Article

Loose Fruit Mamas: Creating Incentives for Smallholder Women in Oil Palm Production in Papua New Guinea

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Abstract

This paper presents a case study of the introduction of a more gender equitable payment scheme for oil palm smallholders in Papua New Guinea. Women are now paid separately from their husbands for their work on family oil palm plots thereby increasing the economic incentives for women to commit labor to oil palm production. The study incorporates broader local cultural and economic processes in the analysis of intra-household gender and labor relations to explain how the new payment systems successfully resolved intra-household disputes over labor and income. The paper highlights the critical role export firms can play in enhancing women’s access to commodity crop income. Further, the paper demonstrates that by widening the framework of household analysis, insights can be gained into two key questions that have received only limited attention in the literature: the question of why men do not share a greater proportion of cash crop income with other family members; and, the apparent inability of families to resolve intra-household conflicts over income.

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... Women reported that underpayment of their labour for loose fruit collection compromised their financial capacity to care for their families and to participate effectively in socio-cultural activities. As a result, most women switched their labour from oil palm production to other livelihoods such as vegetable production where they had greater control of the income from their labour (Koczberski, 2007;Koczberski et al., 2001). ...
... It was not until 1996 that it was recognised women's poor loose fruit collection was because of non-payment or underpayment of their labour by their husbands (Lewis, 2000). Women's uncertain share of the oil palm income paid to their husbands by the company also highlighted women's limited influence on the distribution of household oil palm income (Koczberski, 2007). From 1997 women began to be paid directly by the company for the sale of loose fruit from their family plots, and numbers of participating women grew rapidly. ...
... The success of the MLF scheme was attributable to its capacity to address rising intra-family conflict resulting from growing population pressure and declining per capita oil palm income: conflicted relations between men and women, particularly between husbands and wives, over the remuneration of women's labour for loose fruit collection. Intra-family tensions and conflict, sometimes erupting in domestic violence, came to characterise the monthly paydays and were a common concern raised by women in interviews (Koczberski 2007). Severe social dislocation was emerging, and dysfunctional family relationships were resulting in reduced productivity as women reduced their labour input in oil palm because of non-payment or underpayment of their labour. ...
Article
The low rate of technology adoption has long been a key constraint on improving productivity, income and yields in farming, particularly in developing countries where market-based systems of production are not well developed, the subsistence economy remains strong, land is held under communal tenure and family labour is the backbone of production. We examine four case studies of technology adoption to explore key socio-economic factors facilitating or constraining adoption. Our case studies cover an array of adoption situations from different parts of the developing world: 1. The socio-cultural barriers to the adoption of new technologies to control Cocoa Pod Borer in Papua New Guinea; 2. The role of land pressure on differential adoption rates of cocoassie yams amongst ethnic groups in Ivory Coast; 3. Past agricultural practices and their influence on adoption of a new planting pattern and selected oil palm planting material in Cameroon; 4. Taking account of gender relations to facilitate successful adoption of a new oil palm initiative for women smallholders in Papua New Guinea.
... Also, the plantation labouring opportunities available to village men both in the highlands and coastal areas, who were contracted under labour migration agreements, gave them their first taste of export cash crop production and facilitated the adoption of export cash crops in rural villagers (Turner 1986;Ward 1990;MacWilliam 1996). Men came to dominate and control export cash cropping at the household level with the near total exclusion of women from this sphere of economic activity, except as a source of underpaid or unpaid labour (Clark 1990;Bannister 1982;Overfield 1998;Benediktsson 2002;Koczberski 2007). Export cash cropping soon became an arena in which men competed with each other for status and renown, especially in the highlands where 'bigmanship' was highly competitive (Finney 1973;Strathern 1979;Nihill 1991). ...
... Women's contestation of men's claims of ownership and control of the income earned from women's labour in export cash crops is well documented (Strathern 1982;Grossman 1984;Sexton 1986;Johnson 1988;Overfield 1998, Curry et al. 2007Koczberski 2007). Most of these studies describe how men transferred or re-interpreted indigenous concepts about work, wealth, land and traditional crop rights to export cash crops which placed women in a disadvantaged position with limited rights to the income earned. ...
... Most of these studies describe how men transferred or re-interpreted indigenous concepts about work, wealth, land and traditional crop rights to export cash crops which placed women in a disadvantaged position with limited rights to the income earned. 4 Despite the labour contributions of women to export crop production in PNG, men largely control the disbursement of cash crop earnings (Strathern 1982;Sexton 1986;Johnson 1988;Overfield 1998;Curry et al. 2007;Koczberski 2007), a situation little different from other parts of the developing world (Raynolds 2002;Ambler et al. 2018). For example, several studies in the decades immediately following the introduction of coffee, revealed emerging intra-household gender conflicts over women's labour because of perceived under-payment of their labour by their husbands (Strathern 1982;Grossman 1984;Johnson 1988;Sexton 1986;Collett 1992; Overfield 1998). ...
... T H E 'MAMA LUS FrU T ' ScH EME There have been exaggerated claims that an oil palm company scheme for women represents a great breakthrough, both in livelihood terms and for gender relations. it has been said that the 'Mama Lus Frut' scheme might help reduce household conflict, domestic violence and even slow the spread of HiV infection (Koczberski 2007;Seeley and Butcher 2006). This is mostly speculation. ...
... A few years later, in 2003, income from the Mama Lus Fruit scheme was noted as having risen to an average of 49 Kina per week (Koczberski 2007(Koczberski : 1178, still one of the lowest rural options (see Table 3.1). Warner and Bauer (2002: 5, 10, 14) had noted that the 'mama cheque' added only 'slightly' or 'marginally' to household income, an increase of between 8% (in multiple household blocks) and 18% (in a single household block). ...
... For example, the possibility that 'mama card' money (and any other money) might have been simply handed over the male head of the household for distribution was not considered. in a similar vein, the assertions about the scheme possibly reducing household conflict or slowing the spread of HiV infection (Koczberski 2007;Seeley and Butcher 2006) were not based on any particular evidence. of greater importance, these hopeful theories on the unintended gender consequences of the 'Mama Lus Frut' scheme did not explore 1997) had delivered an independent source of income to women, who spent this money far more according to family needs. ...
Book
Full-text available
A slow motion drama is in play in Melanesia, above all in Papua New Guinea, where the ‘omissions’ of the colonial era are being addressed by neo-colonial forces. The economic interest of the big powers has its focus on land – always a key resource but increasingly valuable in times of multiple food, financial, energy and ecological crises. At stake are the livelihoods of most of the country’s seven million inhabitants, 85% of them rural livelihoods. This book argues that notions of the country’s ‘economy’ and its ‘development’ have no real meaning without an inclusive focus on both these livelihoods and the role of customary land.
... Low productivity and poor product quality are key barriers to the participation of the poor in markets. The simplest example of this is the shift of subsistence households to producing a saleable surplus (and improving food BOX 7.5 GENDER OUTCOMES OF TWO PROCESS UPGRADING INTERVENTIONS Koczberski (2007) describes how a company in Papua New Guinea, in partnership with support organizations, introduced a new payment process for women palm fruit labourers. Initial technological approaches to address poor participation in harvesting loose fruit had very limited success because they failed to address the underlying issue caused by male-female power dynamics. ...
... Sources: Koczberski (2007); von security) through (often simple) improvements to agronomic and handling processes. The two main ways to increase output are through better conversion efficiency of inputs to harvestable crops, and through better post-harvest handling to reduce waste. ...
... Strengthened vertical linkages, therefore, can actually reinforce existing inequities, as has been reported in some Fairtrade schemes . The most successful forms of vertical coordination treat men and women as individuals and empower and reward both for their participation -a good example of this is the 'mama card' scheme of Papua New Guinea's palm oil industry (Koczberski, 2007). 2 Where vertical coordination brings greater returns in female-dominated activities, women are at risk of losing their income to men. ...
Chapter
Case study on upgrading of the incense stick value chain in India. Part of a chapter of case studies within a book on upgrading natural resource product value chains
... Low productivity and poor product quality are key barriers to the participation of the poor in markets. The simplest example of this is the shift of subsistence households to producing a saleable surplus (and improving food BOX 7.5 GENDER OUTCOMES OF TWO PROCESS UPGRADING INTERVENTIONS Koczberski (2007) describes how a company in Papua New Guinea, in partnership with support organizations, introduced a new payment process for women palm fruit labourers. Initial technological approaches to address poor participation in harvesting loose fruit had very limited success because they failed to address the underlying issue caused by male-female power dynamics. ...
... Sources: Koczberski (2007); von security) through (often simple) improvements to agronomic and handling processes. The two main ways to increase output are through better conversion efficiency of inputs to harvestable crops, and through better post-harvest handling to reduce waste. ...
... Strengthened vertical linkages, therefore, can actually reinforce existing inequities, as has been reported in some Fairtrade schemes . The most successful forms of vertical coordination treat men and women as individuals and empower and reward both for their participation -a good example of this is the 'mama card' scheme of Papua New Guinea's palm oil industry (Koczberski, 2007). 2 Where vertical coordination brings greater returns in female-dominated activities, women are at risk of losing their income to men. ...
Chapter
This chapter provides a background to value chain analysis, and then outlines the conceptual framework developed for the purpose of this programme to help overcome the shortcomings of ‘stand-alone’ value chain, poverty, gender and environmental analyses. This conceptual framework attempts to integrate analytically the ‘vertical’ and ‘horizontal’ elements of value chains that affect poverty and sustainability, focusing on the participation in agro-food value chains of small producers and other weak chain actors in developing countries. The conceptual framework is followed by a strategic framework - the practical guide to action research in value chains, which informed the action research activities detailed in subsequent chapters.
... In PNG, men typically control the income earned from women's labour in commodity production. Women's labour input alone may not give them rights to the income generated from their labour, which can result in gendered conflicts over women's labour as well as remuneration from commodity production (Koczberski 2007). Gendered patterns of control over income do vary across the country, depending on the region as well as the type of crop, and will vary at the individual family level. ...
... In some cases, cash income belongs to, and is in the control of, whoever produces the goods for sale, while in other cases, women produce goods and men market them and/or control the resulting income (Cahn and Liu 2008). Koczberski (2007) suggested that finding economic incentives to encourage women and other individual family members to participate in commodity production and developing ways to redistribute income within the household have great potential to improve rural household incomes as well as the gendered distribution of income within households. ...
... Previous research has indicated that the establishment of commodity crops for export and contract farming of horticultural crops have fuelled gendered household tensions and, as a result, there are struggles over access to, and control of, household labour, resources and income (Koczberski 2007;Bourke and Harwood 2009). The changing nature of agriculture is having an impact on functional traditional gender roles in PNG; however, the community workshops in this study have demonstrated that communities are willing to consider how to reorientate to moreeffective ways for families to work towards improved livelihoods through improved collaboration. ...
Research
Full-text available
The development literature suggests that women continue to face inequality in the agriculture sectors of most developing countries. In this paper, gender implications arising from four community workshops in two regions of PNG are presented and discussed.
... As men are the primary landholders, they also control decision-making related to cash crops (such as coffee and oil palm), and resource extraction activities (such as gold mining), effectively limiting women's engagement in these activities (CARE International, 2015;Jones & McGavin, 2015). Women are often required to provide unpaid or underpaid labor on these activities in return for access to land and/or men's protection (Overfield, 1998;Moretti, 2006;Koczberski, 2007). ...
... This emphasis on the import of not reneging on ''women's work" is consistent with findings from other qualitative studies of PNG (Overfield, 1998). While some women in PNG have reported not entering into off-farm work due to concerns that family members will lay claim to the new income, or due to poor remuneration of female compared to male labor (Koczberski, 2007), others have been dissuaded by threats of IPV if domestic and childcare responsibilities are not fulfilled (Eves et al., 2018). ...
Article
Full-text available
How do perceptions of one’s relative economic status affect gender attitudes, including support for women’s economic participation and involvement in decision-making in their community and household? We conducted a 2018 survey experiment with female and male adults in approximately 1000 households in Papua New Guinea. Employing an established survey treatment to subtly alter respondents’ perception of their relative economic wellbeing, we find that increased feelings of relative deprivation make both men and women significantly more likely to support girls’ schooling and women’s paid employment, suggesting that relative economic insecurity can actually prompt support for women’s economic participation. However, increased feelings of relative deprivation may trigger greater intra-household tension. While increased perceptions of relative deprivation cause women to want more household decision-making authority, men’s attitudes toward women’s proper roles in decision-making are unchanged. In other words, increased support for women’s economic participation among men appears to stem mainly from a desire to raise household income, and not to alter the general role of women in society. The results underscore the multifaceted nature of gender attitudes, and how support for women’s economic participation may rise without simultaneous increases in women’s agency in decision-making.
... Whereas some (e.g., Cahn and Liu, 2008) describe gender roles in agriculture as strongly delineated, others (e.g., Bourke and Harwood, 2009) argue that men and women work together in gardens, sharing labor. In reality, this varies enormously across (and within) communities: men and women play different roles in cropping and focus on different crops but also cooperate and work together as a household (Koczberski, 2007;Curry et al., 2007). Land ownership norms and customs also vary, but speaking generally, women lack legal ownership of land, which is typically held by clans, with its use mainly dictated by men (Howlett, 1962;Rumint, 1987). ...
... Partly as a result of this restriction on land use, cash cropping is generally led by men. Though women often contribute to growing cash crops (e.g., coffee, cacao), and may even sell some directly, they typically earn lower returns to their labor for cash crops than for food crops and may have less control over the resulting income; its use is open to negotiation, and a woman cannot be sure she will be compensated fairly for her labor (Sexton, 1988;Overfield, 1998;Koczberski, 2007;Curry et al., 2007). ...
Article
Crop choice, including the conservation of traditional crops and the uptake of novel ones, is a central issue in agricultural development. This paper examines differences between male and female farmers’ motivations for growing diverse crop portfolios in Papua New Guinea, a highly agro-biodiverse context facing rapid social change. Q methodology, a mixed qualitative-quantitative approach, is used to examine how alignment with different viewpoints related to crop diversity differs across male and female farmers. We show that, of five distinct ‘types’ of farmers identified with regards to crop diversity choices, all include both men and women, and three of five groups show no significant gender-related differences. However, there are also some significant gender differences. A large proportion of women farmers associate with being highly motivated by crop marketing, whereas male farmers are more likely to favor agricultural diversity due to tradition or status motivations. Overall, strict gendering of crops does not appear highly salient. The results confirm earlier work in the region on women’s roles in marketing but contrast to those on crop gendering. Altogether, they underline the complexity of gender and identity in agricultural choices. The results also have implications for the targeting and implementation of crop conservation and promotion policies and programs, including those aiming for improved nutrition or agricultural development.
... Women experience very high rates of domestic violence, have fewer economic opportunities than men, have high maternal mortality rates and lower life expectancy than men. They also experience inequalities within the home, which limits their access to household income and participation in decision-making (Overfield, 1998;Koczberski, 2007;Macintyre, 2008;UNDP, 2014a). With regards to the study sites, there is a gendered division of labour that defines the types of agricultural and domestic tasks as well as the level of remuneration that male and female smallholders receive from oil palm production (Koczberski, 2007). ...
... They also experience inequalities within the home, which limits their access to household income and participation in decision-making (Overfield, 1998;Koczberski, 2007;Macintyre, 2008;UNDP, 2014a). With regards to the study sites, there is a gendered division of labour that defines the types of agricultural and domestic tasks as well as the level of remuneration that male and female smallholders receive from oil palm production (Koczberski, 2007). Women take on the burden of most of the childcare, household subsistence gardening and domestic tasks. ...
Article
This paper examines intra-household and socio-cultural factors leading to differential outcomes in educational attainment by gender and birth order amongst smallholder oil palm households in Papua New Guinea. Not all children share equitably in the household resources allocated to education: females have lower average education levels than males, and high birth order children have higher education attainment than lower birth order siblings, indicating preferential parental investment in sons and early born children. The findings demonstrate that despite households having regular access to relatively high incomes from oil palm and residing in close proximity to schools, primary school net enrolment rates remain significantly lower than those for East Asia and the Pacific region, and the millennium development goal of universal primary education has not been met. This finding is likely to be the result of a combination of intra-household factors including gender power imbalances, low parental education levels, the agency of youth in educational decision-making and the weakening attraction of education as a means of improving income-earning potential.
... Relatively abundant information exists on how coffee , cocoa [25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43], rubber , and palm oil [44,[65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84] affect local livelihoods. The impacts discussed are mainly related to income generation, employment, and -to a lesser degree -to socio-economic differentiation, land rights, and displacement and dispossession. ...
... Whether farmers are able to realize positive impacts of rubber and palm oil plantation as part of family and community farming, for example, depends strongly on effective government support (rubber: [45-48, 53, 54, 61, 65]; palm oil: [70,72,74,80,83,106]). Critical issues include restricted access to processing infrastructure and to subsidized capital resources, 32 limited availability of private credit for smallholder farm development, and market inefficiency [70,80,85,106]. ...
... Oil palm smallholders follow a fortnightly harvesting schedule in which the oil palm fresh fruit bunches (FFB) are harvested by men and stacked in nets on the roadside edge of their blocks for collection by the milling company trucks. The oil palm fruitlets (the 'loose fruit') that scatter on the ground after being dislodged from the main bunch during harvesting are gathered by women and carried by them to the roadside The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology 269 collection point, where the fruit is weighed separately from FFB (Koczberski 2007). Smallholders are paid fortnightly: payment for FFB (approximately 75-80 per cent of the total harvest) is made to the male 'owner'/leaseholder, while women are paid directly for loose fruit. 1 Given the large amount of work and varied tasks carried out each fortnight harvest round, access to family and extra-familial labour is critical for earning a good income. ...
... When these implicit contracts are negated, tensions emerge as the implicit expectations of the contracts are made explicit. In oil palm production, two common ways in which this is made clear are through the morally legitimate response of withdrawing labour and non-participation in co-operative labour practices (see Koczberski 2007). Thus cooperative intra-and inter-household labour strategies (wok bung wantaim) sit within networks of obligations and reciprocity, and these are the foundations upon which relationships amongst family members are reinforced and affirmed (Curry & Koczberski 2012). ...
Article
This article is concerned with changing generational values and aspirations and intergenerational conflicts among migrant farmers in West New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea. Drawing on fieldwork amongst oil palm smallholders, the paper begins by documenting how economic pressures and a conjunction of social changes are leading younger men to challenge indigenous relations of authority and obligation that underpin father-son relationships. Rising material aspirations and revised social and economic values structured by kinship are driving this challenge by young men and making it more difficult for fathers to draw on their sons’ ‘unpaid’ labour. We then describe how these challenges are enacted through demands on fathers for new relations of production that give sons more power and control over the management of the oil palm block and the distribution of the income. These demands by an aspiring generation of young men are often contested fiercely by fathers who see such demands as weakening their authority and eroding their socio-political role in daily decision-making. We illustrate how the contemporary and highly commodified environment of migrant lives has redefined father-son relationships and forms of sociality, and contributed to intergenerational conflicts and the adoption by sons of new male identities and masculinities.
... Low smallholder yields can be attributed primarily to incomplete harvesting and low fertiliser inputs. Reasons for low levels of management inputs include: competition for growers' time by non oil palm-related activities, high populations and associated social problems on land settlement scheme blocks, low availability of labour, and land disputes and tenure insecurity, which undermine grower commitment to productivity (Koczberski et al. 2001;Koczberski andCurry 2003, 2005). Various strategies are being employed to overcome these limitations (e.g. ...
... Various strategies are being employed to overcome these limitations (e.g. Koczberski 2007), but there is still much scope for improving smallholder productivity. ...
... Further, oil palm needs more land and water. Due to high water pollution, the surrounding aquatic life is affected largely (Koczberski et al., 2001;Koczberski, 2007;Fitzerbert et al., 2008 a, Koh andWilcove 2008). The environmental problem can be reduced by the expansion of oil palm cultivation areas in the anthropogenic-induced degraded areas and on the abandoned jhum plots ). ...
Article
Full-text available
The oil palm plantation first started in 2005 in Mizoram. Now, the cultivation of oil palm is practiced in the seven districts of Mizoram out of a total of eight districts. The agro-climatic conditions are suitable for growing oil palm in Mizoram. However, the output from its cultivation is not so high. This paper examines the economic viability and prospects of oil palm plantations in Mizoram. Data from two sources – primary and secondary were collected mainly on Oil palm potential areas, changes in the area under oil palm from 2011 to 2021, the status of oil palm cultivation, and farmers with oil palm fresh fruit bunches harvest – production and income. A case study of eight villages in the Mamit and Kolasib districts was carried out and 173 households (12.4% of the total households) were surveyed. A comparison of income earned from cereal crops and oil palm cultivation was carried out. It was noticed that income earned from oil palm was higher than cultivating cereals. Oil palm cultivation obtains potential areas. The arable land under oil palm cultivation is 3.17%, which is substantial. The highest area under oil palm plantations is in three districts – Kolasib, Mamit, and Aizawl. The Champhai district does not practice it. The other districts have scattered oil palm plantations. During 2011 and 2021, the area under oil palm cultivation increased by 24,714 ha. Meanwhile, oil palm growers are facing problems in terms of market facilities. Adequate market facilities can be provided to the oil palm growers. Further, its cultivation can be carried out on degraded land and jhum plots to minimize its negative environmental impact.
... For women, the labor hours decrease even more dramatically, by 92%, since considerable additional physical strength is needed to harvest oil palm compared with rubber (Mehra ban et al. 2022). Women are hence often restricted to maintenance work and collecting loose oil palm fruits (Koczberski 2007;Li 2015). We further observe that women receive lower wages in oil palm than men. ...
Article
Full-text available
We analyze the labor market effects of oil palm cultivation among smallholder farmers in Indonesia. Oil palm requires less labor per unit of land than alternative crops, especially less female labor. Micro-level data and nationally-representative regency-level data show that oil palm adoption, on average, led to an expansion of total cropland at the expense of forestland, resulting in higher agricultural labor demand for men. At the same time, women’s employment rates declined due to a substantial decrease in agricultural family labor, which was most evident in regions with high initial land scarcity and thus limited options for cropland expansion.
... Generally, men control the income earned from women's labour in export crop production. Studies since the 1980s have shown that women's labour input alone in export crop production may not give them secure rights to the income generated from their labour, often resulting in gendered conflicts over women's labour and remuneration, particularly if men have not allocated women sufficient income to meet household needs (e.g., Strathern 1982;Grossman 1984;Sexton 1986;Johnson 1988;Collett 1992;Overfield 1998;Koczberski 2007;Curry et al. 2019). Gendered conflicts over the payment of labour can have negative impacts on the quantity and quality of smallholder production. ...
Article
Full-text available
This paper investigates the potential labour efficiencies and socio-cultural benefits of agro-forestry for coffee smallholders practising low input production strategies. Employing both qualitative and quantitative methods, our case study of coffee smallholders in the highlands of Papua New Guinea, shows that despite managing very small holdings of coffee trees (< 500 trees), productivity is challenged by labour shortages and by very low levels of farm inputs. Constraints on labour supply include barriers to mobilising women’s labour; competition for labour from alternative livelihoods; the absence of a market in hired labour; and the time, labour and income demands of the indigenous socio-economy. The indigenous social economy draws heavily on small-holders’ time, labour and coffee income, to the extent that there is little labour for coffee garden maintenance and little coffee income invested in other farm inputs. To address these input shortfalls we explore the potential of ecosystem services from shade-grown coffee to generate labour efficiencies to partly fill some of the unmet maintenance requirements of coffee gardens and to partly fill the role of other farm inputs. Coffee extension must become more holistic and consider smallholder families’ diverse livelihoods and recognise the enduring nature of the low input production strategy, its socio-cultural value, its role in determining life quality, and thus its resistance to change. Extension must align with, rather than challenge, the low input production strategy to promote the potential labour efficiencies and benefits of agro-forestry to create more resilient, sustainable and culturally-enriching coffee-based farming systems.
... Generally, men control the income earned from women's labour in export crop production. Studies since the 1980s have shown that women's labour input alone in export crop production may not give them secure rights to the income generated from their labour, often resulting in gendered conflicts over women's labour and remuneration, particularly if men have not allocated women sufficient income to meet household needs (e.g., Strathern 1982;Grossman 1984;Sexton 1986;Johnson 1988;Collett 1992;Overfield 1998;Koczberski 2007;Curry et al. 2019). Gendered conflicts over the payment of labour can have negative impacts on the quantity and quality of smallholder production. ...
Article
Full-text available
This paper investigates the potential labour efficiencies and socio-cultural benefits of agroforestry for coffee smallholders practising low input production strategies. Employing both qualitative and quantitative methods, our case study of coffee smallholders in the highlands of Papua New Guinea, shows that despite managing very small holdings of coffee trees (< 500 trees), productivity is challenged by labour shortages and by very low levels of farm inputs. Constraints on labour supply include barriers to mobilising women’s labour; competition for labour from alternative livelihoods; the absence of a market in hired labour; and the time, labour and income demands of the indigenous socio-economy. The indigenous social economy draws heavily on smallholders’ time, labour and coffee income, to the extent that there is little labour for coffee garden maintenance and little coffee income invested in other farm inputs. To address these input shortfalls we explore the potential of ecosystem services from shade-grown coffee to generate labour efficiencies to partly fill some of the unmet maintenance requirements of coffee gardens and to partly fill the role of other farm inputs. Coffee extension must become more holistic and consider smallholder families’ diverse livelihoods and recognise the enduring nature of the low input production strategy, its socio-cultural value, its role in determining life quality, and thus its resistance to change. Extension must align with, rather than challenge, the low input production strategy to promote the potential labour efficiencies and benefits of agroforestry to create more resilient, sustainable and culturally-enriching coffee-based farming systems.
... Generally, men control the income earned from women's labour in export crop production. Studies since the 1980s have shown that women's labour input alone in export crop production may not give them secure rights to the income generated from their labour, often resulting in gendered conflicts over women's labour and remuneration, particularly if men have not allocated women sufficient income to meet household needs (e.g., Strathern 1982;Grossman 1984;Sexton 1986;Johnson 1988;Collett 1992;Overfield 1998;Koczberski 2007;Curry et al. 2019). Gendered conflicts over the payment of labour can have negative impacts on the quantity and quality of smallholder production. ...
Article
Full-text available
This paper investigates the potential labour efficiencies and socio-cultural benefits of agroforestry for coffee smallholders practising low input production strategies. Employing both qualitative and quantitative methods, our case study of coffee smallholders in the highlands of Papua New Guinea, shows that despite managing very small holdings of coffee trees (< 500 trees), productivity is challenged by labour shortages and by very low levels of farm inputs. Constraints on labour supply include barriers to mobilising women’s labour; competition for labour from alternative livelihoods; the absence of a market in hired labour; and the time, labour and income demands of the indigenous socio-economy. The indigenous social economy draws heavily on smallholders’ time, labour and coffee income, to the extent that there is little labour for coffee garden maintenance and little coffee income invested in other farm inputs. To address these input shortfalls we explore the potential of ecosystem services from shade-grown coffee to generate labour efficiencies to partly fill some of the unmet maintenance requirements of coffee gardens and to partly fill the role of other farm inputs. Coffee extension must become more holistic and consider smallholder families’ diverse livelihoods and recognise the enduring nature of the low input production strategy, its socio-cultural value, its role in determining life quality, and thus its resistance to change. Extension must align with, rather than challenge, the low input production strategy to promote the potential labour efficiencies and benefits of agroforestry to create more resilient, sustainable and culturally-enriching coffee-based farming systems.
... As mentioned previously, losses from loose fruits were small, because loose fruits were collected prior to the audit (Section 2.3). In most cases, this was done by oil palm field owners, or harvesters, but in some cases, loose fruits provided a source of income to third persons (see also Koczberski, 2007). Although collecting loose fruits is highly labor intensive (Teo et al., 2021), the benefits of loose fruit collection seem to outweigh labor costs and effort. ...
Article
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CONTEXT: Smallholders are responsible for a large share of global palm oil production. Yet, in Indonesia, the main palm oil producing country, smallholders’ yields remain low. Better management practices, including short harvest interval (HI, the number of days between two harvest rounds), could help to raise smallholder yields. However, at present, HI is long in smallholder fields and the drivers underlying this phenomenon are poorly understood. OBJECTIVE: We explored agronomic, socio-economic, and institutional factors that underlie harvesting practices in independent oil palm smallholder farming systems in Indonesia to assess scope for sustainable intensification through shorter HI and reduced harvest losses. METHODS: Combining methods from agronomy and anthropology, we followed harvest interval of 950 farmers in six representative locations across Indonesia via farmer diaries over a period of two years to establish a correlation with yield. To quantify this relationship, we conducted post-harvest field measurements, and to explain which underlying factors impact HI we did qualitative interviews and surveys. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The HI of smallholders in our study ranged from 10 to 39 days (average: 17-d). Half of the farmers followed long HI (>16-d). Key factors impacting HI include annual fresh fruit bunch (FFB) yield, total palm area per farmer, trusted labor availability, plantation accessibility, and FFB price. Farmers responded to low yield by prolonging HI to increase labor productivity and optimize labor and transportation costs. SIGNIFICANCE: This study contributes to a better understanding of the relation between HI and yield in smallholder farming systems, by uncovering how socio-economic and institutional factors sometimes override agronomic considerations. Long HI can potentially lead to harvest loss from loose fruits and missed bunches, and reduce oil quality from overripe bunches. However, to obtain the benefits of shorter HI requires collective action and incentives along the supply chain to streamline the harvest and sale process.
... Hal ini merupakan perspektif yang lebih adil dan memberikan ruang bagi perempuan untuk dapat merasakan hasil jerih payahnya sendiri. Para "loose-fruit mama" ini mendapatkan insentif ekonomi lebih untuk mengoptimalkan kinerjanya dan menjadi berdaya karenanya (Koczberski, 2007). ...
Article
Tidak banyak yang tahu bahwa peran perempuan menyumbang kontribusi yang tidak sedikit bagi sektor pertanian dan perkebunan Indonesia. Tidak hanya bertugas menjamin ketahanan pangan keluarga dan aktif di ranah sosial, perempuan juga dapat membantu perekonomian rumah tangga. FAO menyebutkan 60% dari pekerja usaha tani Indonesia adalah sosok perempuan. Cukup banyak literatur yang menjabarkan peran perempuan dalam industri perkebunan kelapa sawit. Namun, tidak banyak kajian peran perempuan yang menitikberatkan di rantai pasok lainnya, seperti sektor hilir dan sisi konsumen. Tulisan ini mengkaji bagaimana peran dan kinerja perempuan dalam perkembangan industri kelapa sawit Indonesia. Studi melalui data sekunder dan analisis non-parametrik Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test menjelaskan secara bernas bahwa kinerja perempuan di beberapa rantai pasok menunjukkan kinerja yang lebih baik dibandingkan gender lainnya. Peran perempuan tidak dapat dinafikan terutama dalam hal penentuan keputusan pembelian suatu barang. Analisis konten menunjukkan bahwa konsumen perempuan lebih elastis terhadap produk kelapa sawit yang bersertifikat keberlanjutan (ISPO/RSPO).
... Household priorities also inhibit women from attending agricultural extension and training. These constraints for women to participate in capacity building are generally understood to limit their potential as economic agents (Koczberski, 2007;Live and Learn, 2010;Manchón & Macleod, 2010). There is also an assumption that knowledge transmitted to men in research and development projects will automatically trickle down to women (ADB, 2013). ...
Article
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Agricultural research and development projects face structural barriers to the equitable participation of women. Applying an intersectional approach can facilitate women to freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development within the existing patriarchal and colonial structures, ultimately challenging and subverting these structures. This paper argues that development initiatives must seek to understand the ways of being within specific localised projects, to tailor support and mitigate disadvantage. Through an exploration of two female‐led agroforestry projects in Vanuatu and Fiji, this paper demonstrates how centring the sovereignty of women over their own experience and livelihood aspirations can lead to familial, community and regional wellbeing.
... The State Government has launched innovative programs of agricultural development through its NLUP and OPP is one amongst its objectives. A study of the implication of OPP was carried out by several researchers (Koczberski 2007). Fitzerbert et al. (2008, Koh andWilcove (2008), andButler andLaurence (2009) reported that the occurrence of forest degradation is due to the expansion of OPP in forest areas in the tropical regions and alerted that OPP may be the major threat to environmental degradation. ...
Book
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‘Mizoram: Land and People’ a unique piece of work, illustrates the natural, cultural, social, economic, and development aspects of Mizoram within geographical perspectives. The textbooks on Geographical knowledge are few. Among those are available, do not have sufficient information, and data are old. This book obtains new data and knowledge and it is designed in such a way that it provides study materials to all levels of students mainly from higher secondary to graduate and postgraduate. It includes almost all important topics of Mizoram’s Geography. This book contains 13 chapters – geo-environmental settings, climatic conditions, forests of Mizoram, history and culture, population and socio-economic development, land use pattern, agricultural practices, shifting cultivation, wet rice cultivation, oil palm plantation, horticultural practices, livestock farming, and new land-use policy and permanent agriculture. The book also contains 39 tables and 56 colour figures, which are inserted within the chapters. It is very useful to students of all levels, researchers, and academicians. It is also useful to students, who are preparing for competitive examinations, mainly for the Mizoram Public Service Commission’s examinations.
... In contrast to that on mining, the literature on the socio-economic effects of large-scale plantations on local communities in PNG is limited in scope, despite the fact that plantations have a long history in PNG (Lewis 1996). There has been previous research in PNG on plantations dedicated to oil palm (Koczberski and Curry 2005;Koczberski 2007;Koczberski et al. 2012Koczberski et al. , 2018Tammisto 2018), coconuts (Panoff 1990), commercial sugar cane (Errington and Gewertz 2004) and (mainly smallholder) coffee (Sexton 1986;West 2012) and cocoa (Curry et al. 2007. It too has documented various aspects of inequality that develop with the introduction of such plantation schemes. ...
... However, most of these recent studies focus on sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, with relatively little study on the cultural context of the Pacific. Some studies have explored the roles of men and women in cash crop production, the income from these activities (Koczberski, 2002(Koczberski, , 2007, the time spent in agricultural activities, and the burden of drudgery for women in Papua New Guinea (Echevin et al., 2018). Some analysts have also investigated challenges to women participating in economic activities in urban Vanuatu (Ellis et al., 2009). ...
Article
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This study uses a unique data set of 106 cocoa‐growing households in Epi, Vanuatu, to study menʼs and womenʼs participation in decision‐making concerning 17 agricultural activities. Women participate in many aspects of the production and postharvest activities of food and cash crops. However, women are disempowered when it comes to participating in, influencing, and having autonomy over decisions about agricultural activities and income from crop sales. This article also presents an index summarising the decision‐making data. The findings do not suggest associations between the index and variables expected to correlate with womenʼs empowerment (e.g., education, household assets). The study does find that participation in community activities correlates with the decision‐making index for both men and women. The data presented in this article provides useful sex‐disaggregated data capturing intra‐household agricultural decision‐making, and a solid platform for further work on understanding intra‐household decision‐making processes concerning cash and food crops in Vanuatu.
... While rubber tapping is often carried out daily or every two days, and does not necessitate a lot of physical strength, oil palm harvesting is required a lot less frequently (on average every two weeks), and is carried out mostly by men, because it is physically demanding. Women are mainly involved in the collection of loose oil palm fruits and in maintenance work (Koczberski 2007;Li 2015). Again, similar differences are expected between oil palm and rice cultivation. ...
Article
We analyze the link between agricultural productivity growth and fertility rates, using the oil palm boom in Indonesia as an empirical setting. We find consistent negative effects of oil palm expansion on fertility during the period 1996-2016. This finding appears to be linked to rising farm profits that led to consumption growth, an expansion of the non-agricultural sector, increasing wage returns to education and higher school enrollment. Together, these findings suggest that agricultural productivity growth can play an important role in accelerating the fertility transition, as long as the economic benefits are large enough to translate into local economic development.
... Payment mechanisms can make a difference within families. A study in Papua New Guinea (where men often share little of the income they gain from cash crops, like oil palm, with other family members) found that when women are paid separately from their husbands for their work on family oil palm plots, this greatly enhances their access to income and their motivation to get involved (Koczberski 2007). ...
... The study also suggests that community-targeted gender sensitization programs helped reshape perceptions of women's economic roles and led more women to engage in contract farming. Koczberski (2007) examines a project in Papua New Guinea in which an oil palm company created a targeted payment scheme for women, enabling them to produce the household's main crop and have greater control over the income from its sale. ...
Article
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We study the take‐up of an intervention designed to increase women’s economic empowerment among sugarcane farmers in Uganda. We find that lower socioeconomic status and household gender norms both predict a couple’s refusal of the intervention. We also randomly assign couples to a workshop that aims to increase communication and gender balance in the household and find that couples invited to the workshop were less likely to refuse the subsequently offered empowerment intervention. Moreover, the workshop was effective at addressing sources of disadvantage that arise from household gender norms and division of labor, and less effective at addressing refusal rates associated with socioeconomic status.
... The substance of this conversation is conveyed in the scenes in the transcript presented here. The role play is presented following standard stage play formatting as perKing (2016).Islander middleman. The Asian logging company representative is dressed in overalls, wraparound sunglasses and carries a backpack.The Solomon Islander middleman is wearing wraparound sunglasses, has a mobile phone around his neck on a cord and carries a backpack [material signs of modernity and wealth]. ...
Thesis
This thesis is an ethnography of women on Kolombangara Island in the Western Province of Solomon Islands. It works towards making village women visible and their voices audible. A blend of quantitative and qualitative data is used to describe what women are doing, when, where, and how, and thus make sense of the position from, and within which, rural women act. As a feminist political work the thesis aims to reframe articulations of gender equity with development and natural resource management in the Pacific through the lens of village women's perspectives.
... Catacutan and Naz (2015) highlight gender inequalities that disadvantage women with respect to land, labor, capital, and agroforestry knowledge and skills; correspondingly, one of their key recommendations is that agroforestry interventions include womenspecific extension services. Similarly, research on oil palm production in Papua New Guinea demonstrates that women can often face limited access to information and capacity-building due in part to the targeting of men in extension programs that promote agroforestry systems (Koczberski, 2007). ...
... In Papua New Guinea it has been found that women are the main producers of food, both of subsistence and cash crops (Koczberski, 2007;Mikhailovich, Pamphilon, Chambers, Simeon, & Zapata, 2016;Peter, 2011). It has been found that if women are given the opportunity to earn a small income they can minimize intrafamily disputes and create domestic harmony and community cohesion. ...
Article
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The purpose of this article is to explore the power dynamics negotiated by women in local communities in Papua New Guinea (PNG) as they stake a claim in the development of sustainable tourism that is emerging along the Kokoda Track. The traditional understanding of power dynamics has been the "power as domination" perception, which attributes authority to dominant actors who exercise control over others. To comprehend the women's role in the development of ecotrekking along the Kokoda Track, we offer an alternative understanding of power struggle by invoking Foucault's notions of power and Gidden's structuration perspective. By applying these two philosophies, we illustrate how strategies of dominance, negotiation, and resistance are interwoven into day-to-day social interactions between women, men, tourism operators, and local communities. The particular focus of this article is on microbusiness projects along the track, a strategy pursued by the Kokoda Development Program. Women in the communities were generally happy to be supported to establish their own tourism businesses. This is particularly significant as women have traditionally had fewer opportunities than men to make money from trekkers: the main income from tourists into the villages has been through portering services, a predominately male activity. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of this analysis for the empowerment of women in rural and remote communities through sustainable tourism development.
... Women in PNG not only risk high rates of violence, but also have fewer economic opportunities than men, have high maternal mortality rates (over 100 times higher than the rate for Australia-UNICEF 2013) and shorter life expectancy than men. They also experience inequalities within the home which limits their access to household income and participation in decision-making (Overfield 1998;Wardlow 2006;Koczberksi 2007;Macintryre 2008;World Bank 2012b;UNDP 2014). ...
Book
This book illustrates the benefits to be gained from digitally networked communication for health, education and transitioning economies in developing nations (Sierra Leone and Papua New Guinea) and developed nations. Growing powers of e-citizenship can help build sustainable futures. This small volume provides a collection of examples and ideas from which the authors hope will help build a wider resource. Understanding how to link everyday lives with global networks in the digital world in ways that add benefit for the world’s people, and the health of the planet, is an ongoing project. IYGU recognises the integral roles of networking and communication systems, as well as interactions between people, near and far, as fundamental for building better futures. The global penetration of digital devices means everyday life, present and future, is inextricably linked with information technologies
... Although the informal exchange economy continues to coexist beside the cash economy, women generally hold low bargaining power concerning the distribution of household income. Women's access to income from production can be a major area of intrahousehold conflict (Koczberski, 2007). ...
Article
Full-text available
Smallholder farmers are the backbone of food production in Papua New Guinea (PNG). Due to an increasing need to pay for schooling and health costs, many farming families are seeking ways to move from semi-subsistence farming to activities that generate more income. The long tradition of agricultural training in PNG to support the development of farmers has focused on technology transfer and on the production of cash crops. This form of farmer education has primarily benefited men, who typically control cash crop production. It has often excluded women, whose significant engagement in it is precluded by their low literacy, low education, family responsibilities and daily work on subsistence crops. This article examines the lessons learned from a project that facilitated village-level community education workshops that sought to bring male and female heads of families together in a culturally appropriate way in order to encourage more genderequitable planning and farming practices. Through the development and capacity building of local training teams, the project developed a critical and place-based pedagogy underpinned by gender-inclusive and asset-based community development principles.
... Although the informal exchange economy continues to co-exist beside the cash economy, women generally hold low bargaining power concerning the distribution of household income. Women's access to income from production can also be a major area of intra-household conflict (Koczberski, 2007). ...
... The state government has launched innovative programs of agricultural development through its new land use policy and OPP is one amongst its objectives. A study of implication of OPP was carried out by several researchers (Koczberski et al., 2001;Koczberski 2007). Fitzerbert et al., (2008; Koh and Wilcove (2008) and Butler and Laurence (2009) study that forest degradation is due to expansion of oil palm in forest areas in the tropical regions and emphasis that it is the major threat to environmental degradation. ...
Article
Full-text available
Traditional agriculture, dominated by shifting cultivation, is the main occupation of rural people of Mizoram. Output from which is very insufficient. Thus, a number of people suffer from poverty and malnutrition. However, climate and landscape support oil palm plantation. This study examines prospects of oil palm plantation in Mizoram. We gathered data from primary sources through case study of eight villages. Out of total households, we surveyed 173 households (12.4%). We used a structured questionnaire and interviewed head of the households. The study shows that income from oil palm plantation is comparatively higher (about 50%) than the income from cereal farming. It also shows that the marginal farmers see the future prospects of oil palm plantation sustainable, if all measures related to its plantation are appropriately taken place.
... The adoption of export cash crops has led to major agrarian, social, and economic changes and exacerbated pre-existing social and spatial inequalities in income (Finney 1973 ;Donaldson and Good 1988 ;Curry 1992 ;Allen et al. 2005 ) . For example, when commercial smallholder agriculture was introduced into PNG, women experienced new forms of inequality as the new sources of wealth were captured largely by men (Strathern 1982 ;Sexton 1986 ;Johnson 1988 ;Overfi eld 1998 ;Koczberski 2007 ) . Other studies have shown that the development of commercial agriculture in PNG has altered customary land tenure regimes. ...
Chapter
Full-text available
This chapter addresses the question of how individuals and families in rural PNG respond to major livelihood threats as they make the transition from a subsistence mode of life to become increasingly integrated into the global economy through export cash cropping. Two case studies are presented: cocoa farmers on the Gazelle Peninsula of East New Britain Province (ENB) and oil palm migrant farmers residing on the Hoskins Land Settlement Scheme in West New Britain Province (WNB). The cocoa farming community of Gazelle Peninsula began growing cocoa on their customary land in the 1950s with encouragement by the Australian administration. Since 2006 they have been confronted with an introduced cocoa pest, Cocoa Pod Borer (CPB), which is devastating their cocoa crop and livelihoods. The migrant oil palm farmers voluntarily took up State agricultural leases of 6 ha blocks in the late 1960s and early 1970s and are now experiencing population and resource pressures as their children marry and begin raising their own families on their parents’ blocks. By examining the pressures emerging among farming households as they make the transition to a market economy, the chapter highlights some of the key challenges and pressures of contemporary rural life for people in the Global South such as declining access to land, increased dependence on cash, fluctuating cash crop prices and changing lifestyle values.
... Women in PNG not only risk high rates of violence, but also have fewer economic opportunities than men, have high maternal mortality rates (over 100 times higher than the rate for Australia-UNICEF 2013) and shorter life expectancy than men. They also experience inequalities within the home which limits their access to household income and participation in decision-making (Overfield 1998;Wardlow 2006;Koczberksi 2007;Macintryre 2008;World Bank 2012b;UNDP 2014). ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Access to mobile technologies is transforming the daily lives of poor subsistence farmers in Papua New Guinea. However, the success of this access depends on infrastructure and where connectivity is poor there is evidence of a digital divide. Nevertheless, increasing affordability of internet access is helping to bridge the development gap.
... In another case, Koczberski ( 2007 ) found that the lack of an individual economic incentive for women in an oil palm project in Papua New Guinea reduced their participation and the potential income increases to the household. To address women's unremunerated labor, the processing company began to pay women directly into their own bank accounts and hired more women extension workers to provide technical assistance. ...
Chapter
Land is one of the most fundamental assets in the agricultural sector because it is the gateway through which people gain access to many other assets and opportunities. This chapter examines gender and land issues, identifying the gender gap in land rights and examining ways to redress this gap. The first section frames the discussion in terms of the four major ways by which women acquire legal and customary rights to land, and the obstacles to women’s secure land tenure. The second section explores the nature and extent of the global gender land gap and the importance of going beyond common notions such as management, ownership, and headship, when discussing land tenure security. The third section looks at a number of strategies undertaken by a variety of actors—including governments, aid agencies, and civil society organizations—to lessen the gender land gap, organized broadly around three types of interventions: strengthening women’s land rights, redistribution of land rights, and improving the implementation of reforms. The chapter concludes that closing the gender land gap must go beyond reforms that affect only landownership, to include those that affect the multiple ways through which women and men acquire land, whether through legal or statutory means, the family, the market, or civil society.
... While there is a long tradition of agricultural extension/training in PNG, much of this form of farmer education has primarily benefited men, who typically control cash crop production, and has excluded women, whose low levels of literacy and education, family responsibilities and daily work on subsistence crops preclude participation in this form of farmer learning. Although women smallholders 1 are the major producers of subsistence food in PNG, as in other developing countries, women's inputs to agricultural production and their roles as economic agents are not always recognized, as women's family care and household roles are prioritized (Koczberski, 2007;Manchón & Macleod, 2010). Traditionally, PNG women smallholders produce food crops, while men work on commodity crops (coffee, cocoa, oil palm, and coconut). ...
Article
Full-text available
This paper analyzes the design, implementation, and challenges associated with mixing methods within a baseline study involving the collaboration of rural women smallholders and their families in three regions of Papua New Guinea. We first describe the context of the research and how the baseline study was conceptualized as part of a participatory research and development project designed to provide a rich collaborative learning exchange between participants and researchers. We explain how three qualitative participatory techniques used alongside a small-scale quantitative livelihoods survey to gain an understanding of the social, economic, and agricultural factors impacting upon the lives women smallholders and their families. We follow this with a critical discussion of the challenges and benefits of utilizing mixed methods in an international development context
... Women in PNG not only risk high rates of violence, but also have fewer economic opportunities than men, have high maternal mortality rates (over 100 times higher than the rate for Australia-UNICEF 2013) and shorter life expectancy than men. They also experience inequalities within the home which limits their access to household income and participation in decision-making (Overfield 1998;Wardlow 2006;Koczberksi 2007;Macintryre 2008;World Bank 2012b;UNDP 2014). ...
Chapter
Local readiness to meet what appears to be more regularly-occurring natural and human induced disasters is a critical dimension not well understood in the scientific literature. Working from the principle that sustainable outcomes are linked with culturally embedded knowledge and skills this chapter utilizes insights gained from a project that places high value on combining scientific and community-based knowledge, negotiation, community partnerships and linking outcomes with better structures. Externally funded by the International Council of Science, and supported by the International Geographical Union, the research cited synthesizes the field-based observations of scientists located in the Asia and Pacific Region. Countries represented are Australia, Indonesia, Thailand, Papua New Guinea, New Zealand and the Solomon Islands. Although somewhat eclectic in composition the researchers involved face similar issues in environmental management. Our comon purpose is to share knowledge on how best to bring about behavioural change that can assist with short-term disaster management and help shape a more sustainable environmental future. With significant local challenges from fire, drought, floods and rising sea levels scientific leadership faces local opposition to changed lifestyle recommendations. The agenda of local people, their commuities and traditional lifestyle practices are part of the recognised battled ground for changing behaviours. Strategies that can bridge the divide between the needs and wants of local communities and the scientifically based realities form part of an ongoing dialogue which is welcoming of new contributions. Digital recording technologies are enabling features for sharing data. Simple tools such as the mobile phone help build confidence in collaborative approaches linking local place-based projects with regional and global initiatives. This two-way social agency provides a voice for young scientists to link their local communties with the latest information to guide decision making and action for best policy implementation. Working from a common methodology which outlines key skills, values, beliefs and knowledge we describe progress to date and outline key findings related to each of the case study locations.
... In another case, Koczberski ( 2007 ) found that the lack of an individual economic incentive for women in an oil palm project in Papua New Guinea reduced their participation and the potential income increases to the household. To address women's unremunerated labor, the processing company began to pay women directly into their own bank accounts and hired more women extension workers to provide technical assistance. ...
Chapter
Social capital comprises the range of relationships, networks, and institutions that allow people to build trust and cooperation. This chapter documents gender differences in social capital related to agricultural development, defined as group membership and social networks, based on a critical literature review of key issues and a review of published and unpublished empirical studies conducted between 1999 and 2011. The authors focus on the types of groups and social networks that women and men join, the extent of their participation, as well as the gender-specific barriers that may affect women’s full-scale participation. The analysis goes beyond simple dichotomies of men’s and women’s groups and networks to investigate whether, and under what circumstances, mixed-sex groups may be more effective than single-sex groups in achieving their development objectives. Following this, the authors examine the effects of women’s participation on both group performance and extant gender relations and discuss what development actors can do to help realize gains in these areas. The chapter concludes with a summary of the evidence on whether women are disadvantaged in comparison to men in the accumulation of social capital, and if so, the extent to which programs are helping to overcome this gap.
... The social value of labour given or received was specific to the individuals involved and the groups with which they were affiliated. These meanings attached to labour in cocoa were similar to the meanings of labour reported from a range of different contexts in PNG and the South Pacific, more generally (see Modjeska, 1982;pp 51-65;Strathern, 1982;Strathern, 1990;Fajans, 1993;Kuehling, 2005;Sillitoe, 2006;Koczberski, 2007). ...
Article
Within development projects, empowerment is often construed in narrow terms, and increasingly in relation to economic empowerment. Feminist scholars have recently argued the need to bring back a more encompassing view of empowerment, which pays greater attention to relationality and changes in consciousness. In this article, we focus on one aspect of relationality – women’s relationships with men. Drawing on three case studies of women’s business success in Papua New Guinea, we argue men are pivotal in supporting and undermining women’s economic opportunities. Offering support to recent work on women’s empowerment which emphasizes both women’s relationships with men, and the specificity of contexts into account, our article contributes to current debates in gender and development.
Article
In developing countries contract farming faces numerous challenges that many times lead to its fail-ure. Innovations that help overcome the difficulties of contracting with a large pool of small farmersin such settings can enhance the viability of such schemes. We use a randomized control trial designcombined with high frequency data to investigate the impact of adding a nutrition-based incentive incontracts between a Senegalese dairy processing factory and its semi-nomadic milk suppliers. The in-centive rewarded suppliers for consistent milk deliveries with daily delivery of a micro-nutrient forti-fied yogurt for each young child in corresponding households. Findings show large and significantimpacts on the frequency and amount of milk delivered, albeit limited to the dry season. We alsofind larger impacts on milk deliveries when contracts are managed by women.
Chapter
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Studies have shown that gender norms and gender relations restrict the innovation capacity of women in aquatic agricultural systems. This chapter explores the converse question: in what ways do and can aquatic agricultural innovation programs, including new and improved practices, technologies and economic opportunities, affect gender norms? Much literature has revealed that the inclusion of women has advanced their economic situation, especially through increasing income. There is limited evidence, however, if or how such economic improvements benefit gender norms and narrow the existing gender inequalities. In this chapter, we explored this question by analyzing qualitative data collected in six villages in the Southwest of Bangladesh. We found that innovations in the CGIAR Research Program on aquatic agricultural systems (CRP-AAS) included both men and women on an equal basis, increased women’s income and contributed to improved local social acceptability and recognition of women as financial providers. Yet it became apparent that such a program did not lead to gender-transformative change, as it did not address all of its three inseparable aspects, i.e., agency, relations and structures. Especially underlying gender norms were not questioned but largely accommodated to. By using the adapted gender-integration continuum framework, we came to the conclusion that a gender-accommodating approach can bring change in certain aspects of agency and relationships, but substantial sustainable gender-transformative change calls for a purposeful gender-transformative approach beyond accommodating to the existing gender norms.
Thesis
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As part of efforts to mitigate the oil palm industry’s harmful impacts in Southeast Asia, scholars have begun showing more interest in smallholder farming arrangements. However, the reasons why most smallholders in Malaya have shunned the crop since its introduction have not been carefully investigated to date. Historians have typically claimed that oil palms exhibited processing cost economies that favoured large-scale farming arrangements. The history of Malaya, with particular reference to Johor, a major site of oil palm cultivation since the 1920s, suggests a different argument. This thesis contends that Malayan smallholders spurned oil palms because of high opportunity costs, grounded in the counter-attractions of other tree crops. Hevea rubber was especially alluring, with its relatively high cash returns. Similarly important to smallholders, but barely acknowledged by historians, was the coconut palm. First, it flourished in soils where rubber floundered. Second, prior to the oil palm’s arrival, coconut palm products were already domestically popular. Consequently, Malayan processors and traders, key influences mediating demand and supply, had little incentive to encourage smallholders to channel labour into oil palms, when estates began adopting the tree. Third, labour requirements for oil palms were more exacting than those for other tree crop mainstays, including coconut palms. Fourth, government policies affecting the cultivation, processing and domestic consumption of oil palm products helped restrain small-scale involvement, whereas official support for smallholder coconut farming was more forthcoming. These opportunity costs ensured that small-scale oil palm cultivation remained muted, despite significant policy changes favouring smallholders during the 1950s and 1960s. This thesis contributes to the economic history of Southeast Asia through a detailed examination of oil and coconut palm farming, two important pursuits neglected by historical scholarship. It stresses the significance of a set of overlooked economic actors, incorporating cultural considerations in the process. Lastly, it makes novel analytic links between pre-colonial, British, Japanese, and independence-era polities in Malaya.
Article
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This study was conducted in the Atwima Nwabiagya district; and it provides an empirical example of how a community integrates alternative livelihood activities as part of their livelihood through their own initiatives. A qualitative case study approach was used in this study. Snowball sampling technique was used to select 20 respondents for this study. Interview guide was used to glean data from the cocoa farmers. This was augmented with observation. Results show that alternative livelihood activities have significantly improved household income and consequently increased household standard of living. The study also found that the benefits of alternative livelihood activities are distributed across all households within the community as all households were engaged in at least one alternative livelihood activity. Households benefit directly from alternative livelihood through access to cash. Access to cash opened up opportunities for households to venture into other livelihood activities within the study community; and also use part to maintain their traditional livelihood. The study recommends to the district assembly to provide technical back-up support systems to enhance the longterm effects of any planned alternative livelihood on farmers’ incomes. Again, any planned intervention must avoid the handout syndrome so as to ensure it sustainability.
Chapter
This chapter examines the educational levels and opportunities among migrant oil palm farming households in the three main oil palm-growing areas of Papua New Guinea (PNG). Whilst average adult education levels in oil palm farming communities are higher than the national average, they are still low given most children do not finish primary school. Moreover, findings indicate that population and income pressures are leading to increasing social and economic stratification within and between families. Inequality is most evident by the fact that children from families without regular access to oil palm income have lower education levels than those children from families living on the same block who regularly receive oil palm income. Stratification as differential educational opportunities is a new phenomenon reflecting greater individualism and the rise of market relations and has considerable development implications particularly for policies aimed at reducing poverty and vulnerability levels in rural PNG.
Chapter
This chapter reviews the growing body of work on reducing gender-based barriers to value chain development. It highlights key questions that are emerging within the gender and value chain community related to methodologies for promoting both greater gender equity and efficiency. The authors lay out the rationale and evidence for promoting gender equitable value chains focusing on business, social justice, and development goals. The chapter then reviews the terms and assumptions used in value chain approaches and provides evidence and examples of different gender and value chain approaches. The authors also look at gender issues in value chain performance and gender issues benefitting from value chain production, including employment and income and social capital and networking. This is followed by a review of current debates in the field of gender and value chain studies. The concluding section identifies new questions and challenges facing researchers and practitioners, for example, on chain selection, targeting of women, and achieving food security and improved nutrition in value chain development.
Article
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New formal markets often have a damaging impact on rural livelihoods in Melanesia by displacing undervalued and sustainable informal economic activities. The regular focus on large formal markets also serves to distract attention from the promising potential of emerging 'hybrid' livelihoods. This interaction warrants attention because around 80 percent of people in Melanesia live in rural livelihoods with a quite unique and fairly well distributed access to customary land. Colonial occupation of the south west Pacific was late, diverse and (unlike in Australia, Latin America and large parts of Asia and Africa) left traditional land tenure systems largely intact. To this day more than 96 percent of all land in Papua New Guinea, and 80 to 85 percent of all land in the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, is held under legally recognised but unwritten customary title held by clans and families. Attempts to 'reform' this customary land appeared more strongly in the post-colonial period. However such programs have faced popular resistance as well as constitutions and land law which explicitly recognise traditional law and customary tenure. While island communities have engaged in various new cash economies, customary land and its associated small farming, along with varieties of informal and cultural exchange, remain strong and underwrite viable livelihoods. These land systems remain vehicles for food security, housing, widespread employment, social security, biodiversity protection, and ecological stability; they are also a store of natural medicines, as well as a source of social cohesion and inclusion and cultural reproduction (see Lee and Anderson 2010). There are pressures from overpopulation in some areas, such as the islands and parts of the highlands (Bourke and Allen 2009), but land is mostly good quality and generally quite well distributed and there are no large, feudal
Article
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As part of an ongoing process of socioeconomic transformation, commodity production is steadily becoming more common throughout rural Africa. However, research from a wide range of social and geographic settings indicates that factors such as ethnicity, class, age, and gender often play important roles in shaping specific patterns of participation in market production. This paper explores the relationship between gender and commodity production in central Mali. Drawing on the findings of a 14-month ethnographic study (1992-1994), I describe production dynamics in a rural Bamana farming community, paying particular attention to the organization of commercial activities. I use the gender relations of production framework to highlight the differential participation of men and women in commercial gardening activities. I argue that dominant Bamana social and cultural patterns lead to a gender-biased system of access to commercially viable productive resources, and I discuss the implications of these findings in terms of men's and women's economic standing and relative social power in their home communities and domestic groups. By providing a detailed study of gender relations in this setting, I aim to improve our understanding of the gendered nature of agricultural production in this region and our understanding of differential response to commercial agricultural opportunities in rural Africa at large.
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Small-scale village businesses in PNG often become insolvent because the revenue, stock and cash normally earmarked for input costs are frequently redirected to the indigenous non-market economy. Many businesses are established primarily for facilitating gift exchange and enhancing the social status of their proprietors and investors, with the profit motive subordinated to these objectives. The important role of village enterprises in meeting indigenous socio-economic objectives means they are rarely profitable and must be subsidised with remittances from migrants or the income from cash cropping. These issues are explored in relation to wage labour, tradestores and cash cropping. A typology of enterprises is presented to illustrate how the characteristics of particular types of enterprises determine whether or not they will be able to accommodate the demands of the indigenous socio-economy while remaining solvent. Typically, businesses which require costly inputs and loan repayments for their ongoing operations are less likely to be sustainable.(Publication abstract)
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Using two years of intra-household data from one area of the Papua New Guinea Highlands this article examines the impact of gender relations on household coffee production. Poor relative labour returns for women and the unequal distribution of tasks within the household were found to exert considerable influence on the level of household success in cultivating coffee. The article concludes with the construction of a model linking the intra-household distribution of economic benefits, determinants of household resource allocation and underdevelopment.
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Since the establishment of oil palm land settlement schemes (LSSs) in West New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea, the settler population has increased significantly as second-generation settlers marry and raise families on their parents’ blocks. We explore how settlers are responding to demographic and socio-economic change in an environment in which opportunities for land-use change are limited. In the context of rising population pressure, LSS smallholders are developing innovative livelihood strategies by pursuing non-farm income sources, increasing food production, acquiring additional land and migration. The type of migration or land accumulation strategy depends on household access to various resources, especially social and kinship networks, and capital. Agricultural extension and rural development policies have not yet responded to this socio-agronomic transformation. We conclude that economic diversification amongst smallholders creates new opportunities for the oil palm industry to formulate more innovative and sustainable policies that strengthen the oil palm industry in PNG while facilitating broad-based rural development.
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This study analyzes the intersection of gender and production relations in small-scale contracting in nontraditional agriculture. The case of the processing tomato industry in the Dominican Republic exemplifies patterns found throughout the region. Building on a critique of unitary household models, I analyze the gendered relations mobilizing resources for contract farming. As appears common, contracting has heightened demand for women's farm labor. Contracting has simultaneously provided women with openings for contesting the appropriation of their unpaid labor and many women are claiming payment for work in contract farming. This case demonstrates the importance of gender issues in informing contract farming debates and policy interventions.
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This paper examines how the contracting of French beans has engendered conflict over rights, obligations and resources in Meru District, Kenya. In response to pressure for agricultural diversification and the expanding European market for "gourmet" vegetables, horticulture, the historical domain of women, has been rapidly intensified, commoditized and in many cases, appropriated by men. Women have responded to the erosion of their rights in ways that appear paradoxical -- some undergoing Christian conversion while others poison their husbands -- practices that simultaneously affirm and contest the prevailing norms of the "good wife". In Meru, gender relations are key to the negotiation of household resources and the potential for capital accumulation in the export horticultural sector.
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