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Effects of Perceived Fitness Level of Exercise Partner on Intensity of Exertion

January 2010
Journal of Social Sciences 6(1)

DOI:10.3844/jssp.2010.50.54

Authors:

Santa Clara University

Problem statement: Social comparison theory was used to examine if exercising with a research confederate posing as either high fit or low fit would increase the exertion in exercising. Approach: 91 college students were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: Biking alone, biking with a high fit confederate, or biking with a low fit confederate. All participants were instructed to complete 20 min of exercise at 60-70% of their maximum target heart rate. Results: Results indicated that participants in the high fit condition exercised harder than those in the low fit condition. However, no mood differences emerged between conditions. Conclusion: Social comparison theory predicts exercise outcome such that participants gravitate towards the behavior (high fit or low fit) of those around them.

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Journal of Social Sciences 6 (1): 50-54, 2010

ISSN 1549-3652

Corresponding Author: Thomas G. Plante, Department of Psychology, Alumni Science Hall, Room 203,

Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, CA 95053-0333

Effects of Perceived Fitness Level of Exercise Partner on

Intensity of Exertion

Thomas G. Plante, Meghan Madden, Sonia Mann, Grace Lee,

Allison Hardesty, Nick Gable, Allison Terry and Greg Kaplow

Department of Psychology, Alumni Science Hall, Room 203,

Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, CA 95053-0333

Abstract: Problem statement: Social comparison theory was used to examine if exercising with a

research confederate posing as either high fit or low fit would increase the exertion in exercising.

Approach: 91 college students were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: Biking alone,

biking with a high fit confederate, or biking with a low fit confederate. All participants were instructed

to complete 20 min of exercise at 60-70% of their maximum target heart rate. Results: Results

indicated that participants in the high fit condition exercised harder than those in the low fit condition.

However, no mood differences emerged between conditions. Conclusion: Social comparison theory

predicts exercise outcome such that participants gravitate towards the behavior (high fit or low fit) of

those around them.

Key words: Exercise, social comparison, perceived fitness, mood, exertion

INTRODUCTION

Research has demonstrated many physical and

psychological benefits of exercise including reduced

risks of cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes,

cancer and obesity (Center for Disease Control and

Prevention, 2006; Blair et al., 1989; Brukner and

Brown, 2005; Byers et al., 2002; Pate et al., 1995;

Bryan et al., 2007; Morgan, 1985) as well as

psychological disturbances such as depression, anxiety

and stress disorders (Plante and Rodin, 1990; Plante,

1999; Kennedy and Newton, 1997). Researchers

generally agree that exercise provides many benefits for

both physical and mental health (Center for Disease

Control and Prevention, 2006; Blair et al., 1989;

Brukner and Brown, 2005; Byers et al., 2002; Pate et al.,

1995; Bryan et al., 2007; Morgan, 1985; Plante and

Rodin, 1990; Plante, 1999; Kennedy and Newton,

1997). Although research on the many benefits of

exercise is abundant, there is surprisingly little research

on the psychological and behavioral effects of

exercising with others. The limited available research

examining social exercise has demonstrated health and

mood advantages and disadvantages of exercising with

a partner (Plante et al., 2001; 2003).

Social comparison theory may offer a helpful

framework for understanding the effects of exercising

with others. The theory states that “humans have a drive

to assess how they are doing and in order to assess

how they are doing, they seek standards against which

to compare themselves. When objective standards are

not available, people look to their social environments

and engage in comparison with available others”

(Corning et al., 2006). Social comparison theory has

been applied to various research areas that may explain

why people are motivated to engage in health-

promoting or health damaging behaviors (Festinger,

1954).

For example, in an investigation on how social

influences encourage healthy behaviors such as

exercise, perceived behaviors of peers influenced the

behavior of others such that individuals were likely to

mimic the behavior of those around them (Festinger,

1954; Luszczyska et al., 2004). Individuals feel the

need to engage in socially acceptable behaviors, such as

exercising, when observing others doing the same

(Luszczyska et al., 2004).

Additional research demonstrates that mood and

energy levels are altered when exercising in the

presence of others or in front of a mirror. For example,

women who exercised with a partner or in front of a

mirror experienced an increased level of exhaustion and

decreases in feelings of revitalization while exercising

compared to women who exercised either alone or

without mirrors (Ginis et al., 2006). Although some

people may feel self-conscious exercising in the

J. Social Sci., 6 (1): 50-54, 2010

presence of others, research demonstrates that

individuals often engage in exercise for social

interaction. The likelihood of joining and staying

motivated during exercise increases when friends or

peers engage in those same activities (Faulkner et al.,

2008; Laverie, 1998).

In the present study, social comparison theory was

used to determine if exercising with someone perceived

to be either high or low in fitness would alter the

exercise experience and behavior of research

participants. In particular, we examined mood and the

level of exertion in subjects when exercising with

someone who the participant believed to possess either

a high or low level of fitness. We hypothesized that the

level of effort exerted by participants would match the

perceived fitness of their partner such that research

participants would mimic the exercise behavior of those

around them during exercise.

Exercise in this study was defined as biking either

alone or with a partner in one of three experimental

conditions. In two experimental conditions, the

participant exercised with a research confederate as

their partner. One of these conditions used a “high fit”

confederate, while the other condition used a “low fit”

confederate. In a third and control condition, the

participant exercised on a stationary bicycle alone. All

of the participants in the experiment completed the

same intensity and length of time of physical activity

required to meet the daily recommended criteria

suggested by the Center for Disease Control and

Prevention (2009).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Participants: The sample consisted of 91

undergraduate students at a West coast private

Catholic university (43 females, 48 males, M = 18.84

years, SD = 1.07). All subjects were enrolled in a

general psychology course and received research

participation credit. The project received approval from

the human subjects committee at the university where it

was conducted.

Measures:

Activation-Deactivation Adjective Check List (AD-

ACL) (Thayer, 1978; Thayer, 1986): The AD-ACL

is a brief, frequently used self-report checklist

designed to measure momentary mood states

associated with exercise with reported adequate

reliability and validity used in a number of

investigations involving exercise.

Perceived Exertion Scale (Borg scale, PES) (Borg,

1982): The PES was used to evaluate the participants’

perceived level of exertion where 6 = very light

exertion and 20 = very hard exertion. The PES is often

used in exercise research and has adequate reliability

and validity.

Paces Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES)

(Kendzierski and DeCarlo, 1991): The PACES scale

includes18 bipolar items on which individuals rate

themselves on a 7 point Likert scale. The scale

measures the amount of enjoyment individuals perceive

themselves to have experienced during an exercise

activity. Sample scale items include “I find it

energizing/I find it tiring “and” I enjoy it/I hate it.” The

authors report that PACES has excellent internal

consistency, stability and validity.

Several researchers developed Likert scales: Several

10 point Likert scales developed by the authors

measuring each participant’s current level of perceived

stress, how participants felt while exercising next to

someone who was either posing as high fit or low fit.

The value of 1 indicated high stress, low enjoyment,

low level of comfort and feeling low fit while the value

of 10 indicated very relaxed, very enjoyable, very

comfortable and feeling very fit.

Procedure: Participants enrolled in the study to

complete a requirement for a general psychology

undergraduate class. On the day prior to their scheduled

laboratory session, participants received an email to

remind them of the experiment and confirmed their

appointment. The participants were told to wear

comfortable and exercise appropriate clothing.

Prior to beginning of the experiment, participants

reviewed and signed consent forms agreeing to

participate. Then, they were administered the pre-

exercise questionnaires and their height and weight was

recorded. The lab assistant then placed heart rate

monitors on the participants’ upper torsos and gave

them a wristwatch that displayed their heart rates.

Participants were randomly assigned to one of three

experimental conditions. The length and intensity of

exercise were the same and included biking for 20 min

on a stationary bike. Participants were instructed to

keep their heart rates at a moderate level of 60-70%

maximum heart rate (i.e., about 130 bpm for college

students). The conditions included: biking alone in a

control condition, biking with a same gender “high-fit”

confederate and biking with a same gender “low-fit”

confederate.

J. Social Sci., 6 (1): 50-54, 2010

For the purposes of this experiment we

operationally defined “high fit” as someone who wore

athletic clothing, exercised intensely and stated to the

experimenter in the presence of the research subject, “I

am so glad you had a fitness study, I love exercising”

while mounting the bike. A “low-fit” confederate wore

non-athletic gear (e.g., jeans, slippers), barely exerted

themselves and stated to the experimenter in the

presence of the research subject, “I don’t know why I

signed up for this experiment, I hate exercising” while

mounting the bike.

In all conditions, confederates entered the room

after the participant had arrived and asked if they were

in the right place for the fitness study. This was done to

minimize suspicions that confederates were research

assistants.

After exercising, the participant and the

confederate were asked to rate their perceived level of

exertion according to the PES/Borg Scale (Borg, 1982).

After completing the experiment, the experimenter

debriefed the participants and informed them about the

purpose of the study. The confederates’ identity was

revealed (i.e., that they were part of the experiment) and

participants were asked not to discuss the experiment

with others to avoid future possible participants from

learning about the purpose of the study. The

participants were thanked for their time and provided

with course credit.

RESULTS

A 2×3 Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) was used

to analyze the data. The only exception was for the

measure of mood post-exercise scores where a 2×3

Analysis Of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used with pre

laboratory exercise mood scores used as covariates.

The manipulation check was successful in that

participants who exercised with high fit confederates

perceived them as high fit while participants who

exercised with low fit confederates perceived them as

low fit. Participants ranked confederates on a 10-point

scale where 10 was defined as being high fit and 1

was defined as being low fit. The average rating for

high fit confederate was 7.8 (SD = 1.2) while the

average rating of low fit confederates were 5.2

(SD = 1.3; F(2, 63) = 24.04, p<0.001).

Pulse rate and exertion results indicated that

participants in the high fit group had higher pulse rates

and worked harder than participants in the low fit and

control groups (F(2, 90) = 9.05, p<0.001). For example,

females who exercised with high fit confederates had an

average pulse rate of 133 beats min

−1

(bpm) (SD = 24.35)

while females who exercised with low fit confederates

had an average pulse rate of 119 bpm (SD = 13.54).

Males who exercised with a high fit confederate had an

average pulse rate of 124 bpm (SD = 18.39) while

males who exercised with a low fit confederate had an

average pulse rate of 99 bmp (SD = 8.46). Additionally,

females in experimental groups worked harder and had

higher pulse rates than males, yielding a significant

gender interaction (F(1, 90) = 20.38, p<0.001).

Participants in experimental groups felt they

exerted themselves more than participants in control

groups (F(2, 91) = 3.42, p<0.05) and females ranked

their exertion levels higher than males (F (1, 91) = 4.38,

p<0.05).

A non significant trend demonstrated that

participants in the high fit conditions were the least

calm while those in the control group were the most

calm (F(2, 91) = 2.87, p = 0.063). Females in the high

fitness condition were the most uncomfortable and the

least calm (F(2, 91) = 3.90, p<0.05).

Interestingly, participants in the control group

enjoyed the exercise activity the most (F(2, 93) =

p<0.05) and reported being the most relaxed (F(2, 93) =

p<0.05).

Surprisingly, there were no significant main effects

or interactions for the measures of mood, tiredness,

tension and energy with all p’s>0.05.

DISCUSSION

Social comparison theory has been applied to a

variety of research areas such as perceived physical

appearance, wealth, success and failure (Buunk and

Gibbons, 1997). The goal of this study was to examine

how social comparisons might impact an individual’s

level of exertion and mood during an exercise routine

with a perceived high fit or low fit exercise partner. The

results were consistent with social comparison theory

predictions when applied to exercise outcome such that

participants gravitate towards the exercise behaviors of

those around them. Even when all participants,

regardless of experimental conditions, were instructed

to exercise at a moderate level and keep their pulse

rates within a particular range, they mimic the exercise

behavior of their exercise partner. Additionally,

individuals who exercised alone reported feeling calmer

and more relaxed in comparison to individuals who

exercised with a partner.

Implications of this research might suggest that

individuals attempting to exercise more intensely could

benefit by exercising next to someone they perceive to

be high fit. However, high fit individuals would likely

not receive those same benefits when working next to

someone lower in fitness. A less fit individual might

J. Social Sci., 6 (1): 50-54, 2010

influence a higher fit individual to exert themselves

less. Thus, a high fit individual might benefit more

from either exercising alone or exercising with another

high fit individual. Exercising with someone more fit

than oneself could promote a higher intensity workout

(Daley and Huffen, 2005). However, exercising alone

may prove to be more beneficial than exercising with

either a high or low fit individual when trying to secure

a relaxing exercise experience.

Results from the current study must be considered

cautiously. The sample consisted of a generally

homogeneous population of generally high fit and

healthy undergraduate students at a private university.

Furthermore, the sample size was small (n = 91) and the

findings may have occurred due to unknown factors.

The lab setting of this experiment may not generalize to

the real world such as a fitness club or exercise gym

experience. Health clubs often have a variety of fitness

levels represented, have music, mirrors and other types

of cues that differ from a university laboratory setting.

Curiously, no group differences were found while

measuring mood. One might expect that mood would

be impacted by the experience but results showed that it

was not in this study. Finally, in examining our

manipulation check regarding the difference in

perceived fitness level of the confederate subjects, the

findings were modest suggesting that perhaps

participants experienced the high fit participant as high

fit but the low fit participant as being moderately fit.

CONCLUSION

Future research should further investigate the

effects of social comparison theory on exercise

behaviors. It would be useful to use a heterogeneous

sample with individuals ranging in fitness levels. It

would also be useful to repeat this study in a more real

world setting, such as an exercise gym or health club.

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VR exergaming is a promising motivational tool to incentivise exercise. We present a novel VR exergaming method called social interactive feedforward. The player competes with an 'enhanced model' of one of their friends in a real-time VR environment, showing improved performance levels in a way the player can relate to. Social interactive feedforward was tested in a cycling-based VR exergame and players competed with enhanced models of themselves, their friend, and a stranger moving at the same enhanced pace. Results show that friend-modelled social interactive feedforward improves performance and intrinsic motivation the most. This indicates that the mere association of the enhanced model with their friend results in a rapid improvement in performance and motivation which implies that social feedforward was successfully elicited by using an enhanced friend's model. This widens the application of self-modelled feedforward to a wide range of social options which enables players to also reap the benefits of socialising in addition to feedforward benefits.

Active With Whom? Examining the Social Context of Physical Activity in Individuals After Stroke and Their Partners

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2021

Engaging in regular moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) is crucial to reduce future health risk for individuals living with the effects of a stroke and their partners. Although numerous studies point to the importance of social factors in physical activity engagement, little is known about with whom individuals after stroke and their partners engage in physical activity with and whether different physical activity companions are uniquely associated with MVPA. Eighty-nine community-dwelling individuals after stroke (Mage = 68.64, SD = 10.44; 74% male) and 83 partners (Mage = 66.04, SD = 9.91; 24% male) completed 14 consecutive days of daily life assessments that included wearing physical activity monitors (accelerometers) and self-reporting physical activity companions (n = 1,961 days). Results show that average levels of MVPA were correlated between partners (r = 0.38), as were day-to-day MVPA fluctuations (r = 0.34). Importantly, for individuals after stroke, being active with their partner, but not with any other physical activity companion, was linked with elevated daily MVPA. In contrast, for partners of individuals after stroke, engaging in physical activity with a variety of different companions (partner, other family member, friend, colleague) was each associated with higher MVPA in daily life. For both individuals after stroke and their partners being active by oneself (without a companion) on a given day was not associated with elevated MVPA. Findings suggest that interventions that promote physical activity engagement should consider the role of meaningful others, with the partner being particularly key for individuals living with chronic health conditions.

Characteristics of the social network of bike share members in New York City

Article

Sep 2021

Background Bike share has been hypothesized to be a phenomenon of social contagion. The current study describes the features of the social network of annual subscribers of the Citi Bike share system in NYC and the characteristics of those who ever took a trip with another member. Methods Associations comparing members who rode with others (social) to those who rode alone (non-social) on selected study variables were examined. Social network analysis was performed to examine characteristics of the network of Citi Bike members. A social trip was determined based on start and end trip time and station locations. Results There were 241,340 active Citi Bike members with at least 365 days of membership between May 13, 2013 and December 31, 2018. Those who had taken at least one social trip (n = 139,302, 57.7%) were more likely to be older; have higher household income; have ridden a bike in NYC 12 months before membership; not own a car; self-report as physically active; self-report good health; live in a ZCTA with a Citi Bike station; and list primary reasons for membership as a faster way to get around town or as friends and family joining. Those who never took a social trip were more likely to have requested safety tips from Citi Bike; and to report their primary reason for membership as an alternative to public transportation, personal health and fitness, or support for the program. The social network of Citi Bike members was composed of 139,302 members with 164,735 unique connections to other members. The average number of connections per social member was 2.4 and the maximum was 66. The network was not very dense or well connected with 19,809 subnetworks. Conclusion Social members differed from non-social members in several ways. Understanding the characteristics of key network members could play a part in promoting and encouraging bike share usage. In particular, organized social trips could increase bike share usage among women.

Comparative efficacy of lifestyle intervention strategies targeting weight outcomes in people with psychosis: a systematic review and network meta-analysis

Article

Jul 2019

Objectives: The objective of this review was to pool and rank the efficacy of lifestyle intervention strategies targeting weight, body mass index, waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio in people with psychosis by comparing the effect size of these weight outcomes. Secondary to this, the objective was to stratify the lifestyle interventions according to their inclusion of dietary information that adheres to Australian Dietary Guidelines. Introduction: People living with psychosis have a significantly increased risk of all-cause mortality, with cardiovascular disease a considerable contributor to this risk. Controlling lifestyle risk factors, which include smoking, poor diet and inadequate physical activity, leads to significant weight reduction and decreases cardiovascular disease risk. Previous reviews on this topic have not clearly identified essential components of lifestyle interventions in people with psychosis, mainly due to statistical limitations of analyses. This review employed the network meta-analysis, which compares more than two groups of interventions and ranks them according to efficacy, thus providing a global estimate of effect. Additionally, available reviews have not assessed compliance of dietary information offered in lifestyle interventions to established guidelines. Inclusion criteria: This review considered randomized controlled studies that delivered lifestyle interventions to community-dwelling adults with psychotic disorders. Outcomes of interest were weight, body mass index, waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio. Methods: The Cochrane Library, MEDLINE/PreMEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, Scopus and PsycINFO were searched for studies published in English from 1985 to June 2018. Data were qualitatively summarized, during which lifestyle intervention subgroups were created (based on key similarities) and then compared in direct meta-analyses and network meta-analyses. Assessments of study adherence to Australian Dietary Guidelines was conducted in a narrative format. Results: Thirty-two randomized control studies were included, and the overall quality of these studies ranged from what appeared to be low to moderate. Lifestyle intervention studies contained both a dietary and physical activity component, with the exception of two studies that focused solely on physical activity. Delivery of dietary and physical activity information was mainly through education; however, some studies provided additional structure to the intervention by offering tailored advice or helping participants to set goals, and providing regular review of progress for diet, physical activity or both. Results from network-meta-analyses showed that only studies with a structured approach for both diet and physical activity demonstrated significant decreases in weight (effect size = -4.12, 95% confidence interval = -7.772 to -2.760, P = 0.000) and body mass index (effect size = -2.94, 95% confidence interval = -1.78 to -0.357, P = 0.003). Waist circumference subgroup comparisons mainly comprised single studies; therefore, findings are inconclusive. Dietary information provided in studies generally complied with Australian Dietary Guidelines; however, none of the studies complied with all guidelines. Conclusions: Lifestyle interventions incorporating both dietary and physical activity components led to the greatest decreases in weight (4.1 kg) and body mass index (2.9 points) among people with psychosis. Important intervention strategies for both components are the personalization of education through tailored advice or goal setting, and a corresponding progress review. Dietary information in the included studies appeared to comply with the Australian Dietary Guidelines. However, these findings were weakened by an increased risk of bias, complex and multicomponent study designs, and lack of clarity in reporting of study methodology.

Psychological benefits of exercising with another

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2003
J Hum Mov Stud

This study sought to determine whether exercising with another person improves the psychological benefits of exercise relative to exercising alone. One hundred and fifty-five participants completed a series of questionnaires measuring levels of tension, calmness, energy and tiredness before exercise, immediately following exercise and later that day before bedtime. Participants exercised on a stationary laboratory bicycle for 30min either alone, with another person of the same sex or with a person of the opposite sex. Results suggest that exercising alone or with others did not differentially impact upon mood. All groups equally experienced mood benefits after exercising. Depression was found to be positively correlated with perceived exertion and women were found to report greater exertion when exercising alone than when exercising in mixed pairs.

Physical activity and public health. A recommendation from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine

Article

Full-text available

Feb 1995

Objective: To encourage increased participation in physical activity among Americans of all ages by issuing a public health recommendation on the types and amounts of physical activity needed for health promotion and disease prevention. Participants: A planning committee of five scientists was established by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine to organize a workshop. This committee selected 15 other workshop discussants on the basis of their research expertise in issues related to the health implications of physical activity. Several relevant professional or scientific organizations and federal agencies also were represented. Evidence: The panel of experts reviewed the pertinent physiological, epidemiologic, and clinical evidence, including primary research articles and recent review articles. Consensus process: Major issues related to physical activity and health were outlined, and selected members of the expert panel drafted sections of the paper from this outline. A draft manuscript was prepared by the planning committee and circulated to the full panel in advance of the 2-day workshop. During the workshop, each section of the manuscript was reviewed by the expert panel. Primary attention was given to achieving group consensus concerning the recommended types and amounts of physical activity. A concise "public health message" was developed to express the recommendations of the panel. During the ensuing months, the consensus statement was further reviewed and revised and was formally endorsed by both the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine. Conclusion: Every US adult should accumulate 30 minutes or more of moderate-intensity physical activity on most, preferably all, days of the week.

Self-regulatory cognitions, social comparison, and perceived peers' behaviors as predictors of nutrition and physical activity: A comparison among adolescents in Hungary, Poland, Turkey, and USA

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2004

This study investigated whether the effects of self-regulatory cognitions and social influence variables on healthy behaviors – nutrition and physical activity – vary across countries. Adolescents (N = 2387) from Hungary, Poland, Turkey, and the USA participated in the study. Measures included self-efficacy, future orientation, social comparison orientation (SCO), perceived behaviors of peers, as well as age and gender. These variables were included in the path model as predictors of healthy behaviors. The role of a country as a moderator was also examined. Results showed that self-efficacy, SCO, and perceived behaviors of peers predicted both health-promoting behaviors in all four countries. Some differences were found regarding the role of future orientation and gender.

Differential Social Comparison Processes in Women With and Without Eating Disorder Symptoms

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2006

On the basis of predictions from social comparison theory (L. Festinger, 1954) and informed by findings from the social comparison and eating disorder literatures, hypotheses were tested regarding the social comparison behaviors of women with eating disorder symptoms and their asymptomatic peers. Results indicated differentiating social-cognitive processes for these groups. First, a greater tendency to engage in everyday social comparison predicted the presence of eating disorder symptoms. Second, social comparisons of one's own body to images of other women's bodies using a range of shapes and sizes also differentiated these 2 groups, with more self-defeating self-appraisals predicting the presence of eating disorder symptoms. Finally, self-esteem partially mediated the relationship between body-related social comparisons and eating disorder symptom status. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for research and practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale: Two Validation Studies

Article

Full-text available

Mar 1991

Two studies examined the reliability and validity of the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES). In Study 1, each of 37 undergraduates rode an exercise bicycle under control and external focus conditions. As predicted, Ss reported enjoying the exercise more, as measured by the PACES, in the external focus condition. Moreover, there was a significant negative correlation in the control condition between Ss PACES scores and their scores on a measure of boredom proneness. In Study 2, each of 37 undergraduates rode an exercise bicycle and jogged on a minitrampoline in separate sessions; each then chose one of these activities for their 3rd session. As predicted, there was a significant relationship between Ss PACES ratings (completed after each activity) and their choices of activity. Test–retest reliability was high for jogging and moderate for bicycling. The PACES had high internal consistency in both studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

The rating of perceived exertion scale

Article

Jan 1982
MED SCI SPORT EXER

G. Borg

Motivations for ongoing participation in a fitness activity

Article

Oct 1998

Debra A. Laverie

What factors motivate individuals to participate in sport or fitness activities? This question has been of great interest to researchers. However, most studies on motives have considered only a single or a few variables in their investigation. The purpose of this research is to explore the wide range of factors that motivate people to participate in a fitness activity, namely aerobics. To take into account the broad range of individual and social factors that influence participation in a fitness activity, social identity theory is the basis for a qualitative investigation. The findings that show motives for participation are divergent across groups of similar individuals. The motives that emerged were (a) the atmosphere of an aerobics class, (b) the physical and psychological benefits, (c) social ties related to aerobics, (d) social comparisons, (e) obsession with aerobics, and (f) the feelings participants associate with doing aerobics. A proposed framework of fitness participation is developed based on the findings that could serve as a foundation for future empirical studies.

Exercising with others exacerbates the negative effects of mirrored environments on sedentary women's feeling state

Article

Dec 2007

The unique and interactive effects of mirrored exercise environments and the presence of co-exercisers on sedentary women's exercise-induced feeling states (FS) were examined. Participants (n = 92; mean age = 20.2) performed 20 min of moderate intensity exercise in one of four environments: (a) alone/mirrored, (b) not alone/mirrored, (c) alone/unmirrored, or (d) not alone/unmirrored. FS were measured pre-, mid-, and 5 min post-exercise. Self-consciousness, perceived social evaluation and social comparisons were also assessed post-exercise. Multilevel modeling procedures indicated that women in the not alone/mirrored environment experienced smaller increases in post-exercise revitalization than the other conditions (p

Activation-Deactivation Adjective Check List: Current Overview and Structural Analysis

Article

Apr 1986

Robert E. Thayer

Presents a description of the theory and research underlying the present author's (see record 1979-30156-001) Activation–Deactivation Adjective Check List (AD ACL) and describes a study involving 453 undergraduates that investigated the stability of factor structure of this test as a function of different rating-scale formats. The 2 core dimensions, energetic arousal (including tiredness) and tense arousal (including calmness), are believed associated with a variety of arousal-related characteristics, including physiological changes, sleep–wake cycles, exercise effects, various mood states, and various concomitants of stress. Analyses indicated that the factor structure of activation descriptors remained essentially the same with each scale. The importance of the underlying arousal model in relation to the activation descriptors is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Health, coping, and well-being: Perspectives from social comparison theory.

Article

Jan 1997

The specific goal of this volume is to bring together various perspectives and approaches that share a common theme: applying social comparison theory to health-related issues. It also illustrates the broad range of health-related issues to which social comparison theory is applied. Some of these issues and topics are health protective behaviors, such as condom use, and health impairing behaviors, such as smoking and drinking; perceptions of risk; coping with serious diseases, such as cancer and chronic pain disorders; preparation for surgery and postoperative recovery; stress coping during adolescence; seeking medical care; occupational stress and burnout; and depression and well-being. We are hopeful that the present volume will contribute not only to the continued development of health psychology but to the evolution of social comparison theory as well. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Effects of Perceived Fitness Level of Exercise Partner on Intensity of Exertion

Abstract

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