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LEHNINGER
PRINCIPLES OF BIOCHEMISTRY
Fifth Edition
David L. Nelson and Michael M. Cox
©
2008 W. H. Freeman and Company
CHAPTER 19
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Cellul
Cellulæ
ær
r
respirasjon
respirasjon:
: siste
siste
trinn
trinn
Elektronoverføring
og
oksidativ
fosforylering
Oksidativ
fosforylering
Oksidativ
Oksidativ
fosforylering
fosforylering
syntese
av
ATP fra
ADP og
Pi
oksidasjon
av
NADH og
FADH2 generert
fra
oksidering
av
brenselsmolekyler
Mitokondrier
Mitokondrier
To
membraner
Ytre
membran:
permeabel
for små
molekyler
Indre
membran:
ikke
permeabel
for de fleste
molekyler
og
ioner
rommer
elektron-transport kjedens
komponenter
og
ATP synthase
Matrix
inneholder:
-PDH kompleks
-CAC enzymer
-β-oksidasjon
enzymer
+++
B
Bæ
ærere av elektroner
rere av elektroner
NADH, NADPH, FADH2
og FMNH2
Dehydrogenaser i katabolske pathways overfører e-
til NAD+
og
NADP+
Flavoproteiner har FAD el. FMN som prostetisk gruppe,
aksepterer også
e-
fra katabolske pathways
Ubiquinone (Q)
Lite, fettløselig molekyl i indre mitokondrielle membran
Cytochromer
Proteiner med prostetisk heme gruppe
Jern-svovel proteiner
Proteiner med jern-svovel sentre
Prostetiske
Prostetiske
grupper
grupper
p
på
å
cytochromer
cytochromer
Jern
Jern-
-svovel sentre p
svovel sentre på
å
jern
jern-
-svovel proteiner
svovel proteiner
Fe-S senter 2Fe-2S senter 4Fe-4S senter
Elektrontransportkjeden
Elektrontransportkjeden
Elektrontransportkjedens
proteiner
pumper protoner
ut
av
den mitokondrielle
matrix mens
elektroner
strømmer
fra
FADH2
og
NADH til
O2
Kompleks
Kompleks
I (NADH
I (NADH dehydrogenase
dehydrogenase)
)
Katalyserer 2 koblede prosesser:
1)
Overføring av hydrid ion (1H+
+ 2e-) fra NADH og 1H+
fra
matrix til Q
2)
Overføring av 4H+
fra matrix
til intermembran rommet
Protonpumpen drives av
elektronoverføring
Reaksjonen er vektoriell: flytter
protoner i en spesifikk retning
Netto likning:
NADH + 5HN+
+ Q NAD+
+ QH2
+ 4HP+
Kompleks I overf
Kompleks I overfø
ører
rer e
e-
-
til Q
til Q
Q (ubiquinone)
Q (ubiquinone)
Også
kalt coenzym Q
Benzoquinone med
isoprenoid sidekjede
Kan akseptere e-
for å
danne
semiquinone radikal eller 2e-
for å
danne ubiquinol
Overf
Overfø
øring
ring
av
av
elektroner
elektroner
til
til
ubiquinone
ubiquinone
(Q)
(Q)
Q kan motta e-
fra:
1)
NADH (Kompleks I)
2)
Succinat (Kompleks II, CAC)
3)
Fatty acyl-CoA (Acyl-CoA
dehydrogenase (β-
oksidasjon)
overfører e-
via
ETF og ETF:Q
oksidoreduktase)
4)
Glycerol 3-fosfat (direkte fra
glycerol 3-fosfat
dehydrogenase)
Q overf
Q overfø
ører
rer e
e-
-
til Kompleks III
til Kompleks III
Cytochrome
Cytochrome
bc
bc1
1
kompleks
kompleks
(Kompleks
(Kompleks
III)
III)
Katalyserer koblede prosesser:
1)
Overføring av e-
fra QH2
til
Cyt c
2)
Overføring av H+
fra matrix
til intermembran rommet
Dimer: 2 monomerer
Q
Q
syklusen
syklusen
Netto likning:
QH2
+ 2 cyt c
(oksidert) + 2HN+
Q + 2 cyt c
(redusert) + 4HP+
Cyt C overf
Cyt C overfø
ører
rer e
e-
-
til Kompleks IV
til Kompleks IV
Cytochrome
Cytochrome
c
c (Cyt
(Cyt c
c)
)
Løselig protein i intermembran rommet
En prostetisk gruppe: heme
Aksepterer et e-
av gangen fra Kompleks III
Overfører e-
til Kompleks IV
Beveger seg mellom Kompleks III og
Kompleks IV for å
akseptere og avlevere
elektroner
Cytochrome
Cytochrome
oksidase
oksidase
(Kompleks
(Kompleks
IV)
IV)
Aksepterer e-
fra Cyt c
Katalyserer reduksjon av O2
:
4e-
overført fra Cyt c
4H+
fra matrix
danner 2H2
O
Reduksjonen av O2
er koblet med
overføring av 4H+
fra matrix til
intermembran rommet
Netto likning:
4 cyt c
(redusert) + 8HN+
+ O2
4 cyt c
(oksidert) + 4HP+
+ 2H2
O
Str
Strø
øm
m
av
av
elektroner
elektroner
og
og
protoner
protoner
Netto
vektoriell
likning:
NADH + 11HN+
+ ½
O2
NAD+
+ 10HP+
+ H2
0
Netto reaksjon: ½
O2
+ 2H+
+ 2e-
H2
O
Elektrontransportkjeden:
Elektrontransportkjeden:
oppsummering
oppsummering
ETC består
av
4 komplekser
(I-IV) og
to
mobile elementer
(Q og
cyt
c) som befinner seg i den
indre
mitokondrielle
membranen/intermembran rommet.
Elektroner og
protoner
overføres
fra
Kompleks
I og
II til
Q. Kompleks
I pumper
4 H+
over membranen
for hver
2e-
overført
til
Q.
2e-
overføres
fra
QH2
til
Kompleks
III gjennom
Q syklusen.
Kompleks
III overfører sekvensielt
4e-
til
Cyt
c
og
pumper
2H+
over
membranen
for hvert
e-
overført til
cyt
c.
Cyt
c
forflytter seg
til
Kompleks
IV og
overfører
et
elektron
til
Kompleks
IV
(x4)
Kompleks
IV katalyserer
en
4e-
reduksjon
av
O2
, konsumerer
4H+
og
danner
dermed 2H2
O, mens
4H+
simultant pumpes over
membranen.
Netto reaksjon: ½
O2
+ 2H+
+ 2e-
H2
O
The
The proton
proton-
-motive
motive
force
force
Den indre
membranen
separerer
matrix
(N side) fra intermembran
rommet
(P
side)
Pumping av
H+
av
ETC kompleksene
skaper
en forskjell i
[H+] på
N
og
P side
Forskjellen
i
kjemisk
konsentrasjon
(pH) og
fordelingen av ladninger
(ψ)
skaper
en proton-drivkraft (proton-motive
force)
(G)
Den
Den
kjemiosmotiske
kjemiosmotiske
modellen
modellen
ATP
ATP synthase
synthase
2 funksjonelle
domener:
Fo
og
F1
Fo
: integrert
i
membranen
F1
: festet
til
Fo
Syntetiserer
ATP fra
ADP og
Pi
F1
Fo
ATP synthase
ATP
ATP synthase
synthase
Fo
har
en
proton pore
Strøm
av
protoner
gjennom
poren
får
F1
til å
rotere
F1
har
3 α
subenheter
og
3 β
subenheter
som er organisert
rundt
”skaftet”
γ
β
subenhetene
har
bindingsseter
for
ATP/ADP
ATP/ADP-binding
og
ATP syntese er
kontrollert
av
konformasjonsendringer
indusert
av
rotasjonen
om
γ
Proton
Proton-
-drivkraften driver frigj
drivkraften driver frigjø
øringen av ATP fra enzymet
ringen av ATP fra enzymet
Frigjøringen av ATP fra enzymet er energibarrieren, ikke ATP
syntesen
Rotasjonskatalyse
Rotasjonskatalyse
3 forskjellige konformasjoner
for β
subenhetene:
-
β-ATP (tett binding)
-
β-ADP (løs binding)
-
β-empty (svært løs binding)
Hver β
subenhet endres
mellom alle 3 konformasjoner i
løpet av hver rotasjon
En komplett rotasjon:
-
9 H+
overført fra intermembran
rommet til matrix
-3 ATP produsert
ATP
ATP synthase
synthase:
: oppsummering
oppsummering
Proton-motive force driver ATP syntesen gjennom ATP synthase
ATP synthase utfører ”rotasjonssyntese”: protoner strømmer
gjennom Fo
og får dermed F1
til å
rotere. Dette gir
konformasjonsendringer i ATP/ADP-bindingssetene
Dannelse av ATP på
enzymet krever lite energi, proton-
drivkraften frigjør ATP fra bindingssetene
For hver ATP produsert, strømmer 3H+
fra intermembran rommet
til matrix
Oversikt
Oversikt
over
over
oksidativ
oksidativ
fosforylering
fosforylering
Transportprosesser
Transportprosesser
over
over
den
den
mitokondrielle
mitokondrielle
indre
indre
membranen
membranen
1)
ATP/ADP transport
2)
Transport
av
NADH
2a) Malat-aspartat skyttel (lever, nyrer, hjerte)
2b) Glycerol 3-fosfat skyttel (skjelettmuskler, hjerne)
ATP/ADP transport
ATP/ADP transport
Malat
Malat-
-aspartat skyttel
aspartat skyttel
Glycerol 3
Glycerol 3-
-fosfat skyttel
fosfat skyttel
Regulering av de ATP
Regulering av de ATP-
-produserende pathways
produserende pathways
Sammenkoblet regulering av:
-
Glykolysen
-
Sitronsyresyklusen
-
Oksidativ fosforylering
Kontroll ved:
-
[ATP]
-
[ADP]
-
[AMP]
-
[NADH]
Kap
Kap
19:
19: Oksidativ
Oksidativ
fosforylering
fosforylering-
-
hva er viktig?
hva er viktig?
Elektrontransportkjeden:
de
forskjellige
komponentene
og
deres
rolle,
strømmen
av
elektroner
og
protoner,
netto
reaksjon
Proton-drivkraften (proton-motive force)
Den kjemiosmotiske modellen
Syntese
av
ATP ved
ATP synthase: struktur
og
hvordan
enzymet
opererer
Transportprosesser
over den
mitokondrielle
indre
membranen:
ATP/ADP
transport, malat-aspartat
skyttel
og
glycerol
3-fosfat
skyttel

Chapters (29)

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A palladium-catalyzed asymmetric three-component synthesis of alpha-arylglycine derivatives starting from glyoxylic acid, sulfonamides and arylboronic acids is reported. This novel, operationally simple method offers access to the alpha-arylglycine scaffold in good yields and enantioselectivities. The utilization of a tailored catalyst system enables the enantioselective synthesis of the desired alpha-arylglycines despite a fast racemic background reaction. The obtained products can be directly employed as building blocks in peptide synthesis.
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This research aimed to determine the effect of digestible protein (DP) on blood metabolites, hepatic enzyme activities, energy reserves and production characteristics of pacu ( Piaractus mesopotamicus ) in the finishing growth phase. For this purpose, six semi-purified and isoenergetic diets containing graded levels (16.3, 20.1, 23.8, 27.2, 31.5 and 34.8%) of DP were fed to finishing pacu (1,100.0 ± 10.3 g, initial weight) three times daily for seven weeks. The experiment consisted of six treatments with three randomly arranged replicates (tanks) per treatment. At the end of the experimental period, the data obtained were analyzed through the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the significant difference ( p < 0.05) among treatments was determined by the Tukey’s test. The blood metabolites including glucose, triglycerides, total protein and total cholesterol were significantly ( p < 0.05) affected by DP while the serum ammonia concentration did not show any significant ( p > 0.05) difference among the treatments. The hepatic enzyme activities including glucokinase, pyruvate kinase, alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase, with the exception of hexokinase, as well as the energy reserves including hepatosomatic index and viscerosomatic fat index, except the hepatic total lipid content, were significantly ( p < 0.05) associated with DP. The growth performance parameteres including food intake, feeding rate and weight gain were significantly ( p < 0.05) increased by DP. This study show that overall the pacu in the finishing growth phase fed on the relatively intermediate level of DP (23.8%) with digestible energy of 17.95 MJ kg − 1 promoted better physio-biochemical health status and production characteristics.
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Membrane fusion is a fundamental biochemical reaction and the final step in all vesicular trafficking events. It is crucial for the transfer of proteins and lipids between different compartments and for exo- and endocytic traffic of signaling molecules and receptors. It leads to the reconstruction of organelles such as the Golgi or the nuclear envelope, which decay into fragments during mitosis. Hence, controlled membrane fusion reactions are indispensible for the compartmental organization of eukaryotic cells; for their communication with the environment via hormones, neurotransmitters, growth factors, and receptors; and for the integration of cells into multicellular organisms. Intracellular pathogenic bacteria, such as Mycobacteria or Salmonellae, have developed means to control fusion reactions in their host cells. They persist in phagosomes whose fusion with lysosomes they actively suppress-a means to ensure survival inside host cells. The past decade has witnessed rapid progress in the elucidation of parts of the molecular machinery involved in these membrane fusion reactions. Whereas some elements of the fusion apparatus are remarkably similar in several compartments, there is an equally striking divergence of others. The purpose of this review is to highlight common features of different fusion reactions and the concepts that emerged from them but also to stress the differences and challenge parts of the current hypotheses. This review covers only the endoplasmic fusion reactions mentioned above, i.e., reactions initiated by contacts of membranes with their cytoplasmic faces. Ectoplasmic fusion events, which depend on an initial contact of the fusion partners via the membrane surfaces exposed to the surrounding medium are not discussed, nor are topics such as the entry of enveloped viruses, formation of syncytia, gamete fusion, or vesicle scission (a fusion reaction that leads to the fission of, e.g., transport vesicles).