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Causes and consequences of declining early departures from foreign assignments
Abstract
A survey of directors of human resources and international operations at 74 US companies with substantial foreign activities confirms recent research showing the decline in premature departures from foreign assignments, and attributes it to changes in environmental factors and corporate policies and practices. However, these same factors, policies, and practices may presage new or exacerbated international human resource challenges, such as greater cost and difficulty in developing upwardly mobile managers' knowledge of international operations. Such challenges may require new company practices.
... However, due to the difference in the general work and living environment between home country and host country, expatriate failure rate in terms of premature return is high (Bashir 2012). In addition, it is common that the expatriates suffer from underperformance during their assignment in another country or district (Insch and Daniels 2002). The problems in expatriate assignment, including expatriates' underperformance and early return, caused significant loss to individuals and organizations (Bolino 2007;Lorange 2003). ...
... In addition, stress results in a wide range of dysfunctional consequences, such as distress symptoms, alcohol abuse, and drug abuse, which can lead to reduced intention to stay in MC (Brown 2008;Koteswari and Bhattacharya 2007). It has also been extensively reported that expatriate employees normally underperform during assignments (e.g., Insch and Daniels 2002), which has been regarded as one of the causes of premature return (e.g., Forster 1997). Hence, based on the extensive literature review, it is reasonable to infer that ExCPs' intention to stay in MC may be affected by various stressors, stress, and their performance. ...
Given the globalization of the construction industry, there are increasing numbers of expatriate construction professionals (ExCPs). The work practices and living environment are different between home and host countries, which often induce stress in ExCPs, cause underperformance, and reduce intention to stay for expatriates. This study aims to investigate the interactions among stressors, stress, performance, and intention to stay for ExCPs through the development of a stressors-stress-performance-outcome model. A questionnaire survey with purposive sampling was conducted. The research results show (1) work-home conflict, organizational centralization, and heavy workload affect ExCPs' overall performance and intention to stay indirectly through the vicious cycle between emotional and physical stress; (2) poor transportation exacerbates ExCPs' physical stress, while language fluency relieves it; (3) physical stress impairs overall performance, further reducing intention to stay; and (4) poor transportation directly reduces ExCPs' intention to stay. Recommendations, including flexible work schedules and stress management programs, are made. The study results enhance the current understanding of the complicated stress and expatriate management for ExCPs in a cross-cultural context.
... Previous research has found that between 16 and 40% of all expatriate managers (mostly American) return prematurely from their overseas assignments due to their poor performance or failure in cross-cultural adjustment (Baker & Ivancevich, 1971; Dunbar & Ehrlich, 1986; Tung, 1981). While there is an increasing acceptance that failure rates might not be as high as originally claimed (Daniels & Insch, 1998; Foster, 1997; Harzing, 1995 Harzing, , 2002 Harzing & Christensen, 2004; Insch & Daniels, 2002) it is still accepted to be an important issue. This is even more so, if the concept of expatriate failure is also to include expatriates who stay on their international assignment but perform below expectations (e.g., Black & Gregersen, 1999; Fukuda & Chu, 1994; Harvey & Wiese, 1998). ...
... As the cost associated with under-performance is likely to be even higher (Harzing & Christensen, 2004), it is crucial to identify the ways to reduce and eliminate such failures. Cross-cultural adjustments of expatriates and their families were found to be the most significant factors in this regard (Black, Mendenhall, & Oddou, 1991; Insch & Daniels, 2002; Shaffer, Harrison, & Gilley, 1999). Academic researchers as well as corporate management of multinational enterprises (MNEs) are searching for ways to address this issue from various perspectives, such as how to facilitate the cross-cultural adjustment. ...
This paper presents the findings of an empirical study that investigated the relationship between cross-cultural training (CCT) effectiveness, self-efficacy, and adjustment of expatriate managers in Asia. Responses of 169 managers from four different national backgrounds, all currently on overseas assignments in Asia, indicate that the relationship between CCT effectiveness and adjustment is mediated by an increase in self-efficacy. Implications of the findings for professional practice and for future research are discussed.
... The need for mentoring in international assignments Global managers are necessary for organizational success (Gupta and Govindarajan, 2001) and individual career advancement (Insch and Daniels, 2002). However, anticipated career benefits for an international assignment may not materialize. ...
... Long term international assignments may be detrimental to a manager's career because of the time and energy required to readjust to the domestic operations and to re-establish work relationships. If not properly managed by the organization, expatriate assignments may actually demotivate and lower the commitment of the employee, resulting in little return on investment (Insch and Daniels, 2002;Peltonen, 1997). found that 50 percent of repatriates left their employer within two years of repatriation, with much of this turnover due to poor organizational career management practices. ...
Purpose
– This article aims to examine the process of mentoring and career development within the global arena. Although much has been written on the adjustment of expatriates, relatively little research has examined the exchange of information and knowledge among workers in different countries via the mentoring process.
Design/methodology/approach
– A model is offered of how an expatriate progresses through learning cycles aided by multiple mentors. Multiple mentoring contributes to the individual's career development and facilitates the development of organizational tacit and embedded knowledge.
Findings
– Using Hall and Chandler's conceptualization of multiple learning cycles over the life span, it is proposed that the expatriate cycles through a learning cycle over the course of an extended assignment. These learning cycles are shorter than the traditional career stages, often lasting two to four years – similar to the length of an expatriate assignment. It is suggested that the stages of an expatriate assignment – predeparture, on‐site and repatriation – represent a learning cycle. A successful expatriate experience is more likely to occur if multiple mentors in various locations are available – as needed – to offer information and career support to the expatriate.
Originality/value
– With increasing globalization and rapid technological advances, mentoring relationships that cross national and other types of boundaries have increased, yet theory has not kept pace. A framework is provided for the further examination of expatriate careers and how mentoring can increase career outcomes and knowledge transfer.
... Quoting high expatriate turnover rates has almost been a standard component of introductions to papers on expatriate management. Thanks to several papers discarding this assumption (Forster, 1997;Harzing, 1995;Insch & Daniels, 2002) 'there is growing acceptance that failure rates might never have been as high as originally claimed' (Harzing & Christensen, 2004, p. 616). Interestingly enough, 61% of the companies interviewed as part of the 2014 Cartus global mobility policies and practices survey do not track expatriate turnover at all. ...
... Since engaging expatriates is obviously more expensive than hiring locally available human resources (Daniels & Insch 2002), very compelling reasons are required to justify the practice. It is imperative to ask: why do global businesses hire expatriates? ...
I aim in this paper to demonstrate the moral problem of expatriate employment in developing countries. To determine how best to construe the moral problem in this context, I first examine four arguments, namely, that in developing countries, expatriate employment is morally wrong because it 1) entrenches the injustice of wage discrimination; 2) produces undesirable outcomes; 3) disregards contextual aspirations and historical memory and 4) is a tool of external domination and control. I analyse these arguments to show that they are insufficient frameworks for understanding the moral impropriety of expatriate employment in developing countries. To this end, I provide an outline of a plausible framework and argue that the moral problem of expatriate employment in this context is unequal or arbitrary distribution of power among employees. The moral wrong in this, I argue, consists in the failure to respect the universal moral equality of people.
... Some studies have estimated that the cost associated with the failure of expatriation would be about one million USD (Insch and Daniels, 2002;Wentland, 2003). Overall, considering the aggregate data about the American situation, Punnett (1997) has calculated that US companies spend a total of up to two billion USD annually to address the failures of their expatriate managers. ...
Companies’ internationalization appears to be fundamental in the current globalized and competitive environment and seems important not only for organizational success, but also for societal development and sustainability. On one hand, global business increases the demand for managers for international assignment. On the other hand, emergent fears, such as terrorism, seem to be developing around the world, enhancing the risk of expatriates’ potential health problems. The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationships between the emergent concept of fear of expatriation with further workplace fears (economic crisis and dangerous working conditions) and with mental health problems. The study uses a quantitative design. Self-reported data were collected from 265 Italian expatriate workers assigned to both Italian and worldwide projects. Structural equation model analyses showed that fear of expatriation mediates the relationship of mental health with fear of economic crisis and with perceived dangerous working conditions. As expected, in addition to fear, worries of expatriation are also related to further fears. Although, the study is based on self-reports and the cross-sectional study design limits the possibility of making causal inferences, the new constructs introduced add to previous research.
... Finally, it would be worthwhile to find out more about actual expatriate failure rates in HRCs and the reasons behind them. Empirical research on expatriate failure is scarce and the results are controversial (Harzing & Christensen, 2004;Insch & Daniels, 2002). Future research could address this important issue, comparing failure rates in high-risk versus lower-risk host countries. ...
This study analyzes the antecedents of expatriate work attitudes in terrorism-endangered countries. Applying a social exchange perspective, the study empirically analyzes which measures are qualified to achieve and maintain positive work attitudes among expatriates. Hierarchical regression analysis is applied to investigate this relationship, using data from 143 expatriates in high-risk countries. Data show that social support from co-workers as well as from the organization itself is essential. Moreover, the study investigates the expatriate's sensitivity to terrorism as a moderator and finds that companies should incorporate the sensitivity in their considerations for corporate measures.
... The use of expatriate employees by organizations in their foreign subsidiaries represents a substantial investment with costs of expatriate failure reaching exorbitant levels (Baruch, 2004). Specifically, recent estimates suggest that each expatriate failure, a premature departure, can cost an organization in excess of $1 million (Insch and Daniels, 2002; Wentland, 2003). Taken in aggregate, expatriate failure costs US firms approximately $2 billion per year (Punnett, 1997). ...
Purpose
This study aims to examine important situational factors impacting expatriate compensation and common practices utilized in compensating expatriates.
Design/methodology/approach
A synthesis of literature was reviewed, leading to the identification of numerous situational or contextual factors impacting expatriate compensation. A review of extant literature also identified several customary approaches to expatriate compensation.
Findings
A variety of factors can directly affect expatriate compensation, with three primary approaches an organization should consider. These factors include host‐country cost of living, housing, dependent education, tax implications and health care – factors most often incorporated as a component of one of the primary approaches to compensation discussions: destination‐based approach, the balance‐sheet approach, and the international headquarters approach.
Practical implications
This article was intended to enhance understanding of expatriate compensation by collectively examining not only the “how” (primary approaches) but also the “why” (salient contextual or situation factors) firms should consider when determining how to assemble an appropriate package.
Originality/value
Presenting the factors and practices together makes an important contribution to the literature on expatriate compensation by addressing not only the “how” (customary approaches) of expatriate compensation, but also the “why” (salient contextual factors).
... Even articles dealing with other areas of expatriate management often routinely refer to (high levels of) expatriate failure to frame their arguments. More recently, several articles have attempted to discard the " myth of high expatriate failure rates " (Daniels & Insch, 1998; Forster, 1997; Harzing, 1995 Harzing, /2002 Insch & Daniels, 2002). Even though some contemporary authors still continue to support this myth (see e.g. ...
This article reviews the established understanding of the concept of expatriate failure, discusses its associated problems and presents a more sophisticated and comprehensive understanding of the concept. The article argues that it might well be time to abandon the concept of expatriate failure altogether and instead draw on the general human resource literature to analyse problems related to turnover and performance management in an expatriate context..
... Previous research has found that between 16% and 40% of all expatriate managers (mostly American) return prematurely from their overseas assignments because of their poor performance or failure in cross-cultural adjustment (Baker & Ivancevich, 1971;Dunbar & Ehrlich, 1986;Tung, 1981). Although there is an increasing acceptance that failure rates might not be as high as originally claimed (Daniels & Insch, 1998;Foster, 1997;Harzing, 1995Harzing, , 2002Harzing & Christensen, 2004;Insch & Daniels, 2002), it is still considered an important issue. This is even more so, if the concept of expatriate failure includes expatriates who stay on their international assignment but perform below expectations (Black & Gregersen, 1999;Fukuda & Chu, 1994;Harvey & Wiese, 1998). ...
In this conceptual article, the literature on expatriate social network and its relationships to adjustment and performance in overseas assignments have been reviewed exhaustively. By identifying some gaps and inconsistencies found in the literature, a typology of research on expatriate network explanations has been proposed based on whether the aim is to explain performance variation or adaptation to local practices and norms, and also whether their explanatory mechanism is based on the structure or resources of the network. Specific propositions for each of the four resulting approaches have been developed. It has also been recommended that future researchers should study antecedents of social network structure because of their relevance to HRD interventions. The implications for HRD research and practice have been discussed at the end.
... Seventy-five percent of them complained about the ''out of sight, out of mind'' syndrome (Hauser, 1999;Suutari & Brewster, 2003), as well as other negative outcomes such as reverse culture shock, lack of expected promotions and rewards, and less satisfying and challenging positions upon repatriation (Adler, 1981(Adler, , 1991Fink et al., 2005;Sanchez, 2000). Although individuals have been encouraged to gain international experience in order to rise to top management positions (Insch & Daniels, 2002;Lorange, 2003), the expected benefits of expatriate assignments are often not realized (e.g., Cafaro, 2001). Over 50% of the 900 expatriates studied by Egan, Bendick, and Miller (2002) reported that their international assignment had no impact on their careers, while 9.3% reported a negative impact and only 34.8% reported a positive impact. ...
There has long been an interest in the effects of mentors on protégé career outcomes, and with scholars now beginning to examine mentoring across national boundaries. Using survey information as well as company records for 299 expatriates (163 men, 136 women) in 10 countries, we examined the impact of home- and host-country mentors upon expatriate effectiveness. We found that having a host-country mentor had a significant positive effect on the expatriate's organizational knowledge, organizational knowledge-sharing, job performance, promotability, and perceptions of teamwork. Having a home-country mentor had a significant positive effect only on organizational knowledge, job performance, and promotability. Surprisingly, our results revealed that having a home-country mentor had a significant but negative effect on the expatriate's organization identification and job satisfaction. Contrary to the literature, neither type of mentoring had a significant effect on job tension. Implications for practice as well as future research are detailed. Journal of International Business Studies (2008) 39, 1310–1326. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400407
Purpose
This study aims to investigate the influence mechanism of expatriates' cultural intelligence (CQ) on expatriate effectiveness (task performance and premature return intention), identifying work engagement as a mediator and cultural distance as a boundary condition.
Design/methodology/approach
Drawing on the conservation of resource theory and the person–environment fit (P–E fit) theory, a moderated mediation model is built. Working with a sample of 303 international construction expatriates collected by snowball sampling, the hypotheses are tested by using the structural equation model analysis.
Findings
Work engagement partially mediates the relationship between expatriates' CQ and task performance, as well as fully mediates the relationship between expatriates' CQ and premature return intention. Cultural distance moderates the positive relationship between CQ and work engagement, as well as moderates the mediating effects of work engagement.
Research limitations/implications
The impacts of potential moderators (e.g. work–family conflict and organizational culture) on the relationship between CQ and expatriate effectiveness have not been considered in this study.
Practical implications
This study is useful for international construction firms to optimize the allocation of human resources.
Originality/value
This study contributes to the expatriate literature by adding empirical evidence to explain the influence mechanism of expatriates' CQ on expatriate effectiveness.
Globalization, Work Performance, and HRD International and Cross-Cultural HRD Issues Contemporary Issues Relevant to Cross-Cultural HRD Implications for Professional Practice
Purpose
This research aimed to identify cross‐cultural adjustment interventions to assist the personal wellbeing (psycho‐cultural) and cultural interaction (socio‐cultural) of managers on foreign assignments. Both pre‐departure and in‐country interventions were sought.
Design/methodology/approach
A questionnaire was employed and comprised two adjustment measures. Data were collected from 244 Australians in south‐east Asia working in two industry groups – manufacturing/industrial and financial/services. Exploratory factor analysis was employed to identify adjustment constructs. Pearson correlations, as well as ANOVAs and t ‐tests, were employed to explore the effect of industry group, respondent group, number of cross‐border assignments, age and gender.
Findings
Eight adjustment interventions were identified and were labelled: quality of life awareness; host business and cultural awareness; family impact awareness; staff and business colleague awareness; home country networks; cultural reinforcement and support; cultural inclusion; and host language skills.
Research limitations/implications
The research was limited to a specific business region, to one cross‐border manager cultural grouping and an exploratory technique was employed. Hence further work is needed to confirm the constructs and to assess the generalisability of the results to other business regions and to other cross‐border manager groups.
Originality/value
Whilst some important differences existed, the implications and value of the research may be evident in assisting psycho‐cultural problems such as anxiety and stress, and to encourage socio‐cultural interaction such as involvement in and with cultural environments and decreasing the potential for failed assignments.
In this paper, data are presented from an exploratory analysis of the New Zealand expatriate managers' perception of their organisational support during expatriation. The qualitative and anecdotal data were sought via a structured interview questionnaire to study the key demographic details and information about the organisation's selection, training and support systems with regard to the expatriate's foreign assignment experience. The study show that the organisations valued experience with the company, overall education, managerial talent and independence to be the most important factors in their selection for the expatriate assignment. The study highlights that the expatriates had very little intensive predeparture training, although most had some sort of environmental briefing and about half undertook pre-assignment field visits. The support systems were usually provided by a home or host country mentor and considered important and effective.
This paper relates the different motives for transferring employees internationally to the conduct of each major international strategy (multidomestic, global, and transnational), proposes seven hypotheses on these relationships, presents and discusses the results of a survey of heads of human resources or international operations in United States based companies, and concludes with theoretical and practitioner implications of the study and suggestions for future research. We found significant support for three hypotheses and directional support for two others.
Purpose
With increasing interest in overseas business expansion, particularly in the Asia‐Pacific region, expatriate management, including repatriation readjustmenst, has become a critical international human resource development (HRD) issue for multinational enterprises (MNEs). This empirical study therefore aims to investigate the use of HRD interventions relating to training and development for effective readjustment of international managers on repatriation.
Design/methodology/approach
The data were collected through a field survey conducted on repatriation experience of international managers from more than five countries, who are working in Singapore.
Findings
The study provides valuable insights about repatriation training programmes, training contents, programme duration, delivery modes, and providers of effective training programmes.
Research limitations/implications
HRD professionals and senior executives of MNEs will benefit from the findings of this study in making decisions on effective design and implementation of training and career development programmes.
Practical implications
The findings have significant implications for career development of managers involved in international business operations.
Originality/value
This paper discusses readjustment problems of the repatriating managers and suggests how realistic HRD programmes, mainly based on training, can be developed and implemented for retaining international managers. These findings from the dynamic region of Asia will also help in developing appropriate career development programmes.
Using data from expatriates at MNC subsidiaries in China, this paper investigates the relationships between parent company and local subsidiary perceived organizational support (POS), leader–member exchange (LMX) and affective commitment of expatriates. The study examines the moderating effect of LMX in the relationships between both parent company and local subsidiary POS and affective commitment. Results support the relationships between both parent company and local subsidiary POS, LMX and the expatriate affective commitment, and the moderating effect of LMX in the relationships between parent company POS and affective commitment.
Executive Overview
The economic landscape of the world is changing rapidly and becoming increasingly global. For virtually every medium-sized to large company in developed as well as developing economies, market opportunities, critical resources, cutting-edge ideas, and competitors lurk not just around the corner in the home market but increasingly in distant and often little-understood regions of the world as well. How successful a company is at exploiting emerging opportunities and tackling their accompanying challenges depends crucially on how intelligent it is at observing and interpreting the dynamic world in which it operates. Creating a global mindset is one of the central ingredients required for building such intelligence. In this article, we address the following issues: why mindset matters, what a global mindset is, the value of a global mindset, and finally, what companies can do to cultivate a global mindset.
This paper provides a critical analysis of research and notably quotations in the field of expatriate failure rates. Over the last three decades it has become almost ‘traditional’ to open an article on expatriate management by stating that expatriate failure rates are (very) high. Virtually every publication on the topic defines and measures expatriate failure as the percentage of expatriates returning home before their assignment contract expires. Of course, premature re-entry might be a very inadequate way to measure expatriate failure. One can easily argue that those expatriates who stay on their assignment but who fail to perform adequately are (potentially) more damaging to the company than the ones who return prematurely. Furthermore, successful completion of a foreign assignment does not mean that the possibility of expatriate failure has been avoided. Sometimes, returning home poses even larger problems than the foreign assignment itself. The repatriate must face re-establishing himself within the home organization and readjusting to the home culture. Failure to do so, for whatever reason, can also be regarded as expatriate failure. These reservations being made, in this paper it is argued that there is almost no empirical foundation for the existence of high failure rates when measured as premature re-entry. The persistent myth of high expatriate failure rates seems to have been created by massive (mis)quotations of three articles. Only one of these articles contained solid empirical evidence on expatriate failure rates and in fact showed them to be rather low.
We develop resource- and dynamic capability-based arguments that CEOs with international assignment experience create value for their firms and themselves through their control of a valuable, rare, and inimitable resource. Supporting this view, U.S. multinationals performed better with CEOs with international assignment experience at their helms, especially when such human capital was bundled with other organizational resources and capabilities. Moreover, in highly global firms, CEOs with international assignment experience appropriated a greater proportion of performance in their pay.
Expatriates are essential to meeting the need for operations in the expanding global marketplace. Employers are trying to use expatriates in ways that are not only in the best interests of the com-pany, but also consider the employees' personal and career interests. Expatriate management is increasingly a balancing act. The balance of con-trolling costs against designing an attractive package is a constant issue. The balance between a rigid policy and a flexible approach is a further challenge. Clear policy guidelines help avoid dif-fering treatment of individuals, while reassuring employees that the package is fair and reason-able. However, companies need to respond quickly and flexibly to an ever-changing set of business needs. This dilemma requires creativity and flexibility within an expatriate policy. The success in finding the right balance on these issues will go a long way toward enticing employ-ees to go abroad in years to come.
While there is now a mature literature on many aspects of the management of employees on international assignments (IAs), there is still considerable controversy about the numbers of expatriates who actually fail in these. Traditionally, this has been defined as the number of staff who return home before the agreed end of an IA, because of poor work performance and/or personal problems. Employing this definition, the research described in this paper supports the view that expatriate failure rates (EFRs), among UK employees are, indeed, very low (on average, around 8 per cent). However, this article argues that this traditional definition has limitations and does not reveal the true extent of the problems which IAs can cause to some expatriates and their dependants both during their time abroad and after returning to the UK. The paper then goes onto argue that a broader definition of 'failure' is needed, which includes: an acknowledgement of the considerable stresses and strains experienced by a minority of staff who are under-performing on IAs; the 'poaching' of successful managers by other companies while they are abroad or at the end of their IAs; the often negative outcomes of repatriation experienced by many employees in recent years; the negative (and largely unreported) effects on some families and the career prospects of partners and negative views about the prospect of overseas postings in the future.
Investigated the criteria used to evaluate expatriates' "success" in their foreign assignments. The 3 most common criteria found in studies of expatriate success have been (1) completion of the foreign assignment, (2) cross-cultural adjustment while on assignment, and (3) performance on the foreign assignment. The relationships among these 3 criteria were examined using data collected from 115 expatriates, 82 expatriates' leaders, and 87 expatriate peers working in foreign subsidiaries of a US-based multinational organization. Using confirmatory factor analysis, results supported the hypothesis that these 3 criteria, while often treated as a unitary construct, are in fact separate constructs. Using self, peer, and leader ratings, the 3rd criterion, performance on the foreign assignment, was examined in greater detail. A theory of expatriate performance, including contextual, managerial, technical, and expatriate-specific dimensions, is proposed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examined the role of 3 sources of support in facilitating expatriate adjustment and performance. A model was developed that examined the effects of perceived organizational support (POS), leader-member exchange (LMX), and spousal support on expatriates' adjustment to work, the country, and interacting with foreign nationals. In turn, it was expected that expatriate adjustment would influence expatriate task performance and contextual performance. The model was tested using a sample of 213 expatriate-supervisor dyads via structural equation modeling. The results indicated that POS had direct effects on expatriate adjustment, which in turn had direct effects on both dimensions of performance. Although LMX did not influence adjustment, it did have direct effects on expatriate task and contextual performance. Spousal support did not relate to adjustment or performance. Practical implications for facilitating expatriate adjustment and performance are discussed.
Sumario: Employees often approach an international job posting as a potentially exciting adventure, but there are a number of issues and exposures that must be addressed before heading abroad. Attitudes toward expatriate assignments have changed significantly in recent years
Dual-career expatriate couples present a challenging set of problems for international human resource managers. The results of a survey of husbands and wives in expatriate dual-career couples are analyzed relative to: 1) differences between the expatriates and their trailing spouses; 2) differences between male- and female-led dual-career couples; 3) differences between dual-career couples' opinions prior to expatriation and upon repatriation. The results of the study indicate dual-career couples have relatively consistent concerns and expectations prior to expatriation and upon repatriation to their home country. The significant differences observed were between male-led dual-career couples prior to expatriation when compared to male-led dual-career couples upon repatriation. In addition, the dual-career expatriate respondents did not feel the MNC that transferred them overseas provided adequate training or social support during the international assignment.© 1997 JIBS. Journal of International Business Studies (1997) 28, 627–658
The study presented here attempted to identify the factors under the control of the organization that may predict expatriate job satisfaction. The results indicate that both job/task and organization characteristics are significantly related to both intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction. The results appear to have both managerial and research implications.© 1993 JIBS. Journal of International Business Studies (1993) 24, 61–80
Throughout the course of a career, an individual must make numerous role transitions, instigated through such events as overseas transfers, domestic transfers, promotions, company reorganizations, and inter-company job changes. This paper examines the relationships between several variables and work role transition in the case of an overseas assignment to Japan. Role ambiguity and role discretion were found to influence work adjustment, while predeparture knowledge, association with local nationals, and family's adjustment were found to correlate with general adjustment of American expatriate managers in Japan.© 1988 JIBS. Journal of International Business Studies (1988) 19, 277–294
As more Americans work abroad, risks, rewards for both sides rise. Investor's Business Daily Individual, organiza-tion/work and environmental influences on expatriate turn-over tendencies: An empirical study
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