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The Metallurgy of the Sicilian Final Bronze Age/Early Iron Age
necropolis of Madonna del Piano (Catania, Sicily)
La metalurgia de la necrópolis siciliana del Bronce Final/Primera Edad del Hierro de
Madonna del Piano (Catania, Sicilia)
Alessandra Giumlia-Mair (*)
Rosa Maria Albanese Procelli (**)
Fulvia Lo Schiavo (***)
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the analysis results of the cop-
per-based finds, from the important Sicilian necropolis of
Madonna del Piano, near Grammichele (Catania), dated
between the local Final Bronze Age 2 and the Early Iron
Age IA. 122 copper-based finds from the 273 graves
(1970-71) of the large cemetery have been analysed.
The sampled objects belong to different classes, there
are for instance weapons of offence and defence, such as
swords and greaves, small decorative objects for personal
use, such as rings, fibulae, belt hooks, belt decorations,
and small tools, such as the knives used by women, reels,
needles and razors, but also small functional parts, such
as rivets and nails, repairs and even a kind of musical in-
strument, such as the tintinnabula.
The methods employed were AAS and SEM, where
possible, and XRF in all cases.
The aim of the research was that of evaluating the
skill of the local artisans, of determining the most com-
mon copper-based alloys in use in Sicily in this period
and comparing the data with the analysis results of con-
temporary groups of finds from other areas of the Italian
peninsula and from other European regions.
RESUMEN
El artículo presenta el resultado de los análisis reali-
zados a los metales de base cobre de la importante ne-
crópolis siciliana de Madonna del Piano, próxima a
Grammichele (Catania), fechada entre el Bronce Final 2
y la Primera Edad del Hierro IA. Se han estudiado un
total de 122 objetos de base cobre procedentes de 273
tumbas excavadas entre 1970 y 1971.
Los objetos muestreados pertenecen a diferentes ti-
pos, armas ofensivas y defensivas tales como espadas y
grebas, pequeños objetos de uso personal como anillos,
fíbulas, broches de cinturón y pequeñas herramientas
como cuchillos usados por las mujeres, carretes, agujas,
navajas, pero también elementos funcionales como rema-
ches, clavos y un tipo de instrumento como el tintinábulo.
Los métodos de análisis utilizados fueron AAS y SEM,
cuando fue posible y XRF para todos los casos. El objeti-
vo de esta investigación es evaluar la habilidad de los ar-
tesanos locales y determinar el tipo de aleación más co-
mún en Sicilia durante este período, comparando los
datos con los resultados obtenidos en grupos de hallaz-
gos contemporáneos de otras partes de la península ita-
liana y otras regiones europeas.
Key words: Final Bronze Age; Early Iron Age; Necropo-
lis; Copper-based finds; Sicily; Madonna del Piano;
AAS; XRF; SEM.
Palabras clave: Bronce Final; Primera Edad del Hierro;
Necrópolis; Objetos de base cobre; Sicilia; Madonna del
Piano; AAS; XRF; SEM.
1. SITE AND MATERIALS (Rosa Maria
Albanese Procelli)
In 1970 and 1971 two excavations were car-
ried out in the necropolis of Madonna del Piano,
TRABAJOS DE PREHISTORIA
67, N.º 2, julio-diciembre 2010, pp. 469-488, ISSN: 0082-5638
doi: 10.3989/tp.2010.10051
(*) AGM Archeoanalisi, via E.Toti 8, I-39012 Merano
(BZ), Italy. Correo electrónico: giumlia@yahoo.it
(**) Università di Catania, Dipartimento di Studi Archeo-
logici, Filologici e Storici (SAFiSt) della Facoltà di Lettere e Fi-
losofia, Catania, Italy. Correo electrónico: albaros@unict.it
(***) Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici della Tosca-
na, Via della Pergola 65, I-50121 Firenze, Italy. Correo electro-
nico: fulvia.loschiavo@beniculturali.it
Recibido: 16-III-2010; aceptado: 26-III-2010.
near Grammichele (Catania, Eastern Sicily)
(Fig. 1). In this occasion 273 graves were brought
to light (Albanese Procelli 1992, 1994, 2003;
Albanese Procelli, La Piana: forthcoming). Previ-
ously, in 1889, 14 graves had been excavated by
Paolo Orsi in the nearby site of Mulino della
Badia (Orsi 1905). In 1959 further 47 graves had
been discovered in Madonna del Piano (Bernabò
Brea, Militello, La Piana 1969). The funerary
gifts of 12 more graves were recovered in 1974.
The 1970-1971 excavations brought to light
844 copper-based grave gifts, 10 of which were
composite objects (tintinnabula pectorals). 122
analyses were performed on around 75 objects
(5 are sporadical finds). Different classes of ob-
jects were selected: decorative objects of per-
sonal use, weapons, tools and utensils. The
largest group is that of the fibulae, with 206 spec-
imens.
The wheel-shaped decorations, which, be-
cause of the position in the graves and the com-
parisons with Southern Italian funerary contexts,
can be defined belt decorations, are typical of fe-
male burials. These have been found in ten of the
graves. The specimens with the inv. n. 71209
from the grave 211 and inv. n. 71363 from the
grave 255 have been analysed.
The so-called tintinnabula pectorals are par-
ticularly complex ornaments which belonged to
few women who played a special role in the local
community. Of these, the examples from the
graves 197 and 255 have been analysed. These
objects were most probably worn as pectorals
hanging from a bronze chain (as more complete
finds show, see Bernabò Brea, Militello, La Piana
1969, Fig. 14, t. 5/1959) and tinkled whenever
the person wearing them moved.
In grave 197 a zoomorphic pendant, of a kind
documented also in three more graves (150 bis,
209, 251) was found under a fibula and perhaps it
was hanging from it. Zoomorphic pendants in the
shape of bovides or small bulls were found to-
gether with tintinnabulum pectorals in the graves
150bis, 197 and 251, but not in grave 209, there-
fore the connection between the two items cannot
be confirmed (Fig. 2).
In the necropolis 4 plate-shaped belt hooks
have been found in male burials, however the
analysed example inv. n. 71354 from grave 253
T. P., 67, N.º 2, julio-diciembre 2010, pp. 469-488, ISSN: 0082-5638
doi: 10.3989/tp.2010.10051
470 Alessandra Giumlia-Mair, Rosa Maria Albanese Procelli y Fulvia Lo Schiavo
Fig. 1. The map shows the location of the site of Madon-
na del Piano in Sicily.
Fig. 2. Tintinnabulum from grave 197, tubuli, perforated
bar, rings and perforated calf figurine. NotaBene, on this
photo the tubuli are arranged in the wrong direction. They
hanged vertically from the bar.
was found with a knife and this fact might indi-
cate that it was buried in a woman’s grave.
Only four of the male depositions contain
weapons, 2 with a sword of Contigliano
type (graves 26 and 40) and one of Allerona type
(grave 194) (Albanese Procelli 1994; Albanese
Procelli, Lo Schiavo 2004). Both types have par-
allels in Southern Italy. Only the warrior in grave
26 had a set of offensive and defensive weapons.
To this grave belongs the only pair of greaves
found up to now in the necropolis (and in Sicily).
This type has Aegaean prototypes and there are
close parallels in Calabria and Campania (Al-
banese Procelli 1994).
Except for the greaves the only further objects
in the necropolis which show a repoussé decora-
tion are some sheet metal discs with a central per-
foration.
Razors are present in 16 male burials. Of these
3 examples from graves 11, 194 and 195 have
been analysed.
Knives with a one sided cutting blade seem to
belong exclusively to female depositions. Their
position in the graves seems to indicate that they
were hanging from the belt. Over 60 specimens
have been recovered and among the analysed
pieces there were the knives inv. nos. 70589 from
grave 7 (enchytrismos burial, Fig. 3) and 70577
from grave 4 (pit burial) which are of especially
accurate manufacture. However the set of funer-
ary gifts found in the two graves are common
finds (fibula, finger ring, needle, jug and spindle
in grave 4; fibula, finger ring and jug in grave 7).
The remaining knives inv. nos. 71353, 71362 and
71208 come from the graves 253, 255 and 211 re-
spectively. Graves 255 and 211 have a more com-
plex set of burial gifts. For example in grave 255
there are 4 bronze objects, a tintinnabulum pecto-
ral and a glass paste bead, while in grave 211
there are 5 bronze objects, vessels and an amber
bead. The interpretation of the knife from grave
207 (Fig. 4) which shows traces of wear but was
shown by the analyses to be less functional than
other examples, is quite problematic, as the type
of grave (a 1.58 m long pit) and the grave gifts
– an elbow fibula of serpeggiante type, a finger
ring, an ivory comb and a distaff made of bone –
are not compatible with a child burial.
In other cases, and in particular in the case of
enchytrismos burials there are funerary gifts
which, because of their dimensions and typology,
can be possibly interpreted as objects for chil-
dren’s burials. Of these there are examples which
show a high level of complexity and indicate that
their social standing was established at birth. The
grave 260 with enchytrismos burial is that of a
child and it contains anklets (inv. n. 71377) and a
miniature fibula (inv. n. 71375).
The rods with perforated ends – interpreted as
reels – and needles are connected with female
working activities.
Metallurgical analyses allow important obser-
vations on the production technology and – with
due caution, because of the still limited statistical
basis – also some hypotheses on everyday life
habits and on the funerary rituals. The latter show
a great variability, both in the burial procedures
– such as for example trench burials, enchytris-
mos burials and cremation – and in the large num-
ber of combinations in the set of burial gifts, with
quantitative (between one and 16 objects) and
qualitative differences, and give us an idea of the
complex social organisation structure, divided
into classes according to age, of the local commu-
nity.
THE ANALYTICAL PROJECT (Alessandra
Giumlia-Mair)
This project was initiated, because of the im-
portance of the necropolis and to obtain analyti-
cal data on the metallurgy of Sicily, but also be-
T. P., 67, N.º 2, julio-diciembre 2010, pp. 469-488, ISSN: 0082-5638
doi: 10.3989/tp.2010.10051
The Metallurgy of the Sicilian Final Bronze Age/Early Iron Age necropolis of Madonna del Piano... 471
Fig. 3. Knife (inv. n. 70589) of good quality from grave
7. L.: ca. 19 cm.
Fig. 4. Miniaturised knife (inv. n. 71185) from grave 207.
The tool has an awkward, not very functional shape. Per-
haps it is a broken and readapted blade. L.: ca. 12 cm.
cause previous analyses of materials from the
Sicilian site of Modica and from the chronologi-
cally comparable sites, such as Pertosa, Cuma
and Noepolis – all in the Pigorini Museum in
Rome – had given interesting results concerning
the production technology of some of the fibulae
(Lo Schiavo et al. 2002; Giumlia-Mair, Lo
Schiavo 2002). The analyses evidenced clear dif-
ferences in the composition of the alloys em-
ployed for the different parts of some thickened
bow- and elbow fibulae.
The results seemed to suggest that in Sicily
leaded bronze alloys had been employed for cast
on parts of fibulae as early as in the Late Bronze
Age. On the other hand the analyses of materials
from other Italian regions and from the area
around the Eastern Alps had shown that leaded
alloys, correlated with the function of the objects
and with the production technology, had been in-
troduced in the local metallurgy only at the begin-
ning of the full Iron Age (Giumlia-Mair 1995;
1998 a; b, c; 2000, 2005b). Therefore a further
important result of the analyses of the materials
from Madonna del Piano was that of obtaining
data which could be compared to that of the anal-
yses of the fibulae from Modica, Pertosa, Cuma
and Noepolis and confirm the use of leaded al-
loys also in this Sicilian area.
METHODS OF ANALYSIS
To be able to collect the maximum number of
data and to obtain a preliminary screening of all
selected objects it was decided to use X-rays
spectrometry (XRF) on all metal finds. Wherever
it was possible to obtain samples from metallic
objects atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS)
was also used. Corroded items were not selected
for analysis and sampled.
Particularly interesting fragments, such as the
fragments from the tubuli of the tintinnabula, but
also small fragments of the organic material from
the handle of the knives, were also examined and,
in the case of metal, analysed in the scanning
electron microscope (SEM/EDS) before the dis-
solution for the AAS analysis. The results have a
precision of approx. ±1-2 % for Cu, ±5 % for el-
ements present at a level greater than 1 %, but de-
creasing to ±50 % at the respective detection
limits.
Before the XRF analysis and before sampling,
all objects were examined with various optical
magnification devices to determine the conserva-
tion conditions of each piece and to find the best
area for sampling. Objects which were too cor-
roded for analysis were discarded from the selec-
tion. The selected items belong to different
classes and are of different usage: among the
most important groups there are small decorative
objects of personal use – such as fibulae, rings,
anklets, pins and belt hooks–tools, such as nee-
dles, knives, razors and tools for reeling thread –,
weapons – such as swords and greaves –, and im-
portant ritual items such as the interesting
tintinnabula.
In the case of complex objects all different
parts, also small mechanical parts, such as rivets
and nails, were analysed.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The analyses (see Table of results and Fig. 5)
have shown that the average tin content in all ob-
jects analysed is around 9 %, however the range
is 4-14 % (standard deviation 2,9), even if outli-
ers, such as the belt decorations and tintinnabula,
which contain higher tin percentages than the av-
erage, have not been taken into account in this
calculation.
The highest tin contents were determined in
the wheel-shaped belt decorations with up to
T. P., 67, N.º 2, julio-diciembre 2010, pp. 469-488, ISSN: 0082-5638
doi: 10.3989/tp.2010.10051
472 Alessandra Giumlia-Mair, Rosa Maria Albanese Procelli y Fulvia Lo Schiavo
Fig. 5. The histogram shows the overall tin content of the
analysed objects. The average is around 9 %, but the ran-
ge is 4-14 %. The items with Sn contents over 11 % are
the tintinnabula and the wheel-shaped belt elements. The
items with Sn contens under 7 % are mainly everyday ob-
jects and tools.
17 % of tin. The objects with the lowest tin con-
tent are the knives found in the graves of women,
the tools for reeling thread and the razors, but
there are also other items, for example miniature
objects used as funerary gifts in children’s graves
(see below) which contain low tin percentages.
Only a few objects among those selected for
analysis are made of unalloyed copper. These are
a piece of thread, found in grave n. 15 together
with a fibula, a decorative part of a sword sheath
made of wood and the thin nails which were em-
ployed to fix it on the wood from grave n. 48. In
this particular case it is clear, that the choice of
having nails made of copper, on a decorative
piece of copper applied to a prestigious object
like the sheath of a sword, is due to the wish of
having all details made of a metal of the same
colour for aesthetic reasons, however in other
cases copper alloys with low tin contents were
employed for very minor items, such as rivets and
similar mechanical parts.
The copper employed for the objects from the
necropolis seems in general to be very pure, with
very little trace elements and it would be compat-
ible with the copper of the oxhide ingots found in
Sicily at Cannatello and in Thapsos (Lo Schiavo
et al. 2005; 2009; Giumlia-Mair 2009a). It is well
known that the trace elements determined in the
oxhide ingots from different sites all around the
Mediterranean and in European contexts are al-
ways extremely low and the copper has a purity
of over 98-99 %.
As mentioned in the introduction, the use of
lead (Fig. 6) as a functional and deliberate alloy-
ing element, correlated with the production tech-
nology and the employment of the object is one
of the most important points for this research and
will be discussed below, in the section dedicated
to the fibulae.
WEAPONS
The weapons recovered from the graves of
Madonna del Piano are certainly some of the
most representative and interesting pieces found
in the necropolis.
The swords dated to this period which have
been analysed in different contexts and in differ-
ent regions of Europe and around the Mediterra-
nean contain in average around 10 % of tin and
are among the most carefully prepared and accu-
rately worked classes of objects. Also the exam-
ples of swords found at Madonna del Piano are
carefully finished items and in excellent condi-
tion.
Two of the swords are of Contigliano type.
However, while the one contains ca. 8 % Sn and
some Pb, the other – which also has a sheath with
a point made of a good bronze, with a tin percent-
age of around 10 % – surprisingly contains only
5.3 % of tin. Both swords are in excellent condi-
tion and do not seem to have ever been used. This
fact, together with the very low tin content of the
second example, might suggest that these were
ceremonial weapons, carried only in some special
circumstances, or even that, at least the second
sword, had been produced for funerary use only.
However an Agaean sword blade analysed by
Craddock (1976: 102) and some examples found
in the Ría de Huelva hoard and in other Iberian
sites also have a similar composition (Rovira
1995; Rovira and Gómez 1998: 34-37), and,
among the many swords from Greece, dated to
the Late Bronze Age, analysed in the British Mu-
seum and with a tin average of 9.3 %, there are
also some of lesser quality. Their tin content
range goes from 6.8 to 12.4 % (Craddock 1976:
101) and their composition can be compared with
that of the the sword examples from Madonna del
Piano.
The third sword found in the necropolis is of
Allerona type and the alloy which was used for
its production is a well purified copper with
around 10 % of tin, i.e. it is the most commonly
employed alloy for swords. The third sword
T. P., 67, N.º 2, julio-diciembre 2010, pp. 469-488, ISSN: 0082-5638
doi: 10.3989/tp.2010.10051
The Metallurgy of the Sicilian Final Bronze Age/Early Iron Age necropolis of Madonna del Piano... 473
Fig. 6. The histogram shows the overall lead content of
the analysed objects. Only very few objects contain more
than 2 % and most of them are fibulae.
seems therefore to be an efficient weapon which
has certainly been used by its owner.
The swords from the Iberian peninsula ana-
lysed by Rovira (1995) contain in average around
10 % of tin and low percentages of lead. Their al-
loys are quite different from those employed for
the swords analysed in the British islands and in
France, which contain noticeably higher lead per-
centages, up to 5-7 % (Rovira and Gómez 1998:
82). The Mediterranean tradition in the manufac-
ture of swords seems to be homogeneous and
quite distinct from the metallurgical tradition in
Northern European countries, in particular be-
cause of the lead content.
Greaves of Aegean type (inv. n. 70630) have
been found in grave 26 of the necropolis (Alba-
nese Procelli 1994 and above). It is important to
note that among the finds from the necropolis
there are only very few objects made of sheet
metal. The preferred production technique seems
to have been casting with only limited hammer-
ing for finishing some parts of the items.
Except for the greaves, the only analysed
sheet metal objects from the cemetery are a thin
decorative disc (inv. n. 70751) and the tubuli be-
longing to the tintinnabula (see below). The grea-
ves belong to a small group of objects worked by
repoussè and their production technology is quite
different from that of most of the other finds
(which are mainly cast and sometimes slightly
wrought). This more time consuming technology
seems to indicate that these defensive weapons
were a special and highly prized item. Between
the composition of the metal used for the greaves
and that of the other objects from the necropolis
no difference can be distinguished, however this
does not mean that the greaves must be of local
production. As already mentioned the copper em-
ployed for the production of all objects from the
necropolis of Madonna del Piano is pure, with
only low trace elements, and the presence of
oxhide ingots on the island seems to testify that at
least part of the copper employed in Sicily came
from Cyprus. This does not exclude the import of
copper from other areas or even perhaps some –
most probably very limited – local extractive ac-
tivity (which up to now has never been evi-
denced). The uniqueness of the greaves and of
their production technology and decoration on
the site of Madonna del Piano are therefore the
only objective observation which can be ex-
pressed for the moment. However it should also
be mentioned that similar items are known from
the Italian peninsula, in particular from Calabria
and Campania (see Albanese Procelli 1994 and
above) and that they might have been imported
from there.
THE TYPOLOGY OF THE FIBULAE
(Fulvia Lo Schiavo)
The class of the fibulae is one of the most im-
portant in the necropolis and it deserves a de-
tailed discussion. The following study is part of a
larger research on the fibulae of Southern Italy
and Sicily (Lo Schiavo forthcoming) which takes
into consideration the examples from Molino
della Badia (Orsi 1905) and those from Madonna
del Piano published in 1969 (Bernabò Brea, La
Piana, Militello 1969). Fibulae and weapons are
the largest classes of objects found in
protohistoric cemeteries in general, and in partic-
ular in Madonna del Piano. The study of these
finds allows us to understand larger cultural phe-
nomena and supports the historical reconstruction
of the population and the region (Albanese Pro-
celli, Lo Schiavo 2004; Lo Schiavo 2008). The
multidisciplinary approach is the only one which
concretely helps overcome the problems of a par-
tial understanding of the objects and of their pres-
ence in different combinations in the set of burial
gifts. The technical data are a significant element
in the development of fashion, customs and ri-
tuals (Lo Schiavo 2003; Albanese Procelli, Lo
Schiavo 2004; Lo Schiavo et al. 2009).
In the group of 23 fibulae (sampled each 1-4
times with a total of 43 analyses) 18 types can be
recognized (10 bow fibulae and 8 of serpeggian-
te-type). Type 289 consists of 5 different varieties
with 7 fibulae belonging to the same type. This is
preliminary data, the entire study will be pub-
lished in due time.
Fibule ad arco (bow fibulae)
The earliest analysed example is inv. n. 70792,
aFibula ad arco semplice con parte centrale
appiattita e sottile costolatura centrale (Tipo 21
B, Fig. 7). This type is inhomogeneous, but
typologically well characterized and parallel to
the Castellace-type, produced in Ionian Calabria,
T. P., 67, N.º 2, julio-diciembre 2010, pp. 469-488, ISSN: 0082-5638
doi: 10.3989/tp.2010.10051
474 Alessandra Giumlia-Mair, Rosa Maria Albanese Procelli y Fulvia Lo Schiavo
in the Locris area. It is documented in the Final
Bronze Age 2, but was possibly also used later.
AFibula ad arco ritorto (similar to type 27,
n.70582) belongs to the same time and it is
known from 3 sites in Eastern Sicily (Molino
della Badia, Pantalica Nord grave 28 and Vizzini
hoard). Peroni indicates the Final Bronze Age 2
as first appearance of this type. It was in use until
BF3/IFe1A.2examples (70582, Fig. 8, and
70839) belong to Fibule ad arco semplice con
schema decorativo continuo (type 31 B). They
have a wide regular bow, a wide catchplate, and a
small spring, often with a square section. The he-
rringbone decoration covers the entire bow. The
date is Final Bronze Age 3, Pantalica phase II
(also called Cassibile-Molino della Badia).
The following types 44 and 47 belong to class
VIII FIBULE AD ARCO INGROSSATO DALLA SICILIA.
Fibule ad arco ingrossato e decorazione in-
cisa (type 44, here 71375) are of large and me-
dium sizes with a semicircular uniformly thick-
ened bow. The rich and various decoration allows
us to distinguish different types. The date is Final
Bronze Age 3, as confirmed by an example from
the Modica hoard (Lo Schiavo, Albanese Pro-
celli, Giumlia-Mair 2002).
The Fibule ad arco ingrossato ed inornato
(type 47, here 70573, Fig. 9) are not homoge-
neous and are characterised by the absence of
decoration and by the wide bow which is mostly
not homogeneously thickened. The date is the
same of the previous type.
The fibulae belonging to class IX FIBULE AD
ARCO INGROSSATO CON COSTOLATURE LONGITUDINA-
LI E A SEZIONE POLIGONALE O QUADRANGOLARE are
typical for Molino della Badia/Madonna del Pi-
ano: these are the inhomogeneous types 48: Fibu-
le ad arco ingrossato con costolature longitudi-
nali (n. 71310, Fig. 10) and 49: Fibule ad arco
ingrossato e decorato con sezione poligonale
(nos. 71144 e 70750). Known examples are me-
dium size, with a wide bow (and in one case a
lowered bow). The decoration is different on all
pieces. From the characteristics of the artifacts it
is evident that they were produced in the work-
shop of Molino della Badia/Madonna del Piano
and are dated to Pantalica II, Final Bronze Age 3.
A further inhomogeneous type from the same
workshop and date are the Fibule ad arco ingros-
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The Metallurgy of the Sicilian Final Bronze Age/Early Iron Age necropolis of Madonna del Piano... 475
Fig. 7. Fibula ad arco semplice con parte centrale ap-
piattita e sottile costolatura centrale, inv. n. 70792 (sim-
ple bow fibula with flattened central part and thin central
rib). W.: 9,2 cm.
Fig. 8. Fibule ad arco semplice con schema decorativo
continuo, inv. n. 70582 (simple bow fibula with conti-
nuous decoration). L.: 7,1 cm.
Fig. 9. Fibula ad arco ingrossato ed inornato, inv. n.
70573 (fibula with thickened and non-decorated bow).
W.: 7,9 cm.
sato con sezione quadrangolare o orizzontal-
mente appiattita (type 56). The studied piece
(71389) is uncommon, because it is not deco-
rated.
Fibule serpeggianti (Fig. 11) belong to class
XXXIV: FIBULE SERPEGGIANTI A GOMITO. The
earliest example analysed is a Fibula serpeggian-
te a gomito con espansione centrale appiattita e
costolata (type 286 A, 70890), characterized by
its large size, a thick twisted rod on the fore part
(variety A) or by a square section (variety B),
both on the front and back of the bow, while in
the centre it widens to a rectangular section, with
longitudinal ribs on the upper face. Undoubtedly
they are of local production and dated to the Final
Bronze Age 3.
A further analysed example belongs to the
Fibule serpeggianti a gomito decorate, a sezione
rettangolare (type 287.2), characterized by large
size, open elbow, bow with rectangular section,
here decorated on the rim of the upper face by
two longitudinal, thin ribs (n. 70721). Fibule ser-
peggianti a gomito con staffa simmetrica (type
288) are represented by inv. n. 70776, which is
near the variety C of this type: instead of groups
of annular lines it shows a continuous decorative
pattern. All examples are different, but the type is
well characterized and recognizable. The date is
Pantalica II, Final Bronze Age 3 as indicated by
the piece found at Lipari, at earth level, outside
the hut aII, dated to the archaic Ausonio II
(Bernabò Brea, Cavalier 1980).
The best represented type are Fibule serpe-
ggianti a gomito con staffa allungata e spillone
diritto, tipo Cassibile (type 289), mostly large,
with a long bow, pronounced elbow and concave
central part. The bow is thickened in the front and
central part and becomes thinner near the catch-
plate, the elbow and the spring. The catchplate is
elongated and the size of the spring is propor-
tional to the size of the piece, mostly with a round
section and a straight pin. At least 9 main variet-
ies can be distinguished. Also this type is not ho-
mogeneous, but well characterised and recogni-
zable.
Among the analysed pieces we have variety C
(n. 70646) with groups of thin longitudinal ribs
and groups of lines, and variety F (nos. 71101,
71369), with bands of lines. Other examples
show different decorations (nos. 70623, 70395).
Some fragmentary fibulae of the Castelluccio di
Scicli hoard can be easily classified as belonging
to these varieties. Giardino underlined the simi-
larity of the decoration of examples from the
hoard of Ria de Huelva, although the production
technology is different (Di Stefano, Giardino
1994; Ruiz-Gálvez Priego 1995; Lo Schiavo
1992). Also the Castelluccio hoard is dated to the
Final Bronze Age 3. The fibulae from the acro-
polis of Lipari are difficult to define because of
their bad conservation. The shape is altered and
there are only traces of decoration. The date can
be assigned to the archaic period of Pantalica II,
distinctive for Molino della Badia/Madonna del
Piano. The pieces from Lipari (possibly the oldest
examples), found under the huts aII and bIV
(archaic Ausonio II), confirm this date.
The Fibule serpeggianti a gomito con antenne
a globetto (type 291) are particularly interesting.
Of these there are 3 (not identical) examples. One
belongs to the Castelluccio hoard and its closest
parallel is from Soria or Guadalajara, now in the
National Archaeological Museum in Madrid. The
Iberian example seems to have a round section
and this and the schematic representation of this
type on the stelae in Estremadura allow the hy-
pothesis that Iberian workshops produced types
similar to the Sicilian fibulae (Di Stefano, Giar-
dino 1994).
Fibule serpeggianti a gomito a contorno qua-
drangolare (type 293) are also typical. They have
in common a quadrangolar bow, with 2 symmet-
rical and opposite elbows. The analysed example
(inv. n. 70606) has no decoration.
Finally a Fibula serpeggiante a contorno qua-
drangolare con due occhielli, staffa a spirale ed
arco foliato con cappi ad 8, da Madonna del Pia-
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476 Alessandra Giumlia-Mair, Rosa Maria Albanese Procelli y Fulvia Lo Schiavo
Fig. 10. Fibule ad arco ingrossato con costolature longi-
tudinali, inv. n. 71310 (fibula with thickened bow and
longitudinal ribs). W.: 14 cm.
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The Metallurgy of the Sicilian Final Bronze Age/Early Iron Age necropolis of Madonna del Piano... 477
Fig. 11. The different types of fibule a gomito from the necropolis (drawings Lo Schiavo PBF, forthcoming;
layout G. Ugolini).
no (type 297 n. 71204) was also analysed. This
type is well characterised and consists of several
elements which are found in the full Protovilla-
novan in Central and Southern Italy and in Sicily.
This is the oval plaque with longitudinal edge, the
quadrangular bow, the 3 loops and the decoration
on the fore part of the bow (cfr. type 289 variety
G, also in the necropolis of Madonna del Piano).
Parallels to the two 8-shaped loops and the spiral
catchplate are found in 2 fibule ad arco di violino
di verga of Vösendorf type and two 8-shaped
loops and the decorated leaf-shaped bow in the
Röschitz-Sanislãu type.
The typological study confirms the data of
analysis and indicates the presence of a rich,
characteristic, original and variegated local pro-
duction. The workshop production was not lim-
ited to the local market, but it is also found in the
entire area of eastern Sicily (and in Lipari), with
sporadical finds in other parts of the island, and it
is to be dated between the end of the Final Bronze
Age (BF 3) and the beginning of the Early Iron
Age (I Fe and IA).
There are interesting formal parallels both
with Calabria and with the Iberian peninsula. The
general impression is that there are affinities and
analogies due to the circulation of models and not
of objects connected to the dress and the set of or-
naments.
FIBULAE AND DECORATIVE OBJECTS
OF PERSONAL USE (Alessandra
Giumlia-Mair)
The class of the fibulae is the largest among
the finds from Madonna del Piano. The average
tin content (Fig. 12) is 9.5 % (range 4.2-11 %).
All fibula specimens were first cast (most proba-
bly in a simple clay mould) and only slightly
wrought, with repeated annealing, after the re-
moval of the casting skin, to obtain a sharp point
and form the catchplate. In the group of fibulae
analysed for this project the tin content shows a
variation of 3 or 4 %, however the composition
range is always in the alpha phase, i.e. the pieces
are can all be worked by hammering and the alloy
is always malleable.
The average lead content (Fig. 13) is 1.5 %,
however the range is 0.1-6.3 % (standard devia-
tion of 1.5) and clearly shows that there is a great
variation in the content of this element. Only a
few examples of fibula contain percentages of
lead higher than 3 %. However it is important to
note that the pieces which contain more lead
seem to be produced in different parts. The fibula
with the inv. n. 70582 for example shows very
similar tin percentages in the bow and the pin.
However, while the lead determined in the pin is
very low, in the bow there is a lead content of
6 %. As it was the case with some of the fibulae
from Modica, it seems that the bow was produced
by casting the thickened part on the (elongated
and curved) thin bar employed for the pin, by us-
ing a leaded alloy.
T. P., 67, N.º 2, julio-diciembre 2010, pp. 469-488, ISSN: 0082-5638
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478 Alessandra Giumlia-Mair, Rosa Maria Albanese Procelli y Fulvia Lo Schiavo
Fig. 12. The histogram shows the tin content in the fibu-
lae. The average Sn content is 9.5 %, the range is 4-11 %.
Only poor quality or miniature fibulae contain less than
7 % of tin.
Fig. 13. The histogram shows the lead content of the fi-
bulae. There are not many examples with a lead content
over 3 %, but high lead is found in cast on parts. Therefo-
re the addition of lead to the alloy seems to be deliberate
and correlated with the technology (photos and histo-
grams A. Giumlia-Mair).
In this way the alloy had a high fluidity and
reproduced in detail the decoration and there was
no risk of ruining the pin, as the cast on part had a
lower melting point.
The thickened and decorated parts of the el-
bow fibula with the inv. n. 71101 (Fig. 14) seem
to have been produced in the same way and at the
elbow there is also a very evident and quite rough
repair, made with an alloy which contains even
more lead than the bow. This seems to confirm
that in the Sicilian Late Bronze Age leaded alloys
were already deliberately and knowingly emplo-
yed in correlation with technique and use of the
piece in production.
A special case is that of the elbow fibula with
antennae (inv. n. 71204, Fig. 11, type 291A, or
fibula de codo with antennae), of a type which in
Sicily is known also from the Castelluccio hoard
found at Scicli, near Ragusa. However it has to be
mentioned that this type of fibula is found also in
Spain, for example in Guadalajara, and it is even
represented on the famous stela of Torrejón el
Rubio 2 in Cáceres (Ruiz Delgado 1989; Storch
de Gracia y Asensio 1989).
The Iberian examples which have been ana-
lysed by Carrasco et al. (1999) contain high tin
percentages, but no Pb (with one single excep-
tion). Relatively high tin contents have been also
determined in the fibulae from Fraga dos Corvos
in Portugal (Figuereido et al. 2009), but also in
the Iron Age fibulae from Castro de Pragança
(Melo 2009). The use of higher tin in copper al-
loys is not a surprise in a country in which this
important metal was easier to find (Penhallurick
1986: 95-104; see also Giumlia-Mair, Lo Schiavo
2003). The example from Madonna del Piano
contains 11 % Sn and it is therefore one of the ob-
jects with the highest tin content found in the
necropolis.
It is also important to underline that, while in
the Italian peninsula no fibulae of this type are
known, there are several ones in the Iberian pen-
insula, both in Spain and in Portugal, but that also
other very similar types, called “oriental” or Cyp-
riot types (Buchholz 1985; Lo Schiavo 1992 and
in print) exist in various Mediterranean areas,
such as for example in Spain, France and Sar-
dinia. A study and in particular chemical analyses
of these pieces would be quite important and
might allow the reconstruction of the complex re-
lationships between the different shapes and the
contacts between the regions in which they are
found.
The addition of lead to the alloys for cast-on
parts seems for the moment to be a Sicilian in-
vention and it appeared in Northern Italy only 2
or 3 centuries later (Giumlia-Mair 2000; 2005b).
Among the decorative objects of personal use
analysed for this project there are also a miniature
bow fibula (inv. n. 71375), a miniature fibula of
Cassibile -type (inv. n. 71395) and the small spi-
ral-shaped anklets for children (inv. n. 71377 spo-
radic). It seems quite possible that they have been
manufactured for funerary use only, because the
alloys employed are of lesser quality, with low tin
percentages between 4 and 5 %.
KNIVES
Several knives belonging to the set of grave
gifts found in female burials have been analysed.
The results have shown that there is a great varia-
tion in the composition of their alloys. Some ex-
amples show an excellent quality, for example
inv. n. 70589 (Fig. 3) and 70577, with the use of a
carefully refined copper and a particularly well
worked blade. These two specimens might per-
haps have been objects of special status and this
might also be indicated by the fact that the handle
of one of knives (inv. n. 70577) has a handle
made of ivory. Other examples of analysed kni-
ves (inv. nos. 71353, 71362, 71208 etc.) seem to
be of more common manufacture.
In two cases the quality of the bronze used for
the rivets which fix the handle on the blade is
better than the metal employed for the blade. This
seems to indicate that the artisans kept in the
workshop small parts, cut from other objects, to
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The Metallurgy of the Sicilian Final Bronze Age/Early Iron Age necropolis of Madonna del Piano... 479
Fig. 14. Elbow fibula with thickened bow and repair
inv.n. 71101. W.: 11,5 cm.
be worked into rivets. In one case (inv. n. 71353)
the blade and the rivets seem to have been made
of the same alloy. Most probably the pouring
channels had been cut from the blade blank and
hammered into rivets.
The largest groups of knives dated to this pe-
riod which can be compared with the materials
from Madonna del Piano are the Greek examples
analysed by Craddock (1976, 99) and the knives
from several central European sites analysed by
Riederer (1992: 295-300; 1994-1995). They
show similar compositions with an average tin
content of 7.8 % (range 5.6-9.2 Sn %). Also the
knives from the French Alps analysed by Verney
and Bocquet (1998) are chronologically and com-
positionally comparable, and the saw (clearly a
knife blade adapted to a saw) from a Calabrian
hoard found south of Kroton and analysed by
Alberto Palmieri (Marino and Pizzitutti 2008:
333-334) has a composition very similar to that
of the knives from Madonna del Piano.
The Italian knives dated to the Iron Age (An-
tonacci Sanpaolo et al.1992: 172-173; Craddock
1986; Giumlia-Mair 1998b: 201-202) have tin
percentages between 6 and 8 %, while in earlier
times the tin content of blades was much higher.
For example the blades from Moscosi di Cingoli,
dated to the Recent Bronze Age contain as much
as 19 % of tin and clearly reflect the archaic tech-
nology of earlier periods (De Marinis et al. 2003:
21). It has to be noted that real bronze was intro-
duced only in the Middle Bronze Age and that tin
was an expensive and rare commodity that had to
be imported from far away. For a long time arsen-
ical copper was recycled and there are many in-
stances of “strange” alloys: copper was occasion-
ally mixed with other metals, such as lead and
even silver as tin substitutes (see for example
Tylecote 1976: 14-16; 1986: 26-35; Craddock
1976: 93-113; 1995: 144-17).
The miniature knife inv. n. 71185 from grave
207 (Fig. 4) represents a special case. For this
object a bronze with only around 5 % of tin was
employed and the blade has a anomalous and
awkward arched shape, with a rounded point. In
general this knife does not look like an efficient
tool, however the suspension ring on the handle
shows noticeable traces of wear as if the knife
had been regularly worn hanging from the belt.
The small size and the composition might suggest
that the knife had been produced for funerary use,
for example for the burial of a young girl (see
above), but the person in the grave is a woman,
not a child. In this case, the awkward shape and
the traces of wear, as well as the relatively low
quality of the alloy, might perhaps indicate that
possibly a common blade which had been broken
was readapted for further use. The rather low tin
content might be due to the reworking of the ob-
ject. Nevertheless the study and analysis of more
miniature knives might represent an interesting
topic of research for the future.
TOOLS AND EVERY DAY ITEMS
In the male burials of the necropolis of Ma-
donna del Piano there is a noticeable number of
razors. They have been found in 6 % of the gra-
ves, however only very few examples have been
analysed for this project, because of the bad con-
ditions of conservation of this kind of objects.
The analysed razors are made of bronze with low
tin contents of around 6 %.
Their composition is similar to that of the
knives found in female graves. The Bronze Age
razors from Greece have a different composition,
with higher tin contents (Craddock 1976).
The lowest tin percentages are those of the al-
ready mentioned tools for reeling thread, but in
the case of these objects lead is also present in the
alloy.
The composition of the razors, knives and
tools found in the graves of the necropolis seems
to indicate that the alloys for every day objects
were not considered important and that cheaper
materials were employed.
OBJECTS WITH HIGH TIN CONTENT:
BELT ELEMENTS AND TINTINNABULA
From the metallurgical point of view, the most
striking objects from the graves of the necropolis
are the wheel-shaped belt elements (Gium-
lia-Mair 2005a: 362-364). The analyses have
shown that they contain a very high tin percent-
age which goes up to 17 %. The belt decorations
inv. nos. 71363 and 71209 consist of a flat ring
and a smaller ring with an inscribed cross
(Fig. 15) and were most probably worn attached
to the belt. The alloy of which they are made is
very different from that used for the belt-hook
T. P., 67, N.º 2, julio-diciembre 2010, pp. 469-488, ISSN: 0082-5638
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480 Alessandra Giumlia-Mair, Rosa Maria Albanese Procelli y Fulvia Lo Schiavo
inv. n. 71354, which contains only 6.3 % of tin
and traces of lead.
The massive hook is quite solid and very suit-
able as a functional part of the belt, while the high
tin content renders the wheel-shaped ornaments
rather fragile. It does not seem possible that the
thin circlets could have had a practical function,
such as being an element for fixing or binding the
belt. The most probable reasons for choosing an
alloy with such a high tin content are the almost
silvery colour of the metal, but also the pleasant
jingling sound of the decorations, which had most
probably an apotropaic function similar to that of
the tintinnabula (see below) and kept away the
“evil eye”. In later times alloys of this composi-
tion were employed for bells and tintinnabula,
because of their pleasant sound (compare for ex-
ample Giumlia-Mair 1988; 1992; 1996; 2000b:
303-304; 2001).
The shape and the colour of these belt decora-
tions remind us very closely of the wheel-shaped
pendants known from many contexts, in particu-
lar around the Alps, but also in some sites in
southern Italy (Mordant et al. 1976; Wels-Wey-
rauch 1978; 1991; Lochner 1998-1999; Bándi
and Fekete 1977-1978; Heath et al. 2000;
Öbona-Trkman and Bavdek 1995-1996; Trampuþ
Orel and Heath 2001; Giumlia-Mair 2008;
2009b). They have many different shapes, some
of which rather complex, and their colour is
invariably silvery. In some cases this is due to
the presence of elements like arsenic, antimony,
nickel and cobalt in the copper, in other cases
the alloy is similar to that of the belt decora-
tions, with a high tin content. Sometimes they
seem to have been surface treated, perhaps with
some kind of organic acid, so as to oxidise the
copper of the alpha phase from the dendritic
structure and leave the tin rich and more corro-
sion resistant dendrites of the delta phase to
achieve a silvery colour (Heath et al. 2000;
TrampuþOrel and Heath 2001; Giumlia-Mair
2003; 2005a; 2008; Paulin et al. 2003; Angelini
et al. 2007).
As noted by Peter Turk (2001), wheel pen-
dants – obviously with the exception of the ones
belonging to hoards – have been found in particu-
larly rich female burials, together with represen-
tative jewellery and other precious gifts. In each
necropolis there was never more than one such
grave for each generation and this seems to indi-
cate that the person who was wearing this orna-
ment had some special function in the society of
the time. Biba Terþan (1987) considers them per-
sons who had exceptional importance in the set-
tlements and suggests that they were entitled to
perform special rituals or ceremonies in favour of
the community they belonged to.
Pendants of different shape, but surprisingly
made of the same material, i.e. with the same sil-
very colour and found in very rich female graves
and in similar contexts of the full Iron Age, have
recently been recognised (Giumlia-Mair 2008;
2009b). The materials coming from the same ne-
cropolis had been previously analysed (Giumlia-
Mair 1995; 1998a; c; 2003; 2003b; Giumlia-Mair
et al. 2003) and they were all normal bronzes or
leaded bronzes. The pendants and the set of orna-
ments belonging to them were the only objects
made of this kind of alloy among several hun-
dreds of items made of common bronze or leaded
bronze.
This is certainly an important detail which
might perhaps shed some light also on the mean-
ing of the wheel-shaped belt ornaments from Ma-
donna del Piano, and from other southern Italian
cemeteries. The date, the shape and the colour are
more or less the same as the wheel pendants, even
if in some cases the colour is achieved by using
different materials and alloys. In addition the belt
decorations are found in particularly rich graves
and they might be a distinctive object which de-
noted the special status of the woman who was
wearing them.
T. P., 67, N.º 2, julio-diciembre 2010, pp. 469-488, ISSN: 0082-5638
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The Metallurgy of the Sicilian Final Bronze Age/Early Iron Age necropolis of Madonna del Piano... 481
Fig. 15. Wheel-shaped belt decoration. These objects
contain high tin percentages. Diam.: ca. 7 cm.
The motive of the wheel is found all over
Europe, and up to Scandinavia and it seems to
belong to the general and diffused religious be-
liefs of the Bronze Age (but also of later times)
and to be a powerful symbol in the society of the
time.
In the past the wheel pendants have been in-
terpreted as solar or lunar symbols, connected
with fertility and water (Kossak 1954; 1990). Be-
cause of their colour, and as they always belong
to women, the lunar context seems to be the
better interpretation.
One of the two tintinnabula analysed (inv.
n. 71360) has been found in the grave of the
woman who was wearing one of the wheel-sha-
ped belt decorations and it consists of 12 tubuli
with 4 different diameter sizes, made of sheet
metal, and 10 small rings, which were most prob-
ably worn as a pectoral. The tubuli and rings are
made of alloys which contain up to 15 % of tin.
Their different sizes definitely produced different
chimes.
In this case it is difficult to reconstruct the
original shape of the tintinnabulum, however
the second piece, inv. n. 71155 (Fig. 2), is more
complete in its part and a reconstruction can be
attempted. The composite object consists of a
perforated bar with 14 holes, 14 bronze tubules of
the same size and composition, and 7 rings of dif-
ferent sizes. The tubules are made of well puri-
fied bronze with around 11 % of tin. The rings are
all made of the same alloy, which contains over
15 % of tin.
The tubuli were most probably hanging from
threads passing through the perforations in the
bar. In this grave there was also a small cast figu-
rine of an animal resembling a calf, vertically
perforated through the centre from which the
threads might have been suspended. Similar ob-
jects have been found also in other graves con-
taining tintinnabula pectorals, except in one case
in which only a bull figurine with a fibula was
present and there were no tubuli. It seems that the
zoomorphic part belonged to the same set or it
could have been worn separately.
By tinkling at each step and movement, the
tintinnabula had with all probability an apotro-
paic function and kept away the “evil eye”, but
they also attracted attention to the person who
was wearing them and emphasised the richness of
the attire.
CONCLUSIONS (A. Giumlia-Mair,
R.M. Albanese Procelli, F. Lo Schiavo)
The analysis results allow us to draw conclu-
sions on the technology level of the local commu-
nity and the everyday habits and some funerary
practice. They allow the hypothesis that the min-
iature objects found in children’s burials are not
functional, but were produced for funerary use
only. The quality control in the swords produc-
tion and in the manufacture of complex objects as
the tintinnabula demonstrate the sophistication of
the local workshops.
Comparisons with objects from the south of
Italy, particularly Calabria, reveal close relation-
ships, however our research on Sicilian material
is for the moment pioneering work. Analyses of
Campanian, Calabrian and Apulian contemporary
material are still needed. In particular it would be
interesting to extend the metallugical analyses to
Calabrian cemeteries on the Tyrrhenian coast
(Torre Galli) and in the Locris area and (Canale,
Janchina, Patariti) so as to examine the further
developments of the production. Much more data
is needed to establish the kind of relationship be-
tween Sicilian and Iberian elbow-type fibulae and
which elements played a role in the production of
these particular objects. Nevertheless it is quite
important to note that this is (at least up to now)
the earliest scientifically determined occurrence
in Italy of the use of lead as alloying element em-
ployed in correlation with the production tech-
nique. The Sicilian cast-on technique in the pro-
duction of thickened elbow fibulae segments has
never been documented before.
The complete study of the finds from Ma-
donna del Piano will be published in the Notizie
di Scavi d’Antichità.
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486 Alessandra Giumlia-Mair, Rosa Maria Albanese Procelli y Fulvia Lo Schiavo
Nr. Object Nr.
Inv. Part Cu Sn Pb As Sb Fe Ni Co Ag Zn Mn
1 fibula 70750 bow 91,2 6,3 0,08 0,02 0,04 0,2 0,04 0,1
2 disc 70751 88,5 8,9 0,02 0,02 0,02 0,1 0,01
3 razor 77150 blade 90,3 6,2 0,03
4 knife 70589 blade 87,1 11,0 1,50 0,01 0,03 0,2
5 pin 70579 90,2 7,4 0,05 0,07 1,2 tr.
6 knife 70577 blade 83,9 14,0 0,03 0,5
7 knife 70577 rivet 1 98,0 – tr. tr. 1,8 0,01
8 knife 70577 rivet 2 97,0 – tr. 2,3 0,6
9 ring 70580 86,2 8,2 3,00 0,20 0,4
10 fibula 70573 bow 88,9 9,8 0,20 0,2
11 ring 70574 87,7 11,0 tr. tr.
12 sword 70870 blade 90,2 7,9 0,70 0,40 0,4 tr.
13 sword 70870 rivet 1 89,4 8,0 0,90 0,20 0,8 0,3
14 sword 70870 rivet 2 91,2 7,0 0,70 0,5 0,2
15 fibula 70582 pin 91,7 5,6 tr. 0,10
16 fibula 70582 bow 87,8 5,3 6,32 0,20 0,4
17 fib. bow s. 70617 bow 88,1 9,1 1,50 0,4
18 fib. bow s. 70617 pin 89,2 10,0 0,10 0,1
19 point 70870 89,6 9,7 tr. 0,20 0,10 0,3 0,01
20 scabbard sh. 70870 sheet 98,8 – – 0,10 – 0,4 0,3
21 rivet 70870 rivet 89,3 9,2 0,40 0,10 tr. tr.
22 rivet 70870 rivet 93,7 5,7 0,50 0,1
23 fib. elbow 70623 pin 90,2 9,2 tr. 0,20 0,5 tr. tr. tr. tr.
24 fib. elbow 70623 bow 89,8 10,0 2,20 tr. 0,5 tr.
25 razor 70593 blade 90,1 6,7 0,1
26 razor 70593 handle 89,8 7,2 0,03
27 f. foliata 70792 spring 90,7 9,2
28 simple bow f. 70839 bow 90,6 8,5 0,07 0,03
29 simple bow f. 70839 bow 90,8 8,0 0,10 0,4
30 simple bow f. 70839 pin 89,2 8,8 – 0,1
31 fibula 71310 pin 87,8 10,3 0,20 0,2
32 fibula 71310 catchplate 87,5 11,0 0,10 0,8
33 fib. elbow rit. 70890 pin 87,2 8,1 2,60 0,04 0,30 0,5 tr. 0,3 tr.
34 fib. elbow l. 70721 pin 92,5 6,0 0,20 0,3
35 fib. elbow l. 70721 spring 91,8 6,5 0,20 tr. 0,2 tr. tr.
36 fib. elbow l. 70776 pin 88,3 11,0 0,30 0,2
37 fib. elbow l. 70646 bow 89,1 10,0 0,10 0,10 0,7
38 fib. elbow l. 70646 bow d. 87,4 10,0 0,20 1,4
39 fib. elbow l. 70646 catchplate 88,7 9,8 0,20 1,3
40 fib. elbow rep. 71101 repair 81,2 11,0 3,50 0,60 0,30 1,2 tr. tr. tr.
41 fib. elbow rep. 71101 bow 86,6 11,0 1,20 0,3 tr.
42 fib. elbow rep. 71101 bow 83,2 11,0 3,30 0,8
43 fib. elbow rep. 71101 bow 83,5 12,0 3,10 0,7
44 sword 70627 blade 93,6 5,3 0,30 0,2
45 sword 70627 point 91,5 8,4 tr. 0,3
46 sword 70627 sheet 90,2 9,3 – tr. 0,7 tr.
Table 1. Madonna del Piano – integrated XRF–, AAS– and SEM/EDS results (% in weigth).
T. P., 67, N.º 2, julio-diciembre 2010, pp. 469-488, ISSN: 0082-5638
doi: 10.3989/tp.2010.10051
The Metallurgy of the Sicilian Final Bronze Age/Early Iron Age necropolis of Madonna del Piano... 487
Nr. Object Nr.
Inv. Part Cu Sn Pb As Sb Fe Ni Co Ag Zn Mn
46b sword 70627 sheet 91,3 8,3 – tr. 0,5
47 sword 70627 rivet 89,7 9,7 0,30 0,5
48 sword 71146 blade 85,8 11,2 1,80 tr. 0,7 tr. tr. tr.
49 sword 71146 point 86,2 9,4 2,70 0,50 tr. 0,2 tr.
50 sword 71146 rivet 1 88,9 8,7 0,70 1,1 tr. tr.
51 sword 71146 rivet 2 90,4 8,5 0,40 0,5 tr.
52 sword 71146 rivet 3 90,6 8,5 0,50 0,5 tr.
53 sword 71146 rivet 1 98,5 tr. 0,9 tr. tr.
54 sword 71146 rivet 2 98,8 tr. 0,8
55 sword 71146 sheet 98,3 tr. 1,2
56 greave 1 70630 88,4 10,3 0,80 0,30 tr. 0,2
57 greave 2 70630 87,1 10,6 1,20 0,40 tr. 0,4
58 knife 71353 blade 90,7 6,4 0,90 1,5 tr.
59 knife 71353 rivet 1 91,2 5,9 0,80 1,3
60 knife 71353 rivet 2 91,4 6,1 0,80 0,9 tr. tr.
61 knife 71353 rivet 3 91,2 6,2 0,70 0,9 tr.
62 belt hook 71354 hook 92,2 6,3 0,50 1,2
63 knife 71362 blade 89,3 8,2 1,60 0,5
64 knife 71362 rivet 1 88,6 10,5 0,4
65 knife 71362 rivet 2 88,4 10,2 0,5
66 belt decor. 71363 cross 78,3 17,0 0,80 0,50 0,40 0,4 tr.
67 belt decor. 71363 ring 79,8 17,0 1,10 0,40 0,30 0,3 tr.
68 tintinnabulum 71360 tub. Large 88,5 10,9 0,5
69 tintinnabulum 71360 tub. med. 87,7 11,8 tr. 0,6 tr.
70 tintinnabulum 71360 tub. Small 86,9 12,2 0,3
71 tintinnabulum 71360 tub. Small 2 88,2 11,6 0,2
72 tintinnabulum 71362 ring 1 85,3 13,2 tr. 0,7 tr. tr.
73 tintinnabulum 71362 ring 2 85,8 12,8 tr. 0,9 tr.
74 f. bow 71144 bow 88,8 10,5 0,30 tr. tr. 0,6
75 razor 71145 handle 93,7 4,5 0,8 tr.
76 f. elbow 70606 bow 89,4 10,2 tr. tr. 0,3
77 wire 70605 98,9 0,9
78 f. antennae 71204 catchplate 88,7 10,0 0,20 0,20 – 0,1 tr.
79 f. antennae 71204 antennae 88,2 9,2 1,20 0,4 tr.
80 f. antennae 71204 bow 89,6 11,0 – 0,2 tr.
81 f. antennae 71204 pin 89,8 10,0 0,1
82 belt decor. 71209 int. circlet 84,1 14,8 tr. tr. tr. 0,1 tr.
83 belt decor. 71209 ext. circlet 83,4 15,0 0,70 tr. tr. 0,1
84 knife 71208 blade 90,2 6,0 2,20 0,7
85 knife 71208 rivet 1 88,9 8,0 1,10 1,5 tr.
86 knife 71208 rivet 2 89,3 7,5 0,90 1,3 tr.
87 knife 71208 rivet 3 89,2 8,0 1,10 0,9 tr.
88 reel 71205 85,4 7,3 4,20 0,4
89 f. elbow 71369 catchplate 87,1 11,2 tr. tr. 0,6
90 f. elbow 71369 bow long 88,2 10,0 0,60 0,8
91 f. elbow 71369 bow short 87,4 9,5 1,40 tr. tr. 1 tr.
92 f. elbow 71369 pin 87,9 11,0 0,8
93 f. 3 loops 70961 plaque 92,3 4,2 0,80 0,3 tr.
94 f. 3 loops 70961 bow 91,1 4,5 0,90 0,3
95 knife 71385 blade 91,6 5,2 2,10 tr. 0,4
96 reel 71418 head 93,7 4,2 3,20 0,6 tr. tr.
97 reel 71418 centre 90,2 4,5 4,00 0,3
98 reel 71406 centre 91,3 6,2 1,80 0,2
99 tube 71406 92,4 5,2 0,60 0,03 0,01 0,5 tr. tr.
100 tintinnabulum 71155 barra 91,7 7,2 0,30 tr. tr. 0,4
101 tintinnabulum 71156 tube 1 88,6 11,0 0,3
102 tintinnabulum 71156 tube 2 89,2 10,7 0,3
103 tintinnabulum 71156 tube 3 88,2 11,3 0,2
104 tintinnabulum 71156 tube 4 88,5 10,8 0,1
Table 1. Madonna del Piano – integrated XRF–, AAS– and SEM/EDS results (% in weigth) (continuación).
T. P., 67, N.º 2, julio-diciembre 2010, pp. 469-488, ISSN: 0082-5638
doi: 10.3989/tp.2010.10051
488 Alessandra Giumlia-Mair, Rosa Maria Albanese Procelli y Fulvia Lo Schiavo
Nr. Object Nr.
Inv. Part Cu Sn Pb As Sb Fe Ni Co Ag Zn Mn
105 tintinnabulum 71165 toro 85,3 10,2 3,50 tr. tr. 0,2 tr.
106 tintinnabulum 71161 ring 84,2 14,3 tr. 0,1
107 tintinnabulum 71161 ring 83,4 15,2 tr. 0,2
108 tintinnabulum 71161 ring 83,3 15,3 tr. 0,1
109 tintinnabulum 71161 ring 84,5 14,9 tr. 0,1
110 tintinnabulum 71161 ring 83,6 15,2 tr. 0,2
111 tintinnabulum 71161 ring 83,5 15,1 0,1 tr.
112 tintinnabulum 71161 ring 83,4 15,3 tr. 0,2
113 anklet 71377 86,8 7,2 4,20 0,6 tr. tr.
114 anklet 71377 87,9 6,6 3,80 0,5
115 f. bow 71375 bow 88,2 6,0 5,00 0,03 tr. 0,2 tr.
116 f. Cassibile 71395 bow 85,4 10,0 4,00 –
117 f. Cassibile 71395 catchplate 85,3 10,0 4,20 –
118 f. bow rit. 71136 bow 90,2 9,2 0,40 tr.
119 f. bow dec. 71135 bow 88,3 11,3 tr. 0,1 tr. tr.
120 knife 71185 blade 93,8 5,2 tr. 0,2
121 f. ribbon 71389 bow 84,9 9,8 4,30 0,5
Table 1. Madonna del Piano – integrated XRF–, AAS– and SEM/EDS results (% in weigth) (final).
