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28 Curr Top Neurol Psychiatr Relat Discip. Vol 18, No. 4, December 2010
Cigić at al.
RESEARCH ARTICLE
UDC 159.937.51
PERSONALITY TRAITS AND COLOUR PREFERENCES
RAZLIKE U OSOBINAMA LIČNOSTI IZMEĐU TIPOVA ISPITANIKA FORMIRANIH NA
OSNOVU PREFERENCIJE BOJA
Dunja Cigić1, Vojislava Bugarski 1
Abstract: e objective of this investigation was to nd out if there existed any dierences in personality
traits of subjects grouped according to the colour preference criterion. e study sample included a total of
104 subjects recruited from the third-year students of two grammar schools in Novi Sad, Serbia. e resear-
ch instruments applied were the short version of the Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire and
the Colour Preference Questionnaire designed particularly for the purpose of this investigation. e obtai-
ned results showed that there were personality dierences between subjects preferring dark colours (brown,
grey and black) and subjects preferring bright colours (red, yellow). Social introversion and neuroticism/
anxiety were more prominent personality traits in subjects who preferred dark colours, while aggression
and activity were more prominent in subjects who preferred bright colours.
Key words: Colour preference, personality traits, Alternative Five-Factor Model of Personality
Sažetak: Cilj ovog istraživanja je da pruži odgovor na pitanje da li postoje razlike u osobinama ličnosti iz-
među grupa ispitanika formiranih na osnovu preferencije boja. Ispitanici su bili učenici treće godine novo-
sadskih gimnazija, ukupno 104 ispitanika. Od instrumenata korišćeni su skraćena verzija Zakerman-Kul-
manovog upitnika za procenu ličnosti i Upitnik za procenu stepena dopadanja boja konstruisan za dato
istraživanje. Dobijeni rezultati ukazuju da postoje razlike u osobinama ličnosti između ispitanika koji više
preferiraju tamnije boje (braon, siva i crna) naspram jarkih boja (crvena, žuta). Izraženije osobine socijal-
ne introverzije i neuroticizma/anksioznosti se beleže u grupi ispitanika kojoj se više dopadaju tamnije boje,
dok se izraženije prisustvo osobina kao što su agresivnost i aktivitet beleže u grupi ispitanika koja više pre-
ferira jarke boje.
Ključne reči: preferencija boja, osobine ličnosti, Alternativni petofaktorski model ličnosti
1 Clinic of Neurology, Clinical Center of Vojvodina, Novi Sad, Serbia
Correspondence to: Dunja Cigić, MPsy; Address: Banović Strahinje 18, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; E-mail:
dunja.cigic@gmail.com
* Received November 16, 2010; accepted December 17, 2010.
29
Curr Top Neurol Psychiatr Relat Discip. Vol 18, No. 4, December 2010
Cigić at al.
INTRODUCTION
Marvin Zuckerman’s Alternative Five-Factor
Model of Personality
At the basis of all personality models and accom-
panying personality assessment instruments lie
the presumptions regarding the nature of perso-
nality dimensions (1). Psychobiological personali-
ty theories (e.g. Eysenck’s theory of planned beha-
viour), propose models for understanding the in-
teraction between the biological and environmen-
tal eects on the personality traits. Psychobiologi-
cal personality theories assume there is a certain
neuropsychological system at the basis of any per-
sonality trait, and this system’s structure and fun-
ction are aected by synergistic eects of genes
and the environment. Individual dierences in the
system’s functioning retroactively aect the die-
rences on the behavioural plane. However, Zuc-
kerman opines there is no isomorphism between
the personality traits and neuropsychological sy-
stems. Neuropsychological systems may exert the-
ir inuence on diverse manifested behaviours,
which may be related to a wide spectrum of the
personality traits. erefore, there is an interacti-
on, but not a separate inuence of these systems
on behaviour. Each trait is supported by complex
neuropsychological functions and systems that
contribute to manifesting a large number of tra-
its (2). Relying upon the investigations of biopsyc-
hological bases of many personality traits, Zucker-
man has developed the approach with diverse tra-
it levels postulated, enabling thus their adequate
description (1). Psychometrically operationalized
traits are at the rst level; consistent behaviour pa-
tterns and accustomed cognitive reactions in cer-
tain situations are at the second level; then follow
the learning and conditioning; the cortical physi-
ology dierences are examined at the fourth level;
biochemical systems (neurotransmitters, enzymes
or hormones) are at the h level; neurological sy-
stems at the basis of functioning are at the sixth le-
vel; and the genetic structure is at the last, seventh
level. To fully understand a particular personali-
ty trait, it is essential to investigate all the levels of
its manifestation. e dimensions of Zuckerman’s
Alternative Five-Factor Model are Activity, Aggre-
ssion/Hostility, Impulsive Sensation Seeking, Ne-
uroticism/Anxiety and Sociability. Each of these
dimensions has specic manifestations at the le-
vel of behaviour, the basis in the form of the pro-
cess of conditioning, as well as its physiological,
biochemical, neurological and genetic basis (1).
According to Zuckerman, the physiological pro-
cesses underlying the cortical excitation or inhibi-
tion are important for all basic personality dimen-
sions. erefore, modern psychological models
abandon former reductional approaches, conside-
ring the relations between the physiological and
psychological features to be due to complex inte-
ractions. In addition to the presumption that the
psychological processes are physiologically condi-
tioned, one of the axioms of the psychobiological
approach is the thesis that they are genetically pre-
determined (1).
Colours
e colour is the sight sensation produced in the
retina by the visible light rays, i.e. the electroma-
gnetic irradiation of 380-760nm wave length.
According to this denition, the colour is a featu-
re of neither the sensation-producing light nor the
light-emitting object, but it is a psychic experience
produced by electromagnetic irradiation (3).
e spectrum may be divided into several se-
gments, which when collected together regardle-
ss their number, again produce the white light. If
the spectrum is dispersed through a prism into
three equal segments, three primary colours are
obtained. e rst colour classication includes
the primary and complex colours. ree primary
colours are red, yellow and blue. ree complex
colours are produced by mixing these primary
ones: red+yellow=orange, blue+yellow=green and
blue+red=violet. ese colours are also called se-
condary. Tertiary colours are produced by mixing
the primary and secondary ones (e.g. blue gree-
nish, yellow greenish, etc.). Another classicati-
on of the colours includes the warm (red, yellow,
orange) and cold (blue, violet, green) colours. is
classication has resulted from the fact that the-
se colours can in nature be correlated to respec-
tive thermal states (red– re, blue – sea). Neutral
colours include brown, coee colour and alike.
Complementary colours are the two colours nei-
ther of which is contained in another one. ey
take the opposite sides in Ostwald’s colour wheel.
ese are: orange and blue (as orange is produced
30 Curr Top Neurol Psychiatr Relat Discip. Vol 18, No. 4, December 2010
Cigić at al.
by mixing red and yellow, i.e. it contains not a bit
of blue), violet and yellow, and red and green. e
German physicist Wilhelm Ostwald was the rst
to formulate the classication of colours depen-
ding on their chromatic features, which has been
generally accepted nowadays. According to their
chromatic features, the colours are classied as va-
riegated and non-variegated, that is as chromatic
and non-chromatic, or chromatin and achromatic
(neutral). Variegated or chromatic colours are the
ones included within the Sun Spectrum, and non-
variegated or achromatic colours include black,
white and grey.
e Colour and the Personality
e colour is an important aspect of our eorts to
create our personal environment we like. ere is
a surprisingly small number of studies investiga-
ting the correlation between the individual colo-
ur preference and the personality. According to
Luscher, who advocates the thesis that the subjects
with similar colour preference may have similar
personality traits, the subjects’ psychological reac-
tions/attitudes to the primary colours (blue, red,
yellow and green) reect their basic psychological
needs. When, for example, someone does not like
red, he/she unconsciously reects anxiety (4).
Eysenck postulated that the introverts, unlike the
extroverts, are preoccupied with their own thou-
ghts and emotions, so they choose a social envi-
ronment that allows them to achieve a medium le-
vel of the optimal excitement (1). e studies of
the eect of colour on excitement have shown that
there is a correlation between colour preferences
and personality traits. More precisely, the intro-
verts prefer „calm” colours (such as blue), becau-
se they reduce the excitement, while the extroverts
prefer „exciting” colours (such as red), as they in-
crease the excitement level (4). A study in whi-
ch hue (but not brightness or saturation) was va-
ried showed that more extroverts than introverts
preferred warm colours (5). In his careful anal-
ysis of the eect of permanent observation of co-
loured surfaces through psychophysical functi-
ons, Gerard reported a signicantly weaker excite-
ment under the blue than under the red and whi-
te light (6). Subjects who scored high on the ma-
nifest anxiety scale were signicantly more exci-
ted under the red light and calmer under the blue
light as compared to the subjects with low mani-
fest anxiety score (6). e high structural mode of
colour application has been established to be in
the positive correlation with the socially reserved
style of behaviour and in the negative correlation
with extroversion. However, the looser applicati-
on of colours is not necessarily in a close correlati-
on with extroversion (7). Lange and Rentfrow su-
ppose that similar personality traits may be reec-
ted through diverse colour preference patterns,
e.g., the high creativity might be associated with
the yellow or red colour preference at the rst pla-
ce, and the blue colour preference at the last pla-
ce (8).
e history of the psychological studies on the re-
lationship between personality and colour has
been partially reviewed by Schaie, who suggested
that the colour shades in the spectrum order from
red to violet represent a series of emotions, from
excitement, unrestraint, direct and prolonged im-
pulsive discharge (red), over calmness (green), to
anxiety and concern (violet) (5). e correlation
of the violet colour and concern and tension has
been supported by the ndings of a great number
of psycho-pathological groups. Birren has repor-
ted an association between the warm colours and
energetic and excited moods and between the cool
colours and passive and calm moods (9).
OBJECTIVE
e investigation was carried out in order to exa-
mine the possibility of selecting the personality
types within the content of the Colour Preferen-
ce Assessment Questionnaire, i.e. to answer the
problematic question „Are there personality tra-
it dierences between the clusters of the exami-
ned subjects formed on the colour preference ba-
sis?“ e few investigations of this problem carri-
ed out so far suggest there is a correlation between
warm colours and energetic and exciting moods,
as well as between cool colours and passive and
calm moods; in other words, the extroverts tend
to prefer warm colours, unlike the introverts (9).
ese theoretical suppositions suggest the hypot-
hesis of personality trait dierences between su-
bjects who prefer dark colours and those who pre-
fer bright colours.
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Cigić at al.
METHOD
Procedure
e investigation was carried out in May, 2009.
e study sample included the students of four
third-year classes of two grammar schools (‘’Laza
Kostić’’ and ‘’Jovan Jovanović Zmaj’’) in Novi Sad,
Serbia. Two third-year classes from each school
were included. e school authorities gave their
written consent for this project. Prior to the initia-
tion, the examined subjects were informed the in-
vestigation was anonymous, and the obtained re-
sults would be used for the research purposes exc-
lusively. Having obtained the investigated subjects’
written consent for participation in the study, they
were all given a written instruction regarding the
application of the short version of Zuckerman-
Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire, with an ad-
ditional oral instruction concerning the applicati-
on of the Colour Preference Questionnaire, desi-
gned for the purpose of this investigation exclusi-
vely. e time for lling in the questionnaires was
not limited. e subjects were given to ll in the
short version of Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personali-
ty Questionnaire, and they came to the teacher’s
desk one by one, where was a computer with the
stimuli (colours) on the screen. All the instructi-
ons had been explained before the study started,
so in the second part of the investigation the stu-
dents just answered the Colour Preference Que-
stionnaire, with the stimuli – eight colours of the
Luscher Colour Test simultaneously appearing on
the 15-inch computer screen.
Sample
e investigation was carried out on a sample of
a total of 104 subjects of both sexes, of whom 53
(51%) were males and 51 (49%) females, ave-
rage age of approximately 17 years (M=17.45;
SD=0.52). e subjects were matched with regard
to the basic sociodemographic variables - gender
(χ2 = 0.636; p>0.05) and age (χ2 = 0.955; p>0.05).
Instruments
Two investigation instruments were applied in the
study: the short version of Zuckerman- Kuhlman
Personality Questionnaire, and the Colours Prefe-
rence Questionnaire.
Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionna-
ire - ZKPQ-50-CC (10) includes 50 items with
a binary answer format. e short version of the
questionnaire utilizes the dimensions of the Al-
ternative Five-Factor Personality Model: Activity
(Act), Aggression-Hostility (Agg-Host), Impulsive
Sensation Seeking (ImpSS), Neuroticism-Anxiety
(NAnx) and Sociability (Sy). e subjects’ achie-
vements in the examined dimensions were de-
ned by the factor scores on the rst primary com-
ponents of each subscale. Reliability coecients
for each dimension on the short version of the
Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire
are presented in Table 1. e reliability expressed
by the Cronbach’s alpha coecient has been con-
rmed in some international studies (Germany
and the United States) (10), showing that the short
form of Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questi-
onnaire has satisfactory reliability for most subs-
cales.
Table 1. Reliability of ZKPQ-50-CC subscales expressed
by the Cronbach’s alpha
Cronbach α
(USA)
Cronbach α
(Germany)
Neuroticism-Anxiety 0.80 0.82
Impulsive Sensation
Seeking 0.72 0.73
Activity 0.74 0.74
Sociability 0.74 0.67
Aggression-Hostility 0.72 0.60
e Colour Preference Questionnaire
e Colour Preference Questionnaire was desi-
gned for this investigation in particular, with the
Luscher Colour test as a model (4). However, the
responding and scoring format is dierent from
that in the original Luscher Colour Test. To apply
the Colour Preference Questionnaire, it is neces-
sary to have a 15-inch computer screen on whi-
ch an examiner simultaneously presents all the sti-
muli, i.e., the eight colours (green, yellow, grey, red
violet, black, brown and blue) from the original
Luscher Colour Test. e questionnaire is applied
in two stages. In the rst stage, subjects are asked
to select the colour they like best from those pre-
32 Curr Top Neurol Psychiatr Relat Discip. Vol 18, No. 4, December 2010
Cigić at al.
sented on the screen. In the second stage, subjects
assess each of the given eight colours on the ve-
point Likert scale (1- I don’t like it at all, 2 -I don’t
like it, 3 - I can’t decide, 4- I like it, and 5 - I like it
very much). Subjects were exposed to the stimuli
all the time while they were answering the questi-
onnaire.
Statistical analyses
e statistical processing of the obtained data was
performed using SPSS 11 (Statistical Package for
Social Science) and Statistica 7.0 for Windows. In
order to dene the taxonomy of subjects within
the scope of the Colour Preference Questionna-
ire, the cluster analysis was performed. To iden-
tify the isolated clusters, the canonical discrimi-
nant analysis was applied, in which cluster alia-
tion was the criterion variable, and the predictors
were subjects’ responses on the Colour Preference
Questionnaire. Subsequently, in order to exami-
ne the personality dierences between the iden-
tied clusters, the canonical discriminant anal-
ysis was applied, with the colour preference rela-
ted cluster aliation as the criterion variable and
the factor scores on the rst principal components
of the short form of Zuckerman-Kuhlman Perso-
nality Questionnaire as the predictors.
RESULTS
To dene the taxonomy of subjects within the sco-
pe of the Colour Preference Questionnaire and
the short form of Zuckerman-Kuhlman Persona-
lity Questionnaire, the cluster analysis was perfor-
med. Ward’s hierarchical clustering method was
performed rst in order to dene the number of
clusters to be kept. e dendrogram showed the
solutions with two and three clusters to be accep-
table. en, the non-hierarchical K-means cluste-
ring method with two- and three-cluster solutions
was applied. e two-cluster solution was found
the most suitable for interpretation, and therefore
it was used in further analyses.
Colour preference dierences between the groups
(clusters)
e discriminant analysis was applied to identify
the isolated clusters, with cluster aliation as the
criterion variable and the subjects’ answers on the
Colour Preference Questionnaire as the predictors
(Table2).
Table 2 Discriminant Function Signicance (Eigenvalues and Wilks’ Lambda)
Specic root % of the variance Canonicalcorrelation Wilks’ Lambda Chi square (x2) df p
2.294 100.0 .834 .304 116.814 8 .000
e rst isolated discriminative function was statistically signicant at the signicance level of p<0.01
(x2=116.814; Vilks’ lambda=0.304). e canonical correlation coecient was 0.834. e specic root
value was 2.294.
Table 3. Structural and standardized discriminant function coecients
Structural coecients Standardized coecients
red .574 .633
brown -.495 -.534
grey -.381 -.514
black -.273 -.162
blue .164 .182
green .161 .218
yellow .160 .350
violet .062 .185
33
Curr Top Neurol Psychiatr Relat Discip. Vol 18, No. 4, December 2010
Cigić at al.
Table 4. Group centroids on the discriminant function
Cluster (group) Discriminant function
Group1 -2.106
Group 2 1.068
e isolated discriminant function may be termed
preference for bright over dark colours.
On the basis of group centroids, it is observed that
Group 1 subjects, as compared to Group 2 su-
bjects, preferred brown (r=-.495) and grey (r=-
.381) and liked less red. Also, the black colour pre-
ference had a marginal statistical signicance (r=-
.273). Group 2 subjects liked red (r=.574) more
than Group 1 subjects. A partial contribution
to distinguishing these two groups was made by
red (standardized coecient=.633), brown (stan-
dardized coecient =-.534), grey (standardized
coecient=-.514), as well as yellow (standardized
coecient= 0.35) (Table 3 and 4). e rst cluster
may be identied as the dark-colour-preferring
type, and the second cluster as the bright-colour-
preferring type.
Personality dierences between the clusters
e discriminant analysis was used to examine
whether the selected clusters mutually diered
in personality traits. e set of predictors in this
analysis included the subjects’ factor scores on the
rst principal components of the short version of
Zuckerman-Kuhlman Questionnaire subscales,
while the grouping variable was the aliation to
clusters formed on the basis of colour preference
(Table 5).
e discriminant function had the statistical si-
gnicance at the level of p<0.05 (χ2=12.413;
Wilks’ lambda=0.883). e canonical correlati-
on coecient was 0.342, meaning the dierences
between clusters were moderate. e specic root
was 0.133.
Table 5. Signicance of the discriminative function (Eigenvalues and Wilks’ Lambda)
Specic root % of the variance Canonical-
correlation
Wilks’
Lambda Chi square (x2) df p
.133 100.0 .342 .883 12.413 5 .030
Table 6. Structural and standardized discriminative
function coecients
Structural
coecient
Standard-
ized coef-
cients
Sociability (-) .805 .646
Neuroticism-Anxiety .490 .379
Aggression-Hostility -.439 -.322
Activity -.363 -.436
Impulsive Sensation Seeking -.178 .033
Table 7. Group centroids on the discriminative function
Cluster Discriminative
function
Group 1 .507
Group 2 -.257
e discriminant function was determined by
high neuroticism, but low sociability, aggression
and activity (Tables 5 and 6). is discriminant
function may be termed passivity vs. activity. Gro-
up centroids showed that subjects who preferred
dark colours (Group 1) had a higher score on the
discriminant function compared to subjects who
preferred bright colours (Group 2).
Integration of the results of both discriminant
analyses showed that Group 1 subjects preferred
dark colours (brown, grey, black) and had more
prominent traits of social introversion (the negati-
ve pole of the Sociability dimension) and neuroti-
cism/anxiety and less prominent traits of aggressi-
on and activity. Conversely, subject who preferred
bright colours (red and yellow) had more promi-
nent traits of aggression and activity and less pro-
minent traits of social introversion and neurotici-
sm/anxiety.
34 Curr Top Neurol Psychiatr Relat Discip. Vol 18, No. 4, December 2010
Cigić at al.
DISCUSSION
is investigation represents a taxonomic perso-
nality study carried out in order to establish whet-
her the preference for certain colours may be the
basis for a personality taxonomy and whether the
individuals with dierent colour preferences dier
with regard to personality traits.
e discriminant analysis was applied to identify
the isolated clusters. e results of the discrimi-
nant analysis showed a statistically signicant pre-
ference for brown and grey and a marginally si-
gnicant preference for black in Group 1 subjects.
On the other hand, there was a signicant prefe-
rence for red and a marginally signicant prefe-
rence for yellow in Group 2 subjects. e results of
the other discriminant analysis, carried out to de-
termine whether the cluster of subjects who pre-
ferred dark colours diered in personality traits
from the cluster of subjects who preferred bright
colours, showed that the rst group scored higher
on the negative pole of the dimension of Sociabi-
lity (-) (i.e. Social Introversion) and Neuroticism,
whereas the latter group scored higher on the di-
mensions of Aggression and Activity.
As we expected, study subjects clustered with re-
gard to the colours they preferred (dark or cold
colours versus bright or warm colours) and accor-
dingly scored dierently on the dimensions of
Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire.
Our results are, therefore, in line with our expec-
tations and the theoretical assumptions presented
in the paper.
As stated in the Introduction, one possible classi-
cation of colours is into warm and cold colours.
Cold colours share the physical features which are
reected in their symbolical meaning, as well as in
the impression they make on people. Grey is the
most static colour, lacking any sound or motion.
According to Luscher, persons who pick grey in
the colour test try to take a distance from everyt-
hing, to protect themselves from any external in-
uence or stimuli (4). Brown is a real colour asso-
ciation to tranquillity and nature, it has strong ef-
fects on our physical condition in terms of cal-
ming down and relaxing, assisting in overcoming
fatigue and strain (11). Persons who pick brown
have the need for physical relaxation (4). e
black colour creates a protective barrier absorbing
the energy reaching us. is colour actually means
the absence of light, so it is a negation of contact
and life (12). In the study „Painting and Persona-
lity“, children who preferred black were shown to
suppress their feelings, to be anxious and full of
fears, oriented to intellectual interests, and posse-
ssing high self-control (13). e persons who pick
black in the colour test are revolutionists. ey op-
pose religion, or their own religion at least, feeling
that nothing is the way it should be (4).
erefore, we may conclude that these colours
have a common denominator – withdrawal. eir
meaning stems from their features of introversion,
inactivity and withdrawal. All the features of cold
colours may be correlated to introverts’ personali-
ty traits, which gains its full meaning when corre-
lated to another signicant discriminant function
which may be termed passivity versus activity. So-
cial introversion and neuroticism may be associ-
ated with the preference for dark and cold colo-
urs (in this case grey, brown, and black). Similar-
ly to these colours, introvert personalities tend to
withdraw from the external environment. All the
three colours are calm and static. In previous inve-
stigations they have predominantly been associa-
ted with the traits opposed to activity.
Group 2 subjects preferred red and yellow and ac-
hieved higher scores on the personality dimensi-
ons such as Aggression, Activity and Sociability
compared to Group 1 subjects. Both red and ye-
llow belong to warm, intensive colours and the-
refore the discriminant function was termed: the
preference for bright over dark colours. Red is the
most active colour, stimulating activity. Its sym-
bolism is associated with strength, sharpness, and
aggressiveness (12). Persons who pick red on the
Luscher Colour Test want to control their own
life, wishing to achieve the feeling of an intensive
and accomplished life by their own eorts (4). All
that has been said so far about the red colour com-
plies with its association with the personality tra-
its of activity and aggression. Red is active in cha-
racter, exhibiting no tendency to deepening, and
neither does the yellow colour (12). Although the
yellow colour is oen associated with cheerfulness
and an enthusiastic, active attitude, it is also asso-
ciated with aggression. erefore, here as well, a
clear association may be drawn between the cha-
35
Curr Top Neurol Psychiatr Relat Discip. Vol 18, No. 4, December 2010
Cigić at al.
racteristics of a colour and the traits of a person
preferring it.
By integrating the results of both discriminant
analyses, two diverse personality types may be
formulated. Type 1 includes individuals who pre-
fer dark colours and score high on the dimensi-
on of Neuroticism, but low on Sociability, Activi-
ty and Aggression. ese subjects may be descri-
bed as inclined to withdrawal, passivity, tension
and emotional instability. ese persons are more
reserved and less aggressive than Type 2 persona-
lity. Type 2 includes persons who prefer warm, ac-
tive colours and score high on the dimensions of
Activity, Aggression and Sociability but low on the
dimension of Neuroticism. ese persons may be
described as those inclined to taking the initiative,
having an active approach, and showing increased
aggressiveness. ey are emotionally more stable
and more sociable than Type 1 persons.
e results interpreted in this way may support the
opinion that people choose the colours they like in
accordance with their personality traits, and their
personality traits resemble the colours they prefer.
erefore, active individuals select active, vivid,
strong colours (red, yellow), whereas introverted
and anxious individuals choose dark, heavy, static
colours (brown, grey, black).
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