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Woodfuels, Livelihoods and Policy Interventions: Changing Perspectives
Abstract
In the 1970s, it appeared that fuelwood use was growing rapidly, and this could have major adverse impacts on the resource and poor users. By the mid-1980s, revised assessments indicated that there was less of a problem than had been foreseen, and much less of a need for forestry interventions to maintain supplies. As a result many of the latter were sharply scaled back. Additional information and analysis that has become available since the 1980s support the view that there is no need for large scale interventions devoted just to provision of fuelwood. However, declining access to supplies or markets can raise significant problems in some areas, and for particular categories of user. Growing urban demand for charcoal can also cause local problems, in particular in Africa. The potentials for appropriate forms of intervention are discussed.
... African countries account for over 63% of the world's charcoal production, due to its use in both rural and urban communities [83]. This portion of the traditional energy supply chain is considered the most environmentally harmful [84,85]. Charcoal is an essential energy source for rapidly growing urban populations and substantial segments of the rural populace, having been utilised historically for generations [80]. ...
... These individuals sometimes suffer additional adverse effects of fuel burning, including respiratory diseases, due to the inhalation of high levels of particulate matter [174,111]. Government reports and academic literature depict the working circumstances of charcoal producers as perilous [84,175]; both government officials and research papers recognise these 'hazards' superficially. ...
... The production of charcoal presents considerable obstacles for immediate action, and its procurement and utilisation are intricately linked to the economic, cultural, and practical dimensions of everyday life, making viable alternatives to this fuel highly unlikely. While charcoal is expected to remain a crucial component of the energy mix in urban African households [84,85], a deeper comprehension of urban energy consumption patterns shaped by social, economic, and environmental factors will assist in alleviating the uncertainties in future carbon emission forecasts associated with charcoal utilisation. ...
Charcoal is a widely utilised fuel produced from the carbonisation of organic materials, such as wood and other biomass sources. Regrettably, airborne contaminants from traditional charcoal producing techniques can negatively impact human health and the environment. This research explore air pollutant emissions from traditional charcoal producing methods and their impacts on human health and the environment. This study utilised a qualitative synthesis methodology, incorporating case studies, archival research, and discourse analysis, to elucidate the impacts of charcoal production. The results demonstrate that the traditional charcoal production method results in substantial carbon loss from fuelwood and emits by-products of incomplete combustion, exacerbating serious health risks and degrading air quality associated with community health problems. Empirical evidence indicates that the majority of charcoal manufacturing workers lack awareness of the health risks associated with their working circumstances and the respiratory problems they face. Unsustainable environmental practices highlight the social and ecological repercussions of charcoal production. It is advisable to apply air pollution mitigation methods around charcoal kiln facilities to protect environmental and community health. The Environmental Protection Agency must actively implement effective oversight and integrated management to improve air quality and safeguard communities from air hazards. This study recommends testing high-efficiency technologies in communities capable of maintaining and assessing their effects on environmental degradation. Both governmental entities and humanitarian organisations should prioritise educational activities centred on effective land management approaches, as this study's findings suggest.
... The global surge in energy demand, driven by population growth, industrialization, and technological advancements, has strained resources and posed significant economic and environmental challenges (Arnold et al., 2006). Energy is vital for sustaining human life, yet access to affordable and efficient energy sources remains limited, particularly in rural communities Chen et al., 2006). ...
... Patterns of household energy use often reflect economic development and welfare levels, with limited resources frequently allocated to fuelwood over electricity (Dawit Diriba, 2014). In peri-urban and urban areas, rising fuelwood demand has led to overexploitation of rural forests (Arnold et al., 2006). ...
... Of this, 66% came from firewood, and 5% from charcoal. This finding aligns with Arnold et al. (2006), who stated that wood collection and extraction for energy purposes account for more than half of the wood removed from forests. ...
Introduction
Ethiopian rural households primarily rely on fuelwood as their main energy Q7 source, yet the country lacks precise data on fuelwood harvesting and its economic significance. Consequently, there is limited understanding of CO2 emissions resulting from fuelwood use.
Methods
This study aimed to estimate the annual amount of fuelwood collected and the associated CO2 and carbon (C) emissions. Using simple random sampling for household selection, data were analyzed with Excel and Stata.
Results
The results reveal that fuelwood dependency is a major driver of deforestation and CO2 emissions, with households consuming approximately 2,725 kg of firewood and 26 kg of charcoal annually. Each household also extracts an average of 3,909.3 kg of firewood and 516.5 kg of charcoal annually for sale. Among sampled households, fuelwood constitutes 904,261 kg of energy, with 51% used for household consumption and 96% allocated for income generation. The inefficient burning of this fuel results in significant emissions, adding 974,000 kg of CO2 or 265,600 kg of carbon annually to the household carbon footprint. On average, each household emits 7,740 kg of CO2 and 1,960 kg of carbon per year.
Discussion
The study emphasizes that, while fuelwood plays a critical role in household energy and income, its unsustainable use accelerates emissions and deforestation. To mitigate these effects, the adoption of alternative energy sources like electricity and forest conservation through local plantations is essential for climate resilience.
... One of the essentials needed to keep humans alive is energy. However, rural communities lack sufcient access to reasonably priced and efcient energy resources [1][2][3]. Fuelwood is the main energy source for food preparation and thermal applications for over 2.5 billion people across the globe [3]. Te majority of fuelwood makes up between 60 and 95% of the energy consumed in developing nations, with the remaining 25 to 60% and less than 5% going to middle-class and developed nations, respectively [4]. ...
... To address the energy requirements of their homes, would rather allocate their scarce fnancial resources to purchasing fuelwood rather than electricity [12]. According to Arnold, Köhlin, and Persson [1], rural forests are being overused due to the rising demand for fuelwood in periurban and urban regions. ...
... 66% of the overall energy sources came from frewood, and 5% came from charcoal. Tis aligns with the assertion that the collection and extraction of wood from forests for energy purposes constitutes over ffty percent of the total wood harvested [1]. ...
Ethiopian rural households primarily rely on fuelwood as their energy source. This research was designed to quantify the amount of annual fuelwood collected from forests. The research uses a simple random sampling method for household selection that was used to invert the study, and the data were analyzed using Excel and Stata software. As a result, among the primary causes of deforestation and CO2 emissions are a strong reliance on fuelwood. The purpose of this study was to calculate the annual quantity of fuelwood harvested from the forests as well as the amount of CO2e and C produced throughout the process. An estimated 2725 kg of firewood and 26 kg of charcoal were used annually per households. In contrast, each household extracted an average of 3909.3 kg of firewood and 516.5 kg of charcoal annually from the forests to sale. The analysis of this study demonstrates that fuelwood from the forest accounted for 71% of the total energy sources that the sampled household had access to for both expenditure and sale. 66% of the overall energy sources came from firewood, and 5% came from charcoal. Consequently, 66% of fuelwood extracted from the forest is utilized for sale and serves as an alternate means of income generation, while 34% of fuelwood is used for household expenditure in the study area. From the total energy sources, fuelwood from the forest shares 51% of energy sources accessible for use in households and 96% of energy providers available for sale (income generation). However, in the examined areas, inefficient combustion of this fuel results in greenhouse gas emissions. Thus, each year, the burning of fuelwood taken from this forest contributes 974 tons of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e) to the atmosphere. This suggests that 265.6 tons of carbon is added to the household’s total carbon footprint as a result of using fuelwood from the forest as a domestic energy source. Annually, 7.74 tons and 1.96 tons of CO2e and carbon are emitted per household, respectively. Generally, fuelwood from the forest has a great role in either household energy use or income contribution. But without consideration of emissions, deforestation for fuelwood production has implications for emission. Conserving natural forests by adopting different forms of energy like electrical sources or establishing plantations on our own land is an essential approach to mitigating climate change in the future.
... Az efféle váltás, azaz az energiaátmenet tanulmányozását számos kutató az "energialétra" hipotézisre ("energy ladder" hypothesis) alapozva kezdi meg (például Hoiser -Dowd, 1987;Arnold et al., 2006, Zhao et al., 2017Paunio, 2018). A hipotézis a tisztább/szennyezőbb energiahordozók irányába történő elmozdulás tanulmányozására is alkalmas. ...
... bővülésének köszönhetően a biomassza helyett először az átmeneti (faszén, szén, petróleum), majd a modern (LPG, földgáz, villamos áram) energiahordozók felé tolódik el a háztartások felhasználása (Leach, 1992;Smith et al., 1994;Arnold et al., 2003;Arnold et al., 2006;Van Beukering et al., 2009 -Malesios, 2011), Törökország (Türker -Kaygusuz, 1995), Chile (Schueftan et al., 2016)), valamint fejlett országok esetében is (pl. USA (Song et al., 2012), ...
... Magyarországi adatokat elemezve ez utóbbi folyamat látszik kirajzolódni a tűzifa és a földgáz piacán. Magyarországon a fa elsőszámú "kihívója" a vezetékes földgáz (Tabi et al., 2013 (Arnold et al., 2006). Mivel az egyéb, modernebb tüzelőanyagok irányába történő elmozdulásnak előfeltétele a jobb alternatíva rendelkezésre állása is, ha nincs hova "feljebb lépni" piac vagy infrastruktúra híján 21 , a jövedelemmel együtt a tűzifafogyasztás tovább növekszik (Guta, 2014). ...
... The household energy consumption pattern is expected to increase in the future in line with economic growth and a rise in per capita income [46]. It is also projected that increases in household energy consumption result from changes in lifestyles [47]. ...
... Secondly, with increasing incomes, the constraints of fuel prices on households will decrease [1]. This resulted in wood removals from forests for energy account for about half of the wood removed from forests [47]. ...
... The income obtained from fuelwood businesses supports the livelihoods of rural people and is an alternative [2]. Due to these reasons rural households never completely restricted the sale and use of forest wood as a source of energy [47]. ...
This review paper aims to gather informative data on the impact of climate extremes on the physical environment, public health, and the livelihoods of people in Ethiopia. The primary sources of data for this review were peer-reviewed journal articles obtained from electronic databases such as PubMed, Central, Scopus, and Web of Science. Globally, the vast majority of households in developing countries depend on wood energy for their daily energy needs. Such consumption trends are expected to remain a common feature of traditional wood energy production and consumption, at least in the short- to medium-terms. This situation increases the demand for firewood and charcoal from the forest. The process of harvesting standing trees for charcoal and fire wood leads to forest degradation. Although woody biomass has the function of energy consumption, and as a source of income for rural villagers and urban poor dwellers practicing agriculture, wood energy generally has low priority in national policies of developing countries. However, unsustainable management and negative environmental consequences in humid and dry forests is derived from the use of fuel wood energy. Still now there is an unsystematic assessment of the economic contribution and environmental consequences of wood energy use, so its significance and consequences have been minimized. This deforestation and forest degradation contributes 1–2.4 Gt CO2e of greenhouse gases, which is 2–7% of global anthropogenic emissions, with global greenhouse gas emissions mostly CO2.
... With the increasing demand for charcoal, employment and income opportunities in the sector are also on the increase. Large numbers of people are now being involved along the charcoal value chain (CVC), as there is stable demand, ease of access to raw materials (trees species) as well as low initial investment costs (Arnold et al. 2006;World Bank, 2009). ...
... With the increasing demand for charcoal, employment and income opportunities in the sector, charcoal production is also on the increase. Large numbers of people are now being involved along the charcoal value chain (CVC), ostensibly as a result of stable demand, ease of access to raw materials (trees species) as well as low initial investment costs (Arnold et al. 2006;World Bank, 2009). Though, charcoal production is linked with stories of ecosystems degradation, deforestation, and climate change (Chidumayo and Gumbo, 2013;FAO, 2017), it is believed that its production will continue to increase at a pace of about 3% per year in the next thirty years until 2050 (Liyama et al., 2014;UNEP, 2019). ...
... The conversion efficiency of earth kiln technology is often low, ranging from 10-27% (Chidumayo, 2013;FAO, 2017). Due to the strenuous physical labour involved in producing charcoal using earth kiln technology, the position has been referred to as a "safety net" or a means of employment for rural impoverished people "without alternative economic opportunities" (Arnold et al., 2006). ...
The study examined the factors affecting participation of key actors in charcoal value chain (CVC) in Benue state. A multistage sampling technique was used for the selection of 739 respondents, comprising charcoal producers, transporters, off-taker and consumers in seven local government areas and 14 communities. Descriptive statistics and principal factor analysis were used for data analysis. Results showed male dominance (62.47%) in the entire CVC, especially at the production (86.5%) and transportation (100%) nodes whereas female were mostly active at off-take (55.3%) and consumption (81.3%) nodes. Further, CVC sector was dominated mostly by young people (64.27%) averaged 37 years and about 66% of the respondents were married with 7.8 years of experience in the CVC. Results of factor analysis depicted that the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure (KMO) value of 0.882. Five common factors were extracted with cumulative variance proportion of 63.85% of the total variance, above the recommended percentage of 50-60% for social science research of 50-60% and Eigenvalues above 1. The five factors were labelled as ‘Institutional and policy constraints’ (accounted for 37.76% of the total variance), ‘Production constraints’ (8.29%), ‘Financial and marketing constraints’ (6.90%), ‘Infrastructural constraints’ (6.55%) and ‘Technological constraint which accounted for 4.65% of the total variance. The study concludes that charcoal value chain in the State is open to both genders and is constrained mostly by institutional and policy factors. It was recommended that involvement of government agencies and community leaders in CVC would ensure effective policy formulation and implementation for a sustainable charcoal exploration.
... sources (3). Taking all these factors into account, it becomes evident that the demand for wood fuel in SSA is expected to persistently rise (3), (2), (6), (1). The significant increase in wood fuel demand in SSA raises valid concerns regarding resource depletion and deforestation (11). ...
... Rural households primarily rely on firewood, while urban households tend to prefer charcoal (1), (6), (13). The preference for charcoal among urban households can be attributed to its higher energy content, ease of transportation and storage, as well as its suitability for use in stoves (5), (1), (4). ...
... Food and Agriculture Organization (2010) highlights that diversifying the sources of wood fuel can alleviate pressures on forests, emphasizing the need for sustainability efforts to encompass alternative sources. One approach involves preventing land fragmentation and increasing the number of trees on private farms (15), (10),(6). In Sub-Saharan Africa, rapid population growth leads to smaller farm sizes, making it increasingly challenging for households to grow trees for their use and contribute to commercial demand(15). ...
... A cél elérését segítheti, ha a lakosság a tűzifát (legalábbis annak egy részét) tisztább és modernebb energiaforrásokkal helyettesíti. Az efféle váltás, azaz az energiaátmenet (energy transition) tanulmányozását számos kutató az energialétra hipotézisre (energy ladder hypothesis) alapozva kezdi meg (például Hosier és Dowd, 1987;Arnold et al., 2006;Zhao et al., 2017;Paunio, 2018;Roser, 2021;Waleed és Mirza, 2023). A létra az energiahordozókat egy hierarchikus és lineáris rendbe foglalja a (lokális) "tisztaságuk" és modernitásuk szerint. ...
... Várakozásaink szerint, ha gazdagodnak a háztartások, kevesebb tűzifát és több modern energiahordozót, például földgázt, villamos áramot használnak, ami arra utal, hogy a vizsgált térségben a fa inferior jószág (Israel 2002;Jiang és O'Neill, 2004;Couture, Garcia és Reynaud, 2012). Mindemellett fenntartjuk annak a lehetőségét is, hogy a tűzifa normál jószág, tehát a fogyasztók növekvő jóléte növeli az abból felhasznált mennyiséget (Arnold et al., 2006;Baland et al., 2010). Egyes kutatók szerint az energiahordozó saját ára a jövedelemnél erőteljesebb hatást gyakorol a fogyasztásra, ezért figyelembe vesszük a tűzifa árát is (FAAR) (Hiemstravan der Horst ésHovorka, 2008; Kowsari és Zerriffi, 2011; Couture, Garcia és Reynaud, 2012; Lillemo és Halvorsen, 2013). ...
túl nagy mértékű és nem kellően hatékony lakossági tűzifa-felhasználás jelentősen hozzájárul a magyarországi légszennyezettséghez, aminek komoly egészségügyi következményei vannak. Egyes elméletek szerint, ha növekszik a gazdaság, az egyre tehetősebb fogyasztók maguktól váltanak tisztább energiaforrásokra, így közvetlen állami beavatkozások nélkül is javul a környezet minősége. A kutatásban arra voltunk kíváncsiak, hogy ha növekednek a magyar jövedelmek, az csökkenti-e a háztartások tűzifafogyasztását, ami jobb levegőminőséget eredményez. Az összefüggések vizsgálata érdekében az idősoros adatainkat egy többváltozós lineáris regressziós modellel dolgoztuk fel. Magyarázó változóként vettük számításba a keresletelmélet egyes keményebb, könnyebben számszerűsíthető tényezőit, úgymint a jövedelmet, a tűzifa, a földgáz és a villany árát. Bevontuk még a modellünkbe a napfokot is, amivel a hőmérséklet hatását képeztük le. Az eredményeink szerint a jövedelem és a fafogyasztás között pozitív kapcsolat tárható fel. A növekvő jövedelmek hatására a
fogyasztók növelik a fogyasztásukat, így ceteris paribus a levegő minőségének javulása nem várható. Nem elégséges tehát a szerencsés piaci folyamatokban és a jövedelmek növekedésében bízni, szükségesek a jól megtervezett és alkalmazott állami ösztönzők és korlátok, amelyek egy fenntarthatóbb energiamix kialakítására ösztönöznek. Az energia létra hipotézis vonatkozásában kijelenthetjük, hogy a fával fűtő háztartások jó része, (éppen, hogy) a tűzifa fokán, vagy az alatt áll. Ezen fogyasztók csoportjától egyelőre nem várható, hogy egy fokkal feljebb lépve maguk mögött hagyják a fatüzelést.
... When most of this young people returned to their homes, they import the charcoal production technology to their communities at the expense of farming, which they considered to be comparatively non profitable; especially the huge demand for charcoal in urban cities due to the rapid increase in the population growth, rural-urban migration and shift from firewood to charcoal use. Emergent urban charcoal markets and consumption offer openings for income generation from charcoal production in rural areas (Arnold et al. 2006). Hence, making the charcoal industry one of the most significant semiformal economic sectors in Sierra Leone. ...
... rcoal production in rural areas (Arnold et al. 2006). Hence, making the charcoal industry one of the most significant semiformal economic sectors in Sierra Leone. Charcoal is widely used as an urban fuel, in East Africa it remains popular even with increase per capita income, higher electrification rate and reasonable renewable energy alternatives (Arnold et. al. 2006). Charcoal is relatively cheap as compare to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or kerosene, hence the demand for charcoal is expected to continue increasing in the future, though there are every effort to discourage its use by some environmental advocates. ...
The continued reliance on the consumption of charcoal has a very serious effect on the environment that captures the concern of the Sierra Leone Government. Some Governments and development partners have concluded that charcoal production is responsible for deforestation, climate change, pollution related health hazards the long-term unavailability of fossil fuels. This concern has led to significant increase in the use of renewable energy such as, solar energy, despite of it high initial cost, especially for high and middle income families. This study aims at providing information that could contribute to a viable environmental management in Sierra Leone as well as improving the socioeconomic status of rural charcoal producers and beneficiaries for better livelihood. A desk review was conducted to collect secondary information relevant to the study followed by field visits to the project communities/districts were carried out to supplement the secondary information. During the field visits, information on physical resources, ecological resources, socioeconomic aspects, health and cultural aspects and other attributes were collected using both quantitative and qualitative methods chiefly focus group discussion and One-on-one meetings with key members of local communities focusing on specific issues related to charcoal production. The income level of inhabitants evaluated in order to know whether there is any appreciable level of improvement in their earning status revealed no significant improvement as reported by charcoal producers. Most of these people in the communities earn between NLe10-NLe15 a day; meaning that most people in the communities have still not transcended the poverty line of US$1 a day. Although traditional charcoal production is perceived as a profitable venture, not much is realized by the charcoal producers who rather face compounding health hazard from inhaling tarry smoke, which is a byproduct of wood carbonization. Charcoal production could be made sustainable and serve as an income generation for the rural poor if properly managed, hence charcoal production can meaningfully contribute to poverty reduction.
... In forest policy, the interventions involve a course of action taken by national or international authorities to address processes, practices, and measures. These include regulations, information schemes, market-based incentives, strategies, and support programs (Chazdon et al., 2020;Arnold et al., 2006). ...
... The results have shown relevant policy developments, policy changes, outcomes, and unexpected impacts based on informant assessments of the policy instruments we studied for the 1970-2023 period. We anchored the findings, drawing inspiration from an overarching analytical framework on policy intervention (Chazdon et al., 2020;Weiss, 2000;Arnold et al., 2006), and policy change (Weible, 2023;Wilson, 2000). This section delves into the learning process which shares useful insights on informing public policies and their implications for socio-political equity (Weible, 2023). ...
... Many traditional fuels, such as wood and animal dung, are freely obtained from nature (Hosier & Dowd, 1987). Typical use of the non-clean fuels are by the economically disadvantaged (Arnold, Köhlin, & Persson, 2006). Conversely, those who are more affluent can purchase any type of fuel, despite the higher costs. ...
... The wealth people are not constrained by the cost of energy sources as they have greater financial resources. However, as household income increases, society becomes more reliant on modern fuels and less reliant on traditional fuels (Arnold et al., 2006;Hosier & Dowd, 1987). The rising cost of modern fuels, which are typically commercially sold, impacts the consumption of these fuels (Aweto, 1995). ...
The study explores clean cooking fuel poverty in Bangladeshi households based on the energy ladder hypothesis stating that as income increases, households switch towards cleaner cooking fuels. Data from the Bangladesh Demographic and Household Survey (BDHS) 2017-18 reveals that 20.45% of households use advanced or cleaner cooking fuels, while a majority (79.23%) still rely on primitive or traditional cooking fuels. Electricity is used by a very small percentage (0.57%), while LPG is used by a slightly higher proportion (6.96%). Biogas usage is minimal (0.11%), and a small percentage (0.03%) still relies on kerosene. Wood is the dominant fuel (46.25%), and other minor sources include charcoal (0.10%), straw/shrubs/grass (0.63%), agricultural crop residues (25.96%), and animal dung (6.39%). The results reveal that only a small proportion of households (20.45%) are classified as "clean cooking fuel non-poor," indicating a limited adoption of cleaner cooking technologies in Bangladesh. Further analysis indicates a gradual increase in clean cooking fuel usage as wealth status improves. Only 0.25% of the poorest households use clean fuels, while the percentage increases to 0.68% in the "poorer" category, 3.92% in the "middle" wealth category, and 24.51% in the "richer" category. Among the wealthiest households, 70.64% use clean cooking fuels. The study highlights the urgent need for policymakers in Bangladesh to address clean cooking fuel poverty by implementing measures like subsidies, awareness campaigns, and infrastructure development to promote cleaner cooking technologies, thereby improving public health and environmental sustainability.
... Charcoal has many uses, but its most significant applications are as a fuel for cooking and as a reductant in metallurgy (Ghilardi et al. 2013). The growing demand for charcoal in Africa driven by high population and urbanization growth rates makes charcoal the major primary source of energy for most urban dwellers for at least another generation (Arnold et al. 2006). The current high levels of demand for charcoal are one of the main factors leading to the destruction of forests, particularly those on the periphery of sprawling urban centers (Minten et al. 2013). ...
... The current high levels of demand for charcoal are one of the main factors leading to the destruction of forests, particularly those on the periphery of sprawling urban centers (Minten et al. 2013). This increased charcoal demand puts pressure on peri-urban wood sources, especially in absence of management of the sector (Arnold et al. 2006). ...
The objectives of this research were to estimate volume ofcharcoal produced per unit area of Acacia seyal plantations atWadelbashier Forest Reserve and to estimate financial profitability(US ha-1 -30.3 indicating that charcoal production at current stocking,factor costs, output prices, a 12% annual discount rate and a rotationlength of 20 years is not financially profitable. The study concludes thatpolicy and management interventions are inevitable for sustainableproduction.
... Charcoal has many uses, but its most significant applications are as a fuel for cooking and as a reductant in metallurgy (Ghilardi et al. 2013). The growing demand for charcoal in Africa driven by high population and urbanization growth rates makes charcoal the major primary source of energy for most urban dwellers for at least another generation (Arnold et al. 2006). The current high levels of demand for charcoal are one of the main factors leading to the destruction of forests, particularly those on the periphery of sprawling urban centers (Minten et al. 2013). ...
... The current high levels of demand for charcoal are one of the main factors leading to the destruction of forests, particularly those on the periphery of sprawling urban centers (Minten et al. 2013). This increased charcoal demand puts pressure on peri-urban wood sources, especially in absence of management of the sector (Arnold et al. 2006). ...
This research aimed at studying marketing patterns of dairyfarm producers in Khartoum state, in addition to studying theircontribution in the promotion of marketing of dairy products. Theimportance of the research evolves from the importance of implementingmodern marketing strategies in the conventional agricultural marketingespecially the dairy sector. To achieve the objectives of the research,primary data was collected through distributing questionnaires to 60 diaryfarms producers in Khartoum state, who had been selected by a stratifiedquota sampling procedure. By using descriptive statistical methods ofanalysis (frequency distributions), some results were reached mostimportant of which are: most of the producers set price according tosupply and demand, they pay great attention to quality of products to gainand retain the consumers, and most of them didn't use promotion as astrategy to increase sale which indicates poor participation of farmers inmarketing efforts. The study reached some conclusions include; thenecessity of establishing milk collection centers to assist lowering milkconsumer price, and creating marketing awareness in the producers' sectorthrough implementing extension workshops and seminars
... In Kenya, Waswa et al. (2020) find that, instead of skipping meals, households often resort to cooking composite meals to reduce the frequency of cooking sessions and thereby saving fuel. Another coping strategy found in the literature is to switch to food items that require less time or less fuel to cook (Arnold et al., 2006) -as observed in Kenya and Malawi (Brouwer et al., 1996;Waswa et al., 2020) -but which may also be less nutritious. In Kenya and India, households are found to undercook food in order to reduce fuel consumption (Waswa et al., 2020). ...
... The number of cooked meals is a common proxy to measure household nutritional outcomes (e.g. Kuku et al., 2011;Vedantam et al., 2010;Matsika et al., 2013;Arnold et al., 2006;Waswa et al, 2020). We were unfortunately unable to account for the different aspects of food security such as nutrition diversity or anthropometric measures as this information is not available in the database. ...
While the health and environmental impacts of using biomass fuels for cooking are well-established in the literature, there is little empirical evidence on the impacts of such dirty cooking fuels on household food security. In this paper, we assess the impact of using biomass fuels on the daily number of meals consumed in India using a household-level panel covering six districts over the period (2015–2018). We apply Poisson fixed effects models and Kernel matching difference-in-difference estimation and find that using dirty fuel as primary cooking fuel reduces the number of meals per day with an estimated 1.5%. We derive that the effect of cooking fuel type is equivalent to an impact on nutrition from a 2.6 to 6.25% change in household expenditures, given estimated calorie-income elasticity for India in the literature. In addition, our results reveal that the use of dirty cooking fuel is associated with increased time for cooking, increased frequency of fuelwood collection and lower satisfaction with the cooking arrangement – which can partially explain the negative effect on nutrition. In terms of policy implications, the results thus highlight important synergies not only between the type of cooking fuel and food security, but also the time saving associated with a clean cooking fuel could imply a considerable improvement in women’s wellbeing and could be beneficial from a gender equality perspective.
... Burning biomass cooking fuels causes indoor and outdoor air pollution (e.g., Lim et al., 2013;Smith et al., 2013), forest degradation (e.g., Arnold et al., 2006;Boucher et al., 2011;Gebreegziabher and van Kooten, 2013), which can create serious labor demands due to the need to collect fuelwood (e.g., see Cooke et al., 2008) and climate change (e.g., Bailis et al., 2015). Traditional biomass cookstoves, such as the three-stone tripod typically used in Ethiopia, are only 5-15 per cent efficient (Mobarak et al., 2012), implying they use more biomass than needed to cook meals and emit high levels of air pollution. ...
This study examines longer-run usage frequency of Mirt improved biomass cookstoves (ICS), one of the most important ICS promoted in Ethiopia. Mirt has been shown to improve childhood health, and reduce fuelwood consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, but to generate those benefits, households must regularly use it over extended periods. Thus, this paper focuses on longer-run use using stove surface temperature data over five time intervals. We find that, close to its estimated lifespan, 63 per cent of households had their stoves in place after more than 3.5 years. Of those who abandoned their stoves, over 80 per cent did so due to breakage, indicating little abandonment of functional stoves. Among those who retained their stoves, despite the relatively long time frame, we observe no decline in regular usage, suggesting the ICS deliver long-term benefits. We find no correlation of dis-adoption with three randomly assigned monetary treatments and no effect of treatments on long-run usage frequency.
... The growing demand for forest products in developing countries has improved rural livelihoods and expanded domestic markets, particularly in urban areas where wood fuels and other forest resources are scarce (Arnold et al., 2006). Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) offer income generation opportunities and contribute to poverty alleviation in both rural and urban areas through two key avenues (CARPE, 2001;Richardson, 2010;Adam et al., 2013;Malleson et al., 2014;Adedayo, 2018). ...
This study assessed the contribution of forest resources to rural livelihoods in Gboko Local Government Area of Benue State, Nigeria. Pre-tested semi-structured questionnaires were administered to 250 respondents selected through multi-stage and simple random sampling, based on their proximity to forest areas and utilization of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). Descriptive statistics, including frequency, percentages, mean, and Likert scale rating, were used to analyze the data. The results revealed that fuelwood (14.9%) had the highest proportion of NTFPs collection, followed by bush meat (12.1%), fruits (10.6%), medicinal plants (9.6%), and charcoal (9.3%). In contrast, the lowest proportions were recorded for mushrooms (3.3%), fodder (2.8%), bush mango, honey, essential oil (1.9% each), and forest insects (1.3%). The Likert scale results indicated a high level of contribution for NTFPs in food (WMS, 4.6), fuel (WMS, 3.9), medicine (WMS, 3.6), trade (WMS, 3.3), and recreation (WMS, 3.2). The findings suggest that NTFPs play a vital role in rural livelihoods, serving as a safety net. Therefore, deliberate policy measures are necessary to ensure sustainable harvesting practices and establish community-led conservation initiatives for sustainable forest management.
... The results of this study have revealed policy developments using experts' opinions about the relevant interventions, changes, and outcomes of the targeted policy instruments for the period 1970-2023. We presented the findings, drawing inspiration from a framework on policy evaluation (Baumgartner and Korhonen, 2010;Henning et al., 2018;Vedung, 1997), which calls for careful assessments of government interventions and their complexities; and the interplay between policy intervention (Chazdon et al., 2020;Weiss, 2000;Arnold et al., 2006), policy change and outcome (Weible, 2023;Wilson, 2000), and learning (Moyson et al., 2017). This section highlights the revealed developments for the analyzed period 1970-2023 and discusses them, particularly emphasizing the learning process which offers useful insights on informing public policies (Moyson et al., 2017;Weible, 2023). ...
... Acacia species plays key role on land management and provide multiple benefits and enhancing ecosystem resilience (Griffin et al 2023). Among many others, since the 1990s, Acacia decurrens has been widely planted in northern Ethiopia for fuelwood and charcoal production (Bekele-Tesemma and Tengnäs 2007, Suryanto et al 2010, Wondie and Mekuria 2018, Matukana 2021) and become the most important source of energy in Ethiopia (Arnold et al 2006, Dejene et al 2018. It also uses in agroforestry trials to improve soil quality and support local ecosystems (Bekele-Tesemma and Tengnäs 2007, Richardson et al 2023, Ljalem et al 2024. ...
The survival and growth performance of tree seedlings in degraded drylands can be improved by applying moisture and fertility-enhancing management interventions. This study evaluated the survival and growth responses of Acacia decurrens seedlings to different management practices, pit sizes, and niches in Tigray, Ethiopia. A factorial experiment was conducted with Watering (W), Watering + Mulching (WM), and Watering + Mulching + Compost (WMC) treatments planted in 30*30 cm and 50*50 cm planting pit sizes arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications. We measured the survival count, diameter, and height of planted seedlings on a monthly basis for two years. Root parameters, biomass, and relative growth rate measurements were undertaken using destructive sampling after two years of planting. Planting A. decurrens under WMC treatment and in a 50*50 cm pit size revealed better survival and growth performance of planted seedlings. A. decurrens seedlings planted on farmland had significantly higher survival rates compared to planting on a nearby sloppy land (ch² = 8.33, p = 0.004). The WMC treatment yielded impressive results after two years, with seedlings reaching 7.6 m in height, 7.6 cm in diameter, 17.2 kg in dry biomass, and 1.5 m in root depth. The height relative growth rate of A. decurrens under the WMC treatment increased by 19% compared to the other treatments, with WM showed a 7% increase, and both W and C revealed a 5% increase each. Planting seedlings on farmland and adding WMC makes them grow faster and yields higher biomass. Therefore, applying moisture, mulching, and compost during and after planting ensures optimal survival and growth rates of A. decurrens and other trees in drylands.
... According to Arnold et al. (2006), fuelwood serves as the main source of cooking fuel for many impoverished individuals, particularly in emerging nations such as Southeast Asia, India, and Africa. It is sometimes referred to as'energy of the poor' (Horst and Hovorka, 2008). ...
Firewood serves as a vital energy source for cooking and heating in many rural regions, but the impacts of harvesting firewood from forests are often overlooked. In numerous mountainous regions, impoverished communities rely solely on fuelwood sourced from natural forests as their primary energy source. Within Sikkim, rural families heavily rely on firewood for energy. Households of Mamlay watershed, Sikkim were divided into three categories according to their socioeconomic condition by the Government of Sikkim, India. Such households were surveyed to identify patterns of firewood extraction and use, species preference, and sources of extraction. Face-to-face interviews and questionnaires were used to gather data on many facets of the use and extraction of firewood. Every household included in the survey relies on firewood as their main fuel source for cooking and heating water. Utilizing firewood as a cost-free resource provides significant economic benefits to the communities, serving both as a tradable commodity and supporting income-generating endeavours like cooking pig feed and producing wine. Twenty-five plant species are used as firewood and the most preferred way of extraction is cutting dry branches. The most preferred species are Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth, Schima wallichii Choisy., Macaranga postulate King., Litsaea polyantha Juss. & Engelhardtia spicata Lechen ex Blume. Although firewood is extracted from 93% of the private land the extraction of firewood from 43% of the forest area cannot be overlooked.
... Sustainable fuelwood production can offer various livelihood and health advantages to local communities. For example, it can reduce the time, physical effort, or expenses typically spent by rural women and children on gathering wood (Arnold et al. 2006). Prioritizing fuelwood can also facilitate income-generating activities that require energy access, such as baking or brickmaking. ...
This book takes a multidisciplinary perspective to analyze and discuss the various opportunities and challenges of restoring tree and forest cover to address regional and global environmental challenges that threaten human well-being and compromise sustainable development. It examines forest restoration commitments, policies and programs, and their planning and implementation at different scales and contexts, and how forest restoration helps to mitigate environmental, societal, and cultural challenges. The chapters explore the concept of forest restoration, how it can restitute forest ecosystem services, contribute to biodiversity conservation, and generate benefits and synergies, while recognizing the considerable costs, trade-offs, and variable feasibility of its implementation. The chapters review historic and contemporary forest restoration practice and governance, variations in approaches and implementation across the globe, and relevant technological advances. Using the insights from the ten topic-focused chapters, the book reflects on the possibility of sustainable and just approaches to meet the challenges that lie ahead to achieve ambitious international forest restoration targets and commitments.
... To achieve this aim, the following objectives were investigated: (1) To identified the target tree species that are used in charcoal production in the study areas. (2) To determine the average monthly charcoal sold on the roadside (3) To determine the extend of charcoal produced per month per district, (4) consumption pattern and estimated forest cover depletion from charcoal production in the study areas. (5) To provide recommendations that could help to reduce deforestation due to charcoal burning. ...
... The absence of comprehensive policy frameworks and insufficient investment in energy infrastructure often result in a lack of viable alternatives to fuelwood. This policy vacuum perpetuates the dependency on traditional energy sources, as governmental support for alternative energy development remains inadequate [49]. ...
Indoor air pollution, particularly in rural communities, is a significant health determinant, primarily due to the prevalence of traditional cooking practices. The WHO estimates 4.3 million annual deaths related to household air pollution. This study quantifies indoor pollutants and assesses health impacts and perceptions regarding traditional cooking. Using Extech air quality monitoring equipment, the study measured particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), and carbon dioxide (CO2) in 48 rural homes. A survey of 39 women gathered insights on their use of wood for cooking and perceptions of air quality. This dual approach analyzed both environmental and social dimensions. Findings showed fine particulate matter (0.3, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.5 μm) exceeded safety limits by threefold, while coarser particulates (5.0 and 10 µm) were concerning but less immediate. CO levels were mostly acceptable, but high concentrations posed risks. CO2 levels indicated good ventilation. Survey responses highlighted reliance on wood and poor air quality perceptions demonstrating little awareness of health risks. Common symptoms included eye discomfort, respiratory issues, and headaches. The study emphasizes the need for interventions to reduce exposure to indoor pollutants and increase awareness of health risks to encourage cleaner cooking practices in rural communities.
... al, 2000) where households continue to consume more than one fuel simultaneously. In fact, many have referred that multiple fuel use is more common (Couture et al., 2012;Arnold et al., 2006;Brouwer and Falcao, 2004;Campbell et al., 2003). Studies have shown that firewood which is considered as a dirty fuel displays the characteristics of a normal good when used as back up fuel, but it shows the characteristics of an inferior good when used as a main fuel i.e. consumption of firewood as main fuel decrease with increase in income, thereby supporting energy ladder hypothesis, but it is not completely substituted by cleaner fuels and continue to be used as back up fuel with increasing income of households which supports the fuel stacking models. ...
The second chapter reports literature review focusing on theoretical and empirical studies at national as well as international levels. Theoretical literature discusses energy ladder and fuel stacking theories. Empirical literature supports the said earlier theories and highlights several socio-economic conditions of the households. This chapter mainly highlights that desired consumption is positive, but actual consumption is not so because other factors inhibit carrying out the change for actual consumption to be positive. To overcome such limitation, the double hurdle Cragg model (Econometrica 39:829–844, 1971) is suggested for the estimation of cooking fuel demand and its determinants at the household level.
... The need for charcoal is constantly rising as a result of rising urbanisation and population, and the sector's economic impact is significant. Thousands of people rely on charcoal as their primary source of income in most African countries [42]. The increasing anthropogenic impact on plant cover is due to people's reliance on solid fuels. ...
Improved charcoal cookstoves are being produced indiscriminately by unlicensed local craftspeople, and their use is expanding quickly in Sierra Leone. There have not been any comprehensive or in-depth analyses of efficiency or charcoal savings on Wonder stoves and Metal stoves. In this study, the performance of two improved charcoal cookstoves-the Wonder stove and the Metal stove-was assessed. To conduct efficiency and charcoal-saving analyses, a set of charcoals from the Abura tree (mitragyna cilliata) and another set from assorted trees: Mango tree (Mangifera indica) and Matchstick tree (Aechmea gamosepala) were prepared. When Abura charcoal and other types of charcoal (assorted) were to test the efficiency of the stoves, the results obtained for the Wonder stove showed average efficiencies of 19.67% and 14.68%, respectively, while those for the Metal stove showed efficiencies of 17.79% and 14.75%. When burned charcoals were compared at the high-power phase cold start in both stoves, the Wonder stove saved 54.21% of the charcoal with a corresponding time of 4.42 minutes, while the Metal stove saved 1.40% of the charcoal with a similar time of 4.34 minutes.
... Insisting on forests' contribution to rural livelihoods, Majule et al. (2005), working on non-wood forest products (NWFPs) in the Mtwara region, noted that NWFPs made a significant contribution to alleviating poverty among the rural poor, particularly in regards to food and income. Forests also offer many benefits to people living close to forested areas and beyond where wood fuels and other forest resources are scarce (Arnold et al., 2006;Vedeld et al., 2007). It is estimated that 90% of the world's poor depend on forests for at least a portion of their income (World Bank, 2000;USAID, 2006). ...
This study assessed rural communities’ access to forest resources and degree of community dependence. The study was conducted in two villages (Itale and Iwala) in Ileje District. The exploratory survey design used a structured questionnaire to capture both quantitative and qualitative information from sampled households. We administered a structured questionnaire with both closed and open-ended questions to households and key informants. Data collection also included focus group discussions, wealth ranking, transect walks, field observation, and preference ranking. The study employed systematic, random, and purposive sampling to select a sample of 94 household heads and 18 key informants. The results revealed that access to forest resources was denied to rural communities by 95.5% while 4.5% access was granted for community development activities only. Communities’ dependence on forest resources varied across forest resource types, whereby dependence over firewood was 91.2%, while thatch grass dependence was 23.6%. The degree of community dependence on forest resources revealed that 57.0% of the respondents depend on forest resources for their livelihood. It is recommended that local communities should be involved in monitoring and sustainable forest management processes, as it was noted that they were not integrated into the management system.
... It is anticipated that this sector will contribute to the income of approximately twelve million people by 2030 (Mwampamba et al., 2013). This is a result of charcoal consumption in sub-Saharan countries increasing from 23 million tons in 2000 to 46.1 million tons in 2030 (Arnold et al., 2006;Zulu and Richardson 2013). Despite the importance of the sector to charcoal actors, large quantities of charcoal are produced in African countries without official permits, which shows the predominantly informal and illegal character of the sector and the difficulties in accessing the formal system (Schure et al., 2013;Smith et al., 2017;Mutta et al., 2021;Branch et al., 2022). ...
... Over the past three decades, there has been considerable debate about fuelwood and its impact on deforestation along with counter-evidence that domestic consumption of fuelwood is not a primary source of forest degradation (e.g. Agarwal, 2021;Arnold et al., 2003;Arnold et al., 2006;Baland et al., 2010;Cooke et al., 2008;Lee et al., 2015). As the primary domestic energy source for the vast majority of households in low and middle-income countries, fuelwood accounts for roughly 50 % of global roundwood production in 2018 (FAO, 2019) and 9 % of global primary energy consumption. ...
This study compares revealed versus stated household fuelwood preferences for particular tree species, explores the underlying factors, and discusses the implications for native forests. We used a cross-sectional survey of over 550 fuelwood consumers spanning rural areas to small, medium and large cities in the Los Lagos region of Chile conducted in 2020. We employed the Generalized Ordered Logit Model (GOLOGIT) and Multinomial Logit Model of household choice of major tree species for fuelwood. Our results show a significant misalignment between revealed and stated tree species preferences. Household tree species preferences for fuelwood is determined by fuel-value index (FVI), household expenditure, awareness of the relationship between fuelwood production and deforestation, and spatial heterogeneity. Household expenditure, as a proxy of family income, leads to selection of higher FVI tree species, though it is dependent on forest location and accessibility as well. As particular native species are those with high FVI, this implies a possible relationship between household income and native forest degradation that needs to be further explored. At the same time, awareness of deforestation is correlated with households buying the more abundant but less preferred species of fuelwood. These results point to potential impacts on native forests in Southern Chile, which will vary according to tree species´ecological characteristics, their regeneration potential, and harvesting methods used. Current policies incentivizing better thermal insulation of homes would allow people to use more abundant non-preferred tree species for fuelwood. These findings point to a need for continued research on how improved energy and forestry regulations can support more sustainable fuelwood consumption decisions within local fuelwood markets and better assessments of forest impacts of such policies.
... Existing multi-country studies of wild resources are mainly at relatively coarse spatial scales (e.g., national or sub-national regions). Together they indicate that wild harvests are very common globally, [24][25][26][27] but they are unable to determine the influence of different contexts at finer scales. They also focus on the level of wild resource use, rather than subsequent impacts on well-being. ...
Local access to ‘‘wild,’’ common-pool terrestrial and aquatic resources is being diminished by global
resource demand and large-scale conservation interventions. Many theories suggest the well-being of
wild harvesters can be supported through transitions to other livelihoods, improved infrastructure, and market
access. However, new theories argue that such benefits may not always occur because they are context
dependent and vary across dimensions of well-being. We test these theories by comparing how wild harvesting
and other livelihoods have been associated with food security and life satisfaction in different contexts
across 10,800 households in the tropics. Wild harvests coincided with high well-being in remote, assetpoor,
and less-transformed landscapes. Yet, overall, well-being increased with electrical infrastructure, proximity
to cities, and household capitals. This provides large-scale confirmation of the context dependence of
nature’s contributions to people, and suggests a need to maintain local wild resource access while investing
in equitable access to infrastructure, markets, and skills.
... Cooking with such energy sources, particularly with firewood, has several drawbacks. From an environmental point of view, firewood harvesting causes degradation of forest ecosystems [4] and is a potential source of deforestation [5], especially in places where it is used for charcoal production [6]. Healthwise, the use of inefficient stoves and energy Solar 2023, 3 488 sources prone to inefficient combustion (particularly charcoal and firewood) potentiates health problems such as respiratory and cardiovascular illness due to the emission of particulate matter and gases such as carbon monoxide [5,7,8]. ...
The challenges associated with traditional cooking methods in African countries, particularly the use of firewood and charcoal, which have negative impacts on the environment, health and human and economic development and safety, are addressed in this work. Given the high annual solar irradiation on the African continent, photovoltaic-powered electric cooking alternatives, such as electric pressure cookers (EPCs), are identified as a potential efficient, clean and affordable cooking solution. This work focuses on the potential of standalone solar electric cookers for use in rural African locations, namely, if this type of solution can satisfy cooking demand. Surveys and experimental data from several households in two different countries (Rwanda and Kenya) were collected. Specifically, the researchers performed a survey regarding cooking habits and an experimental campaign to determine real energy consumption profiles of EPCs. The main results are analyzed and discussed in this work. An assessment of the solar power capability to directly supply the EPCs’ energy demand, as determined from the experimental data, is performed. The findings indicate that, for the most commonly prepared food types, using EPCs saves considerable time in comparison with traditional cooking methods. In Rwanda, time savings range from 55% to 84%, while in Kenya, the time saved varies from 9% to 64%. Results show that, even for scenarios with high installed solar capacity, storage solutions are required to enable the PV-powered EPC system to supply more than 50% of meal demand.
... The need for charcoal is constantly rising as a result of rising urbanisation and population, and the sector's economic impact is significant. Thousands of people rely on charcoal as their primary source of income in most African countries [42]. The increasing anthropogenic impact on plant cover is due to people's reliance on solid fuels. ...
Improved charcoal cookstoves are being produced indiscriminately by unlicensed local craftspeople, and their use is expanding quickly in Sierra Leone. There have not been any comprehensive or in-depth analyses of efficiency or charcoal savings on Wonder stoves and Metal stoves. In this study, the performance of two improved charcoal cookstoves-the Wonder stove and the Metal stove-was assessed. To conduct efficiency and charcoal-saving analyses, a set of charcoals from the Abura tree (mitragyna cilliata) and another set from assorted trees: Mango tree (Mangifera indica) and Matchstick tree (Aechmea gamosepala) were prepared. When Abura charcoal and other types of charcoal (assorted) were to test the efficiency of the stoves, the results obtained for the Wonder stove showed average efficiencies of 19.67% and 14.68%, respectively, while those for the Metal stove showed efficiencies of 17.79% and 14.75%. When burned charcoals were compared at the high-power phase cold start in both stoves, the Wonder stove saved 54.21% of the charcoal with a corresponding time of 4.42 minutes, while the Metal stove saved 1.40% of the charcoal with a similar time of 4.34 minutes.
... In this region, studies have indicated that about half of all energy (commercial and biomass) consumed is used for cooking food, which is nearly double the energy (fossil fuel and electricity) used by the agriculture and industrial sector combined [4]. The biomass fuel is the most important source of energy in the developing countries [5,6]. According to Reza Alay et al., generating electrical energy from biomass reduces the CO2 and CO emissions by 77.2 and 7.96 kg/year, respectively, to generate 229,735 kW/year [7]. ...
The present work investigates the appropriate tree species for biomass energy utilization by determining the trees' dry biomass and fuel value index, taking into account that the developing countries rely heavily on the fuelwood for energy consumption. In Ethiopia, biomass currently meets more than 89.5% of the total energy consumption. Despite this reliance on biomass, there is a scarcity of fuelwood as well as data on the dry biomass potential and fuel value indices of the tree species utilized in various parts of the country. This work is carried out on the selection of trees for fuelwood purposes based on their dry biomass potential and fuel quality characteristics. Five highly performed Eucalyptus tree species are selected, and the above-ground biomass is measured using the destructive approach, whereas the fuel value index is computed using an effective method with four parameters (calorific value, wood density, ash content, and moisture content). These parameters are determined following the American Society for Testing and Materials method. Finally, the above-ground biomass and carbon content vary from 13.96 kg to 87.47 kg and from 6.03 kg to 37.86 kg Tree-1 , respectively. The biomass and carbon content of E. globulus and E. viminalis are both high. The maximum fuel value index is 276.34 for E. saligna. The computed fuel characteristics are statistically varied among the tree species at P ≤ 0.0001. Based on the tree fuel characteristics findings, E. globulus, E. viminalis, and E. saligna are identified as the best fuelwood species, and are suggested for future plantations.
... For instance, in Kedarnath fuelwood contributed above 95% of total domestic fuel requirement (Dhyani and Dhyani, 2016). Arnold et al. (2006) reported that many households in poor and least industrialized countries used charcoal or firewood as their primary energy source. In Maputo (Mozambique) 50% of affluent households used charcoal as a domestic source of energy (Brouwer and Falcão, 2004) while total dependency on fuel wood was reported in Dhauladhar mountain ranges in North west Himalaya (Uniyal and Rawat, 2018). ...
Introduction
Forest resources are an important source of products on which rural communities depend for survival. Mpanga Central Forest Reserve (CFR) is a valuable resource to adjacent communities through provision of different goods and serves for subsistence and income generation. It also serves as an important eco-tourist site. However, there is scanty information regarding the products obtained from Mpanga CFR and their contribution to livelihoods of adjacent communities.
Methods
The study explored the provisioning services obtained from the CFR, assessed the contribution of the CFR to the surrounding communities and explored the challenges faced while obtaining these services from the forest reserve. Provisioning services are the material benefits supplied by the ecosystem. A total of 118 respondents were randomly selected from 11 villages in Kamengo sub-county Mpigi District and interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires.
Results and discussion
The residents obtained wild foods, medicinal herbs, fuelwood, construction and carving materials. Most of the respondents used obtained products for subsistence (51%) while the rest sold them. Regression analysis revealed that 76.5% of the variability in cash income from the CFR is significantly explained by age of respondents, period of stay and education level. Increase in age and educational level of respondents reduced ability to obtain cash income from the forest by (β = −0.19) and (β = −0.625), respectively but increase in period of stay acted in the reverse (β = 0.22). Despite the importance of provisioning services in improving the livelihood of communities adjacent the forest, some challenges in accessing the forest were reported. The quantities of some extracted species had declined over a 5-year period resulting in reduction of household income. This negatively impacts on the livelihoods of the young and uneducated that depend on forest activities for income generation. It is pertinent that alternative livelihood options are sought to address this trend. Also, forest management strategies should provide a win-win situation to forest managers and communities adjacent to the forest. This will not only preserve the forest resource but will also ensure a sustainable livelihood to forest dependent communities.
... It is noteworthy that the energy ladder theory has been criticized by a number of authors who suggested that rural households do not change fuels wholly but that the adoption of modern fuels most times is accompanied by multiple use and greater total energy demand, leading to households consuming a group of energy sources at a one given time which is called multiple fuel use or fuel stacking (Heltberg, 2005;Arnold, et al., 2006 andFalcao, 2004). Going by this model, households do not totally change to other fuels. ...
... 2022 The people that experience such poverty issues show signs of wage stagnation (Adeleye and Okezie, 2012) and thus, they will not grow economically. However, the increasing demand for forest products in developing countries has enhanced rural livelihoods and enabled the expansion of domestic markets, particularly in urban areas where wood fuels and other forest resources are scarce (Arnold, et al., 2006). The Non-timber forest products include numerous forest extracts such bark, roots, tubers, leaves, fruits, flowers, seeds, resins, honey, mushrooms, and firewood (Sunderland et al., 2003), which are collected from a wide range of ecosystems such as high forests, farm fallow and farmland, and they are widely used in a variety of ways for subsistence livelihoods, including food, medicine and bartering (Neumann and Hirsch 2000). ...
This study analyzed the economic importance of Non-timber forest product to rural poverty alleviation in Oriire Local Government Area of Oyo state in 2014. Multistage sampling technique was used to collect data from 120 respondents in the study area. The data collected was subjected to both descriptive and inferential analysis. Descriptive statistics include the use of percentages, tables and mean to present the socioeconomic characteristics. This study estimates the important contribution of NTFP to income and livelihood as well as the role and benefits of NTFP. Furthermore, a Tobit model is estimated as determining the factors influencing share of NTFP in income. Also, Logistic regression was used to present the determinants of share from NTFP. Majority (67.5%) of the farmers in this study area were male with a mean age of 42.93 and standard deviation of 10.02, greater percentage (79.17%) of the farmers were native of the area. More than half (56.7%) of the farmers (respondents) had access to land through inheritance, 36.67% of the respondents were within the age range of 41-50 years which formed the majority and active force of the respondents. Six independent variables that significantly contributed to the dependent variable (Income from NTFP) in the Tobit regression model were; number of hours of collecting NTFP, transportation cost, male age greater than 10years, income from livestock production, income from offfarm activities and income from crop production. Education level and size of land was found to be positive contributor to the dependent variable (Poverty status) in the Logistic regression. It is recommended that policies and strategies that aim at improving the welfare of rural people and natural resource conservation should give attention to t he contribution of NTFP to the local people. Moreover, Government and NGOs should support and encourage NTFP and NTFP based activities as part of the diversified livelihood strategies in order to alleviate poverty in the rural areas. There should also be p roper monitoring and prevention of unnecessary deforestation by government agencies from government reserved area so as to avert the going into extinction of some species / varieties of trees or NTFP
... The sustainability of this energy source has evolved from the forecasting of generalized depletion of forests in the 1970s to a less dire view in recent years. This view includes recognizing complex patterns of supply and substitution of demand that have cushioned the expected depletion of woody biomass in many regions (Arnold et al. 2006). New analyses and tools have recently been used to ascertain the sustainability of fuelwood as an energy source in terms of detailed geographic analysis (Ghilardi et al. 2016) and for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Bailis et al. 2015). ...
Six different species of dry forest trees were collected, and their chemical compositions and thermal properties were determined. Three of the six species (Senegalia gaumeri, Havardia albicans, and Lysiloma latisiliquum) were chosen due to their high preference as firewood in local communities, while the remaining three species (Croton glabellus, Lonchocarpus yucatanensis, and Neomillspaughia emarginata) were chosen because of their abundance at the sampling site. The chemical compositions were consistent with the composition of tropical woods reported in previous literature, with an ash content of 4.8% to 6.8% and total extractible content in the range of 15.4% to 28.5%. The lignin content was in the range of 17.6% to 24.0%, while the range of holocellulose was 53.9% to 63.0%. The calculation of the calorific values was performed using the elemental analyses, and values ranging between 16.2 and 18.5 MJ/kg were obtained. The fuel value index (FVI) values for the samples indicated that S. gaumeri and L. yucatanensis were the best species for fuelwood given their high densities and relatively high calorific values. The kinetics of pyrolysis showed a higher level of reactivity for H. albicans and L. yucatanensis compared to the other species studied.
... Household tend to move from cheapest to least convenient fuel (biomass) to more convenient and normally more expensive ones (charcoal, kerosene) and eventually to the most convenient and usually most expensive type of energy (LPG, natural gas, electricity). (Masera et al., 2000, Arnold et al., 2006. The use of multiple fuels or use of combination of fuels is known as "fuel stacking". ...
Over exploitation of forest-based products had been a serious issue and a great threat to forestry development in Nigeria. Among these forest products are the fuel woods. This comes as a result of deforestation without reforestation. Domestic cooking energy needs account for the high energy consumption in household and due to the increasing population of Nigeria, the available fossil fuels which serve as sources of cooking energy for most urban and rural dwellers have become inadequate, unaffordable and most times unavailable for the population. Fuel wood such as firewood and charcoal which is being used by 90% of rural households now becomes the highly demanded cooking fuel for households despite the health risks or environmental challenges that emanates from its use. This paper, therefore, evaluates the increasing rate of household demand both in rural and urban areas for wood fuel which is a great threat to forestry development in Nigeria. It specifically describes firewood and charcoal as the common types of wood fuels; kerosene and cooking gas as the most use fossil fuels in Nigeria. It also establishes that the increase in the price of fossil fuel leads to increase in the demand for wood fuels in Nigeria. The recent hike in wood fuel demand brought about by the high cost of fossil fuels such as kerosene and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) has led to the felling down of trees illegally by people especially those involved in firewood and charcoal productions. The paper therefore recommended that there should be increase the subsidy on fossil fuels, development of alternative cooking fuel (such as and use of agricultural and industrial wastes, forest plantations solely for the purpose of energy production should be established to prevent deforestation of forest reserves.
Electricity fluctuations and deforestation in tropical forests and developing countries are significant threats to the environment and climate change, influencing forest, land degradation, and biodiversity loss. The inconsistent energy supply such as electricity forces industries and households to rely heavily on expensive and polluting alternatives, especially in rural areas, further straining economic resources and contributing to deforestation. This study contributes to the existing literature by assessing different shapes of Environmental Kuznets Curves for deforestation (EKCd) on economic development and forest conversion in the sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) region, dynamic ordinary least square (DOLS) with homogeneity variance characteristic used with a balanced panel data from 2000 to 2020. The results show the presence of inverted U-, N-, and conventional M-EKCd, economic growth indicates to influence the forest transition proposition and increasing rural-urban accessibility of electricity, clean fuels, and technologies for cooking influence a reduction of forest conversion rates in the region. The study found significant impacts on the growing population, international trade, and agricultural area; hence, the current study suggested that enhanced environmental policy and collaboration with advancements in clean energy accessibility can reduce deforestation rates and pave the way for inclusive development and sustainable forest resource exploitation.
De facto exclusion of vulnerable populations from markets for energy-efficient technologies can result in multiple barriers to access. For example, exclusion can lead to limited knowledge about available products, an inability to distinguish high-quality from low-quality devices, and limited options for financing, making products seem unobtainable. However, behaviorally informed interventions can offer promising solutions in such contexts, even where exclusion is the result of structural causes. This paper uses a randomized control trial to consider the potential of such interventions for refugees in Uganda in the context of certified solar markets. We evaluate a behaviorally-informed information and savings session embedded in Village Savings and Lending Association (VSLA) meetings, finding evidence for increased pursuit of certified solar products in the treatment group two months later. Results manifest through the barriers described, with increased knowledge, trust in solar companies, financial inclusion through savings group support, and aspirations mediating effects.
Forests are important for sustaining life on Earth, they perform environmental functions such as soil management, biodiversity conservation and climate moderation. However, forests have been threatened with deforestation due to the need for income generation and forest clearance for agriculture purposes. The anticipated annual rate of deforestation in Zambia is between 250,000 and 300,000 hectares. Mpande community in Zambia’s Kafue district has been faced with forest exploitation, which has resulted in intricate problems pertaining to the environment- food-energy nexus. Competition has arisen among food and energy resources due to the growing scarcity of environmental resources, coupled with population growth. This study explored the complex interrelationships among the environment, food and energy in Mpande community. Thus, this study aimed to explore the relationships among the environment, food and energy nexus with specific focus on the complexities arising from forest exploitation in Mpande community. Using a qualitative case study design, data was gathered through semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, unstructured interviews and physical observation. Data was collected from a sample of 254 respondents that were purposively selected. The respondents comprised of members of Mpande community and key informants from Kafue Forestry department and Ministry of Agriculture. Thematic analysis was used to analyze data in order to recognize the linkages in the environment- food-energy nexus. The results of this study revealed that forest exploitation has led to loss of biodiversity, weakened soil fertility and reduced the availability of wild foods, thereby exacerbating food insecurity. Additionally, the community’s dependence on charcoal and firewood which has been driven by lack of alternative energy sources had also accelerated forest exploitation. Therefore, this study highlighted the need for integrated community-based forest management, sustainable agricultural practices, promoting alternative energy sources and an increase in environmental literacy.
While everyone is vulnerable to climate change, the impact is not equal for everyone. Climate change vulnerability is compounded by marginalisation and injustice associated with low income, gender, ethnicity, and other social and economic issues. Therefore, in order to be effective, the climate solution needs to address these issues and challenges. In this regard, women play a crucial role both in energy supply and consumption. Yet, their role in building climate resilience in communities is hardly acknowledged. Thus, to address climate change issues, it is imperative to involve women in the energy transition process. Despite its limitations, clean energy can greatly empower women as their involvement in economic activities becomes much more accessible. In developing countries where gender inequality remains high, clean energy is required to empower women and to respect the country’s commitment towards the global environment through less-carbon-intensive energy systems. Given the above, the primary objective of this article is to mainstream the gender dimension of climate vulnerability and energy transition using various theoretical perspectives.
Using a natural experiment of rainfall-driven remittances, we provide experimental measures of remittances’ effect on rural households’ choice of cylinder gas (LPG) as a cooking fuel in Bangladesh. We use the instrumental variable probit (IV-Probit) approach. The treatment of remittances is randomly assigned to households that suffered losses due to a natural shock from the cyclone-Roanu enabling the instrument to identify the average treatment effect for the treatment group (cyclone-affected remittances recipient households). We find that an exogenous increase in remittances by 1,000 Taka causes the probability of using LPG to rise by 1 percent. The impact of remittances is conditional on the household’s health expenditures. Remittances’ impact on the households’ likelihood of using LPG gets stronger with access to clean water and sanitary toilets. The results are robust to potential violations of the exclusion restriction, alternative specifications and instruments, and possibly omitted variable bias. We recommend policies that should utilize overseas migrant remittances as a strategic tool in formulating a financial, legal, and regulatory framework to achieve SDG 7 by 2030.
JEL Classifications: F24, Q40, R20.
Understanding the background of climate change along with its causes, consequences, and responses of the global community
is important for climate change mitigation. This chapter attempts to construct a theoretical framework on how climate change
disrupts the human and ecological systems and how forest land use mitigates this. As a global response to the climate change,
Kyoto Protocol and its Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) regarding forestry and bioenergy promotion have been importantly
discussed here. This chapter finds a severe consequence of climate change on the globe, tropical developing countries in particular.
It argues a strong impact of forest-based CDM on the climate change mitigation as well as sustainable development in the non-Annex
I countries. This chapter also describes the scope, objectives, and general methodological approach of the book.
This study attempts to examine the role of the nature of residence of households as a determinant of their primary cooking fuel choices in India. Using an ordered probit model, we highlight the significance of the economic and social status of the households in driving their primary cooking fuel choices. This study has used India Residential Energy Survey (IRES) 2020 data for the analysis. Our findings suggest that as households shift from kutcha houses to semi-pucca houses or from semi-pucca houses to pucca houses, the probability of using clean fuel, such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity, increases by 8.76 per cent. We also find that household income level, educational attainment of primary earners and members and household location have a positive association with cleaner fuel consumption, whereas household size exerts a negative influence on modern modes of fuel usage. Our study has significant policy implications for government agencies and policymakers in implementing initiatives that encourage infrastructure and household welfare programmes. These policies can have positive spillover effects on population health and environmental improvement through cleaner fuel consumption.
JEL Codes: C25, C35, D12, Q40
Consumption of energy for various uses including cooking, has various effects on the welfare of the environment. In developing countries where the majority rely on traditional biomass, cooking energy systems entail multiple disruptions to environmental sustainability. The objective of this paper is to integrate the prevailing cooking energy use systems of Dodoma region and environmental sustainability. The study uses the Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) framework to synthesize the two circumstances. Two sites, one rural and one urban were selected for data collection. The study adopted a case study design. Mixed methods were used to gather and analyze the data. Probability and non-probability sampling techniques were employed in the selection of the respondents. The target population was the households. The sample size constitutes 210 households. Methods of data collection included survey, in-depth interview, focus group discussion and non-participant observation. Semi structure questionnaires, interview guides and focus group discussion Results reveal a significant proportion of the population (72.4%) using biomass energy for cooking. Disaggregated data expose the rural setting to have relatively higher proportions (89. %) as opposed to the urban (53.1%). The study further noted that persistent use of biomass energy is influenced by availability, accessibility, and affordability. Moreover, many households have been using inefficient stoves which lead to the consumption of large quantities of energy. A transition from firewood to charcoal in the rural area, and a thriving charcoal business in the urban have contributed to the clearance of forests and chopping off huge trees in the rural (the source area). These have led to the gradual disappearance of certain tree species. The study found no deliberate efforts at the individual or community level to restore environmental sustainability despite all the alarming indicators. Even though there are institutional frameworks, it was very hard to establish the duties and responsibilities of the institutions regarding the responses. The study concludes that there is a long way to go before biomass energy is abandoned, therefore individuals, communities and the government to take action to safeguard the environment for the benefit of the current and future generations.
Charcoal is used all over the world. Although its contribution to household income has made it popular in most rural areas, its production aggravates forest cover depletion and degradation. In Oyo State, Nigeria, Charcoal production has continued despite government efforts to reduce or eradicate charcoal production in the state. This study therefore attempted to assess the reasons for this and what should be done to ameliorate it. Those who engage in full-time and part-time charcoal production were investigated. Data were obtained from 350 respondents with the aid of a well-structured questionnaire using a multistage sampling technique, and 304 copies of the questionnaire were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a Logit regression model. The results revealed that the mean age of charcoal producers was 48.86 ±0.06 years and that they were predominantly (97.7%) males. A large proportion of the respondents (76%) had obtained either a West African School Certificate or a Senior Secondary Certificate, while the mean experience in charcoal production was 15.33 ±0.30 years and most (63.8%) of the individuals involved in the industry were migrants. The majority (71.7%) of them lived in mud houses and had little or no access to basic amenities such as good roads, electricity or pipe-borne water. The logit results indicate that age and owning a private plantation encourage continuous charcoal production (at the 5% significance level) on a full-time basis, thereby encouraging constant production. However, being an indigene of the state, having other income sources and educational attainment at tertiary level reduced the probability of being a full-time charcoal producer, hence reducing charcoal production. To stem continuing forest resource depletion through charcoal production, it is imperative that factors such as the provision of basic amenities, the promotion of alternative sources of income, and access to tertiary education coupled with the availability of short-term loans with a grace period for loan repayment as well as participation in tree planting by charcoal producers be prioritized by policy makers and other stakeholders in the industry.
Rural areas in developing countries often grapple with energy shortages, low energy efficiency, and significant environmental pollution, all of which are interconnected with the issues of rural poverty. Policies geared toward rural green development are closely linked to energy transformation and economic growth. China's “Beautiful Countryside Construction” initiative prioritizes the enhancement of rural living conditions, the promotion of rural economic progress, energy transformation, and environmental amelioration through rural–urban integration. This study utilizes panel data encompassing 1,787 Chinese counties spanning from 2008 to 2015, employing the difference-in-difference (DID) method to analyze the economic, social, and environmental impacts of the “Beautiful Countryside Construction” program. The findings indicate that this initiative has contributed to the enhancement of the rural environment, the promotion of environmentally friendly economic development, and the advancement of rural energy transformation. These outcomes hold significant implications for how developing nations can design policies that achieve a harmonious balance between economic advancement and environmental preservation, fostering sustainable economic growth worldwide.
Charcoal is a dominant energy source in urban areas of Uganda, and increases in retail prices in the past have led to social unrest. This paper assesses the relationship between charcoal and fuel prices to determine whether fuel prices influence the retail price of charcoal. We specify a transportation cost model for charcoal supply and derive the reduced-form equilibrium price function. We estimate an error-correction model for the equilibrium price with monthly data from July 2010 to January 2021 to determine whether there are long-term and/or short-term relationships between the retail and supply prices of charcoal and the prices of diesel and other fuel types. As the price data are integrated of orders zero and one, the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) bounds test is used. The results show that there is a long-term relationship (cointegration) between the retail price of charcoal and the supply price of charcoal and the price of kerosene, which is a substitute energy source for the end users. The prices of firewood and diesel are not statistically significant in the model. The long-term equation includes a positive trend, indicating that the retail price of charcoal is increasing more over time than implied by the supply price of charcoal and the price of kerosene. The increasing demand from a growing urban population and the reduced supply from deforestation are trends that will increase the equilibrium price of charcoal, as observed.
This article examines the evolution of residential energy usage over time. This objective was accomplished by conducting a systematic review of 75 studies spanning three decades. First, the theoretical foundation of household energy consumption models, household sources, energy measurement tools, and energy policies across three continents was examined. The results demonstrated that both top-down and bottom-up strategies have significant utility in estimating residential energy consumption, but the combination of the two approaches plays a crucial role. The article also revealed that the Niche-breath tool for analysing fuelwood consumption is a novel instrument whose use has yet to be fully explored. Additionally, various energy policies enacted across three continents: Europe, Asia, and Africa, were examined. The research revealed that household energy consumption policies in the UK, China, Thailand, and Ghana have, to some extent, been implemented, in contrast to Nigeria and Cameroon, which have yet to realize a significant aspect of their renewable energy potentials due to poor implementation of their respective strategies. Furthermore, Cameroon lacks a proper up-to-date renewable energy policy document as of the time of this study. It is evident that energy transformation and climate change are global issues, underscoring the critical importance of increasing research activities and policy efforts in developing nations. The study concludes by recommending that evolving and innovative studies on social treatments, energy management, and energy poverty, as well as those concerning climate and energy ingestion, may represent the frontier of research.
The transition to low-carbon systems in Nigeria raises questions about energy security based on the 4As. Energy security not having a universal definition but being defined based on location and situation becomes imperative to analyze as Nigeria plans to achieve her NDC goals of carbon emission and journey towards net zero. This research looks at publicly available literature to analyze the energy security of Nigeria based on availability, affordability, accessibility, and acceptability, presenting the Nigeria energy security of both PRE-NDC and POST-NDC, the literature on related energy securities of other developing countries, the methodology was centered around key indicators for each of the 4A's putting into consideration the NDC target and how it affects the 4A's to improve energy security. The results consider the deviation from business-as-usual to NDC targets by 2030 and net-zero by 2060, looking at subsidy policies, import dependency, energy mix diversity, CO2e, oil price, and energy access statistics as key indicators. The trade-offs that Nigeria would experience in the low-carbon system journey and recommendations on ending the subsidy regime to pave the way for clean energy technology were also recommended. This work is limited to publicly available data in this research study.
In the context of the current concern about indoor air pollution due to the use of biofuels, a comprehensive survey to capture ground realities becomes essential. This paper reports the results of a survey which looks at the fuel supply and consumption patterns, people's exposure to these fuels and its health impact.
Many analyses of the “woodfuel crisis” in developing economies take little account of the significant difference between physical and economic woodfuel scarcities. Even when woodfuels have become physically scarce, households have a great deal of latitude in changing their consumption patterns in response. This paper questions whether the usually understood impacts of the woodfuel crisis are clearly the outcome of physical scarcities, or instead are an outcome of much more fundamental features of the socioeconomy involving labor use, land tenure and usufruct, the transition from subsistence to market economies, and cultural practices. It suggests that the singular focus on woodfuel production in many forestry project interventions has obscured more fundamental issues related to household resource allocation and factor endowments.
"Who profits from commercial forestry, and how? Through access mapping with commodity chain analysis this article examines the distribution of benefits from Senegal's charcoal trade and the multiple market mechanisms underpinning that distribution. Benefits from charcoal are derived from direct control over forest access, as well as through access to markets, labour opportunities, capital, and state agents and officials. Access to these arenas is based on a number of inter-related mechanisms including legal property, social identity, social relations, coercion and information control. "A commodity chain is the series of relations through which an item passes, from extraction through conversion, exchange, transport, distribution and final use. Access mapping involves: 1) evaluating the distribution of profits among and within the groups (villagers, producers, merchants...) along the chain; and 2) tracing out, or mapping, from that distribution the mechanisms by which access to benefits is maintained and controlled. Access mapping sheds light on the limited role of property, the embedded nature of markets, and the role of extra-legal structures and mechanisms in shaping equity and efficiency in resource use. It does so in a socially situated, multi-local manner, spanning the geographic spread of production and exchange. It also illuminates the practical issues surrounding establishment of community participation in benefits from and control over natural resources."
equilibrium public good level as function of various distributional properties and moments. A resource-valuation distribution that first-order stochastically dominates another distribution always results in higher expected public good provision level, independent of the production technology. With decreasing returns to scale in the public good production, higher resource inequality results in higher expected provision. With increasing returns the same result holds when the mean resource level is relatively low, but expected provision decreases in inequality when the mean resource level is high. A parallel result holds for agents' valuations.
This paper examines the role forests play in alleviating poverty in rural Malawi. Data from three villages in southern Malawi indicate high levels of forest dependence. Gini decomposition shows that access to forest income reduced measured income inequality at the study sites. Tobit analysis of the determinants of reliance on low-return and high-return forest activities indicates that asset-poor households are more reliant on forest activities compared with the better off; reliance on high-return activities is conditioned also by availability of adult male labor and location. Taken together, the study s findings suggest that forests prevent poverty by supplementing income, and may also help to improve the living standards of households that are able to enter into high-return forest occupations. Policy implications are discussed.
This title was first published in 2000: Woodfuels in developing countries, particularly Africa, remain a basic need for urban households, who depend heavily on them for their energy needs. This work examines the confusion about the environmental and social impacts of woodfuel use, and the structure of informal sector woodfuel markets. Using data from a year of survey field work in Tanzania, the author questions assumptions of poorly functioning woodfuel markets and their impact on environment and society. Approaching the unregulated woodfuel markets as industrial organizations, the author uses a classic structure previously applied to developed markets in industrialized countries, to determine the competitiveness and efficiency of woodfuel markets. Results indicate well-functioning makets under most circumstances and the study details the variables which enhance market sustainability. The social and environmental implications of woodfuel use as it exists, and suggestions to policymakers for improvements to enhance the sustainability of the system and the environment, complete the study. The study should be useful for those interested in energy and environmental issues or informal markets (including agricultural markets) in developing countries, and to those interested in industrial organization as applied to the Third World.
In many developing countries rural women are shouldering the major burden of environmental degradation and economic distress, including energy shortages. Fuel for cooking and heating, wild foods, fodder and biomass raw materials for small industries are becoming increasingly scarce, with serious repercussions on family nutrition, health and income. Neither energy policies nor rural development policies have so far come to grips with the links between rural women's work, energy and the environment. Yet energy could potentially be an effective starting-point for addressing women's priority food and income needs. If rural development and energy policy goals are combined in a participatory approach to working with rural women, both objectives can be better met.-Author
Forest conversion by agricultural households is the leading cause of deforestation. We know little about agricultural household use of forest and tree products. This article measures household production of and demand for fuelwood and fuel substitutes in two districts in Nepal. Women play a larger role in collection in the district dependant on production from common forestlands. Men and agricultural capital are more important inputs in the district dependant on production from private lands. The article also measures demand elasticities for fuelwood, combustible agricultural residues, and improved stoves (a technological substitute), each by household income group. -from Authors
In attempting to understand crop-livestock relations, three basic ideas are proposed. First, contrasting crop-livestock interactions have been produced mainly by environmental differences, not by the availability of information or exogenous technologies. Second, crop and livestock production do, in fact, interact closely throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa. In many areas closer integration has occurred as a process of factor and input substitution, induced largely by population growth. Third, whatever the type and degree of current interactions, many of the benefits of closer integration are small. Those benefits are inherently limited by the low output response to such inputs as manure, crop residue, and animal power. Closer crop-livestock interactions therefore are unlikely to have a major impact on productivity unless they are associated with exogenous technical changes. Key questions about crop-livestock interactions are posed. Chapter two sketches the agricultural climates of the subcontinent. Chapter three sets out an evolutionary theory of crop-livestock interactions as a framework for analyzing resource competition and complementarity. In chapters four through seven, four principal themes are analyzed in light of the main theory: animal traction, soil fertility maintenance, crop residue management, and animal production on the farm. Chapter eight concludes with recommendations on policies, projects, and research programs. -from Authors
Forest conversion by agricultural households is the leading cause of deforestation. Yet we know little about agricultural household use of forest and tree products. This article measures household production of and demand for fuelwood and fuel substitutes in two districts in Nepal. Women play a larger role in collection in the district dependant on production from common forestlands. Men and agricultural capital are more important inputs in the district dependant on production from private lands. The article also measures demand elasticities for fuelwood, combustible agricultural residues, and improved stoves (a technological substitute), each by household income group. All price and income demand elasticities are less than one. The substitution elasticities between residues and fuelwood are less than one. Residues are more important substitutes for low income households and improved stoves are more important substitutes for high income households.
The landscapes of rural communities are commonly divided into areas in which distinctive resource uses are practiced and for which there exist particular types of property rights. Such tenure niches for different resources may overlap where those resources themselves occupy the same space (e.g., land and trees). Further, competing legal and utilization systems (e.g., national and local) may place the same resource in different incompatible tenure niches. Conflict may involve overlapping tenure niches. Co-management by conflicting right-holders may offer a solution.
Over 90 percent of energy consumption in Ethiopia comes from biomass fuels and this pattern is a major cause of land degradation and deforestation in the country. This paper examines biomass fuel collection and consumption behaviour of rural households. We used a non-separable agricultural household model to take into account imperfections in, or absence of, markets for fuel and labour used in collection. The method of instrumental variables (2SLS) is used in the estimation of demand functions to take care of endogeneity of virtual (shadow) fuel prices and virtual wages. Negative own-price elasticities indicate advantages of forest policies that can reduce fuel collection time and make more time available for other activities. The results also suggest that fuel choice and mix are influenced by scarcity which indicate a possibility of policy interventions directed at reducing the relative price of wood and encouraging increased dung use as fertilizer and hence reduced land degradation. While income elasticities of demand give indications of increasing viability of such interventions with growth, the absence of evidence of substitutability and the effects of household resource endowment indicate the importance of cooking habits and culture.
The paper reviews the use by households of biomass and other fuels in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, based on several large surveys. Consumption and biomass shares are related to income, household size, settlement size and fuel prices. Major substitutions over time between biomass and other fuels are examined, as the implications of further switching out of biomass fuels.
Promoting sustainable development requires evaluating the technical and policy options that will facilitate the adoption and use of energy efficient and less polluting cooking stoves and practices. The transition from traditional to modern fuels and devices has been explained by the “energy ladder” model that suggests that with increasing affluence, a progression is expected from traditional biomass fuels to more advanced and less polluting fuels. In this paper we evaluate the energy ladder model utilizing data from a four-year (1992–96) case study of a village in Mexico and from a large-scale survey from four states of Mexico. We show that an alternate “multiple fuel” model of stove and fuel management based on the observed pattern of household accumulation of energy options, rather than the simple progression depicted in the traditional energy ladder scenario, more accurately depicts cooking fuel use patterns in rural households. The “multiple fuel” model integrates four factors demonstrated to be essential in household decision making under conditions of resource scarcity or uncertainty: (a) economics of fuel and stove type and access conditions to fuels, (b) technical characteristics of cookstoves and cooking practices; (c) cultural preferences; and (d) health impacts. This model also allows better estimates of the expected fuelwood demand and indoor air pollution in rural households.
"For over a hundred years in India forests were under government control with very little peoples' participation. It was only in the late 1980s when the policy makers realised that the strategy of bringing uncultivated lands under government management and using them to produce industrial raw material had neither checked deforestation nor improved the economic condition of millions of people whose livelihoods were dependent on these forests. This led to a fundamental change in the Indian Forest Policy in 1988. Now forests are not to be commercially exploited, but have to conserve soil and environment, and meet the subsistence requirements of the local people. The implementation of the Policy was facilitated by the Government of India issuing a resolution in 1990 making it possible for the Forest Departments to involve people in the management of forests. Almost all major states have passed enabling resolutions to implement what is now popularly called the Joint Forest Management(JFM) programme. This is likely to be the focus of future forest development projects funded by governments and donor agencies. However, the implementation of participatory programmes has so far been uneven and halting. It is also not very well known under what conditions JFM does well, and whether these conditions are internal to the group or more influenced by governmental policies. Although experience from a diverse range of ecological and social contexts from many states is now available, where Forest Departments and communities are effectively working together to restore the productivity of forest lands, there has been a dearth of literature which attempts to synthesise such experiments, and link theories of collective action with empirical evidence. There is as yet no identification of the key factors that must be evaluated in order to explain, predict or improve the outcome of Joint Forest Management in different socio-economic conditions."
"The impact of woodfuel collection on forests has been controversial and its role in rural livelihoods and deforestation is the subject of considerable debate. This study reviews the main dimensions of this discourse and the resulting responses form the forestry sector. It assesses new information that has come to light over the past decade, looking at national and global trends on woodfuel production and use and the evolution of patterns of urban and rural demand and supply. It examines livelihood and environmental dimensions of relevance to forestry and outlines some of the main issues that warrant additional attention. It is thus intended more as a foundation for further discussion, rather than being a set of prescriptions for action by forestry, though where these are evident they are identified. "The available evidence does not substantiate earlier concerns that woodfuel demand has been outpacing sustainable supply on a scale that makes it a major cause of deforestation. It appears the balance between the two seldom an issue requiring forestry intervention on a national scale. However, the rapid rise in charcoal production and its concentration, to supply large urban markets, certainly warrants further investigation. Overall, the woodfuels situation is an important consideration for particular areas within a country and for particular groups of users and suppliers. Globally, fuelwood consumption appears to have peaked (although charcoal consumption is continuing to rise) and in some developing countries, it now appears to be in decline. However, the total quantities of woodfuels being used, and the number of people using them, are still huge. In poor households almost everywhere, woodfuels are among the main forest related inputs, although the level of attention they receive does not currently reflect this, despite the growing focus on giving forestry a stronger livelihood orientation. Forestry initiatives need to be compatible with the energy sector’s objective of helping poor users move up the energy ladder to greater fuel efficiency and alternative fuels. The main task though, is likely to be facilitating access to supplies for those who continue to depend on biomass fuels, for their own use or as an important source of income. Forestry measures will need to integrate meeting this demand into wider forestry objectives, rather than, as in the past, developing responses focusing on the fuelwood issue alone."
This study seeks to expand on the small body of research that analyzes the impact of deteriorated environmental conditions on households, particularly on the intrahousehold allocation of resources. Using data from the Nepal Energy and Nutrition Survey (NENS 1982-83), it examines the consumption of environmental products and the allocation of time across tasks and household members by rural Nepali agricultural households. This article focuses on the allocation of time to environmental good collection with the intention of rigorously determining whether, for this sample, collection time is higher when environmental products are more scarce. If this is the case, then projects that allow households to save time by increasing the availablity of environmental products (eg, forestry projects) or by allowing more efficient use of then (eg, improved stove programs) may be quite beneficial. An additional goal of this article is to determine whether thre are gender differences with regard to time reallocation, as is frequently thought. Is time in fact reallocated in a way that primarily increases the burden on women?.
The woodlands in some parts of the Sahel are effectively an open-access resource. Under open access, fuelwood cutters have no incentive to allow for benefits that might accrue if the wooded area were managed rather than mined. Those benefits include sustainable streams of fuelwood, fruits, and other tree products, browse for cattle, and ecological services such as nitrogen fixation and erosion prevention. To remedy this problem, some Sahelian areas have moved to give communities effective control of local woodland resources. To make it easier to analyze the economic cost of such supply-side interventions, the authors present an economic framework and computational method for assessing policy impacts on the cost of woodfuel supplies, and the spatial distribution of biomass, in a particular Sahelian woodland setting. They use spatial data on standing stock and on the costs of transport to market to model a supply curve of fuel to a fuel-consuming location. given an exogenously specified demand, the model simulates, period by period, the extraction, regeneration, and transport of wood fuels. It also permits easy calculation of the dynamic cost of woodfuel depletion. They apply the model to evaluate the benefits and ecological impacts of various scenarios for woodland management around the city of N'Djamena in Chad.
A dynamic model of deforestation around Dar es Salaam is constructed, linking marginal production cost and demand for charcoal. The exploited area forms a wedge, which expands inland as net price of charcoal increases. Wood is primarily harvested at the edge of the wedge. Simulations show that under reasonable assumptions charcoal price increases from 1800 to 1958 Tsh/bag in 10 years, supply area from 3416 to 6886 km2, and harvest from 2.05 to 2.66 mill m3/year. Increment of woody biomass within the wedge will supply little charcoal for many years because woodland density does not affect production costs. Therefore, reduced demand for charcoal and shift to other forms of energy are the factors controlling deforestation.
India has been running large-scale interventions in the energy sector over the last decades. Still, there is a dearth of reliable and readily available price and income elasticities of demand to base these on, especially for domestic use of traditional fuels. This study uses the linear approximate Almost Ideal Demand System (LA-AIDS) using micro data of more than 100,000 households sampled across India. The LA-AIDS model is expanded by specifying the intercept as a linear function of household characteristics. Marshallian and Hicksian price and expenditure elasticities of demand for four main fuels are estimated for both urban and rural areas by different income groups. These can be used to evaluate recent and current energy policies. The results can also be used for energy projections and carbon dioxide simulations given different growth rates for different segments of the Indian population.
Community forest plantations are a common intervention in developing countries. We use household and remote sensing data from Orissa, India, to estimate welfare effects of community forest plantations, in terms of the value of decreased collection times plantations afford users. A selection model, accounting for possible jointness in site location and productivity, is used to estimate collection production functions for different household labor categories in natural and community forests. Two measures of an opportunity cost of time are used to determine welfare effects of time saved due to community forests. We find access to community forests is important to marginal productivity of different labor categories, but to different degrees, highlighting the need to disaggregate household data when analyzing these interventions. We also find substantial welfare improvements from time savings for many households and villages. Copyright 2005 American Agricultural Economics Association.
As environmental goods such as fuelwood and fodder become more scarce, rural households in developing countries spend more time in their collection. It has been suggested that as a result households may reallocate labor away from own-farm agricultural production. This paper examines whether this is the case for a sample of agricultural households from rural Nepal. Cross-sectional estimates of agricultural labor demand equations give some indication that reallocation away from farm work may occur as environmental products become more scarce. However, these results disappear in random-effects estimation suggesting that time is instead reallocated from other activities or leisure. What little evidence there is for a labor reallocation from agriculture suggests that policies to relieve environmental good collection labor burdens should focus on leaf fodder and grass used as livestock feed rather than on fuelwood.
An economic analysis of woodfuel management in the Sahel: The case of Chad Policy Research Working Paper 1788 Common property resources and common property regimes in India: A country report. Institute of Economic Growth
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Wood fuel in Kano, Nigeria: The urban–rural conflict. Social Forestry Network Paper 7b, Overseas Development Institute Intrahousehold labor allocation responses to environmental good scarcity: A case study from the hills of Nepal
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