation, institutionalisation and segregation. In the context of the Netherlands it is not altogether clear what shape the future will take, but it seems to be most likely that indicated developments will continue.
Excess commuting has emerged during the past two decades as an important construct for evaluating the spatial relationships between employment and residential locations. During this time-period, there has been an on-going debate regarding how one should measure excess commuting in urban regions. This paper contributes to the debate by focusing on the spatial issues inherent in excess commuting evaluation. We demonstrate how scale and unit definition (the modifiable areal unit problem) are manifested in the assessment of excess commuting, both in theoretical and empirical terms. To this end, a geographical information systems-based analysis is presented which explores spatial sensitivities in the excess commuting measure. Our results show that aggregation and spatial unit definition may have profound impacts on the estimation of excess commuting. This work provides a formal resolution to much of the recent debate regarding estimates of excess commuting in urban regions.
Considers the nature of the modifiable areal unit problem. A survey is made of the prevailing ambivalent attitudes that geographers display and the general absence of any sense of verisimilitude is emphasized. A critical review is made of several alternative approaches to handling the problem.-from Authors
While concerns about traffic safety were central to the development of conventional community design practice, there has been little empirical examination into the relationship between community design and the incidence of traffic-related crashes, injuries, and deaths. This study examines the relationship between community design and crash incidence. It presents a brief historical review of the safety considerations that helped shape conventional community design practice, followed by the results of negative binomial models developed from a GIS-based database of crash incidence and urban form. The authors find that many of the safety assumptions embedded in contemporary community design practice are not substantiated by the empirical evidence. While it may be true that disconnecting local street networks and relocating non-residential uses to arterial thoroughfares can reduce neighborhood traffic volumes, these community design configurations appear to substitute one set of safety problems for another. Surface arterial thoroughfares, arterial-oriented commercial uses, and big box stores were all found to be associated with an increased incidence of traffic-related crashes and injuries, while higher-density communities with more traditional, pedestrian-oriented retail configurations were found to be associated with fewer crashes. Intersections were found to have a mixed effect on crash incidence. We conclude by discussing the likely reasons for these findings - vehicle operating speeds and systematic design error - and outline three general design considerations that may help address them. © 2013 selection and editorial material, Michael Hibbard, Robert Freestone, and Tore Øivin Sager.
Knowing about the challenges and opportunities of spatial autocorrelation is one thing, but applying the measures to one's own data is another matter entirely. While manual computation of the measures for toy data sets is possible, applying them to small data sets required the use of computers and thus software. This article will shed some light on how the measures were and are implemented in software and on implementation issues that are still not fully resolved.
This paper investigates the destination choice problem in transportation planning processes. Most models assume a Multinomial Logit (MNL) form for the problem. The MNL cannot account for unobserved similarities which exist among choice alternatives.The purpose of this paper is to investigate alternative destination choice model structures, focusing on closed-form models. The paper reviews recent GEV formulations and discusses the adaptation of these models to destination choice situation. In addition the paper presents a new model structure composed of three hierarchical levels: it assumes a choice process composed of a broad selection of zones based on a specific land use characteristic (in this case, presence of shopping center) and then a finer selection of zones based on a geographical characteristic (in this case, adjacent zones).To illustrate the similarity measures of selected GEV formulations and the new model structure the paper specifies, estimates and compares destination choice models for weekday shopping trips based on a revealed preference survey. The paper discusses the structure of the proposed choice models, similarity measures and implementation issues related to the GEV destination choice models.
In recent decades, trends in travel behaviour have been characterised by increasing trip distances and a modal shift towards the private car. This paper reports findings from longitudinal analyses of the German nation-wide travel survey KONTIV for the period 1976–2002. It focuses on travel mode choice, subdivided by distance categories, and also takes car availability and city size into account. In addition, trends in car availability itself are examined by city size categories. The results indicate that even within the same distance categories car use has considerably increased. In some cases bicycle use has increased as well. Gains in the use of the private car are mainly at the expense of trips on foot and by public transport. Accordingly, the shift in modal split towards the car is not (only) caused by increasing trip distances but took place even within distance classes. Once car availability is taken into account, the modal shifts appear to be considerably weaker. This suggests that once car availability is held constant the decision rationales of mode choice for a certain trip distance have remained relatively stable. The increase in motorisation over the study period was considerably weaker in large cities than in small towns, although the cities started from a lower level in the 1970s. Thus, the motorisation divide between cities on the one hand, and suburban and rural areas on the other hand has become ever wider. For travel mode choice, the picture is similar. What is more, the results suggest that even car owners are more inclined to walk a given distance in the cities than in small towns, even more so if they live in a central urban area. The built environment, thus, appears to have a strong impact on whether an available car is used or not.
This study describes spatial patterns in Honolulu motor vehicle accidents for 1990. A method for geo-coding accident locations is utilized with approximately 98% of the crash locations being identified. Spatial software tools are developed for describing the degree of spatial concentration. The spatial patterns of different types of accidents and accidents for every hour of the day, weekdays and weekends separately, are analyzed. Accidents spatially fluctuate dynamically, as a response to changing traffic patterns and volume. Generally, most accidents are closer to employment centers than to residential areas. In the suburban and rural areas, however, accidents are more likely to involve fatalities or serious injuries and be related to night-time driving and alcohol. It is shown that these conditions spatially correlate with single-vehicle crashes and crashes with opposite direction vehicles. The spatial patterns point to the limits of "blackspot" analysis.
Spatially disaggregate ward level data for England is used in an analysis of various area-wide factors on road casualties. Data on 8414 wards was input into a geographic information system that contained data on land use types, road characteristics and road casualties. Demographic data on area-wide deprivation (the index of multiple deprivation) for each ward was also included. Negative binomial count data models were used to analyze the associations between these factors with traffic fatalities, serious injuries and slight injuries. Results suggest that urbanized areas are associated with fewer casualties (especially fatalities) while areas of higher employment density are associated with more casualties. More deprived areas tend to have higher levels of casualties, though not of motorized casualties (except slight injuries). The effect of road characteristics are less significant but there are some positive associations with the density of "A" and "B" level roads.
Studies have demonstrated that the fatality risk for motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) is higher in rural than urban areas. The purpose of this study was to quantify the risk of a fatal outcome associated with a crash by the urban/rural classification of the driver's county of residence and the county of crash before and after adjusting for potentially confounding factors.
County of crash and driver's county of residence were classified as urban or rural for 514,648 Utah crash participants. Multivariate regression analysis was used to assess the impact of rural versus urban crash location on fatality outcomes for both urban and rural drivers.
Before adjusting for confounding factors the relative risk of fatality in a rural versus urban crash was 9.7 (95% CI: 8.0-11.7) for urban drivers and their passengers compared to 1.8 (95% CI: 1.3-2.6) for rural residents. Adjustment for behavioral, road, and crash characteristics reduced risk estimates to 2.8 (95% CI: 2.2-3.5) and 1.2 (95% CI: 0.8-1.7), respectively.
Urban and rural drivers may have distinct risk factors for MVC fatality in rural areas. Interventions to reduce the risk of fatality in rural areas should evaluate the needs of both urban and rural drivers.
BASt-Info 02/06 BASt, Bergisch-Gladbach. (Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen) 2006 GEV-based destination choice models that account for unobserved similarities among alternatives
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BASt Straßenverkehrsunfälle in Deutschland 2004. BASt-Info 02/06. BASt, Bergisch-Gladbach. (Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen) 2006. Volkswirtschaftliche Kosten durch Bekhor, S., Prashker, J. N., 2008. GEV-based destination choice models that account for unobserved similarities among alternatives. Transportation Research Part B 42(3), 243-262
Regionale Verteilung von Kinderunfällen in Deutschland – Kinderunfallatlas. BASt, Bergisch Gladbach. rJoachim Scheiner and Christian Holz-Rau A residential location approach to traffic safety: two case studies from Germany 29 A spatially disaggregate analysis of road casualties in England
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Verkehrssicherheit in Stadt und (Um-)Land: Unfallrisiko im Stadt-Land-Vergleich
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Lebensstil, Freizeitstil und Verkehrsverhalten 18-bis 34jähriger Verkehrsteilnehmer
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Schulze, H., 1999. Lebensstil, Freizeitstil und Verkehrsverhalten 18-bis 34jähriger Verkehrsteilnehmer. BASt, Bergisch-Gladbach.
The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem Interrelations between travel mode choice and trip distance: trends in Germany
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Unfälle im Straßenverkehr
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Sicherheitsdefizite in Städten und Gemeinden. Unfall-und Sicherheitsforschung Straßenverkehr 49
- V Meewes
Meewes, V., 1984. Sicherheitsdefizite in Städten und Gemeinden. Unfall-und Sicherheitsforschung Straßenverkehr 49. BASt, Bergisch-Gladbach.
Attitudes towards road safety and traffic behaviour among adolescents in urban and rural areas in Norway
- S Eiksund
Eiksund, S., 2004. Attitudes towards road safety and traffic behaviour among adolescents in
urban and rural areas in Norway. Paper presented at the European Transport Conference,
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Wohnstandortinformationen für private Haushalte: Grundlagen und Erfahrungen aus zwei Modellstädten
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Haushalte: Grundlagen und Erfahrungen aus zwei Modellstädten. Dortmunder Beiträge zur
Raumplanung -Verkehr. IRPUD, Dortmund (in print).
Stadtverkehrsplanung Teil 4: Verkehrssicherheit im Städtevergleich. Stadt-und verkehrsstrukturelle Einflüsse auf die Unfallbelastung
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Regionale Verteilung von Kinderunfällen in Deutschland -Kinderunfallatlas
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Neumann-Opitz, N., Bartz, R., Leipnitz, C., 2008. Regionale Verteilung von Kinderunfällen in
Deutschland -Kinderunfallatlas. BASt, Bergisch Gladbach.