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Differential partitioning of extended experiences
Abstract
This article focuses on the effect of the perceived cohesiveness of experiences, whether composed of single or multiple parts, on their overall hedonic evaluations. Four experiments demonstrate the effects of partitioning on decision makers’ evaluation of extended experiences. First, patterns (i.e., improving vs. deteriorating trends) strongly influence how experiences are evaluated. Second, increased partitioning of an experience reduces the effect of the overall trend and results in more equal weighting of its parts. Third, breaking experiences at strategic points (i.e., local maxima and minima) influences the overall evaluation of experiences as well as the prediction of their future levels. These results suggest that components of sequences are evaluated similarly to the way whole sequences are evaluated and that experiences composed of multiple components are evaluated relatively more on the basis of their individual intensity and less based on their overall pattern.
... refsec:conceptualspsframeworkspsCXM), and the software implementation (Sects. [3][4][5][6], and enabled us to make significant progress in the tool implementation. It also led to a new set of issues, discussed in Sect. ...
... Extended experiences are usually interrupted-e.g. a customer paused his research of a new car until the end of relocation. With each interruption, customers reset their perception of the experience, and begin a new experience [3]. Indeed, the overall evaluation of the experience is the average of the evaluations of the customer of each of the sequences [2]. ...
... There are two distinct phases: one during design time and other during run time. In design time, the marketing analyst should specify: (1) every possible interaction that might take place with the customer (tasks); (2) under which conditions each interaction should happen (constraints using sentries, which might be activated by the triggering of events); (3) in which context is each interaction (stage); and (4) how to evaluate the progress of the case (achievable milestones). In run time, the customer is the "knowledge worker" and decides to which interactions he/she will (re)act. ...
Customer experience management (CXM) denotes a set of practices, processes, and tools, that aim at personalizing a customer's interactions with a company around the customer's needs and desires \cite{Walker2011}. The past few years have seen the emergence of a new generation of context-aware CXM applications that exploit the IoT, AI, and cloud computing to provide rich and personalized customer experiences. Such applications are usually developed in an ad-hoc fashion, typically as technology showcases, often with little validation in the field. Indeed, there is no methodology to elicit and specify the requirements for such applications, nor domain level reusable components that can be leveraged to implement such applications with the context of e-commerce solutions. An e-commerce software vendor asked us to do just that, in a domain with a fragmented scientific literature, and with no portfolio of applications to draw upon. In this paper, we describe our domain engineering \textit{strategy}, present the main elements of the \textit{technical approach}, and discuss the main difficulties we faced in this domain engineering effort.
Our approach is intended for marketing analysts and customer experience designers. It offers to them a methodology and tools to design customer experiences and generate building blocks of CXM functionalities to be integrated in e-commerce suites of their customers -- the retailers.
... We consider services that comprise heterogeneous types of steps serving different and distinct purposes. Building upon Ariely and Zauberman (2003), we posit that such services are less influenced by sequence effects. Thus, we focus on service settings where the sequence of events cannot be altered; for instance, in healthcare, the stage of diagnosis always precedes the stage of treatment. ...
... 4 The total value that a customer derives from the entire service process isν ∑ n i 1ν i . Ariely and Zauberman (2003) provide evidence in support of the cumulative experience assumption in settings where the experiences are partitioned in multiple discrete components (i.e., our service steps can be viewed as different experience partitions). We posit that, in their valuation of the service, customers account not only for the mean but also for the overall variability of their experience. ...
... We adopt this simplification to analyze how the provider's efforts depend on the perceived cohesiveness of the customer experiences (Ariely and Zauberman 2003) across the different service steps. We define cohesiveness as the extent to which customers perceive the different steps of the service as independent of (or dependent on) each other in forming their overall experience. ...
Modern service design practices conceptualize services as multistep processes. At each step, customers derive an uncertain value, which depends on a functional benefit and a subjective experience. The latter may depend on experiences realized at previous steps. Service designs determine the provider effort at each step given that customers prefer less-variable experiences, and enable a holistic perspective of the overall experience. We quantify two factors that shape service designs: the type of steps ((i) routine steps, where effort increases the functional benefit and decreases the experience variability, and (ii) nonroutine steps, where effort increases the functional benefit at the expense of higher variability) and a holistic coupling factor (at each step, the design is determined not only by experience realizations at predecessor steps but also by how it can shape subsequent experiences). The optimal efforts depend on the combination of these two factors, giving rise to actionable design rules. For a positive coupling factor, step type homogeneity leads to “spread the effort” designs (complementary efforts), whereas a negative coupling factor suggests focusing the effort on a few key steps at the expense of the rest of the service (substitutable efforts). Step type heterogeneity reverses these recommendations. Moreover, when the customer experience unfolds according to a nonstationary process with serial correlation, the effort at each step is determined by an impact zone defined by the steps surrounding the focal service step. Stronger correlation always induces higher effort, whereas weaker correlation may induce less effort in services with heterogeneous step types.
This paper was accepted by Serguei Netessine, operations management.
... 45 People not only prefer partitioned gains, but also prefer that these gains cover strategic points in the time interval of the sequence. 46 Take, for example, the case of distributing three dinner options between 3 weeks. 41 If the dinner options include two regular dinners at home and a fancy restaurant dinner, most people (84%) prefer intercalating the fancy dinner at week 2 between two regular home dinners at weeks 1 and 3. ...
... In both cases, immediate gratification was not the preferred option, that is, having fancy dinners as soon as possible. Partitioning an experience results in more weighting of its individual parts, 46 which may explain the preference for starting and finishing on a high note, given the strong impact of primacy and recency effects. 47 These results are compatible with hedonic editing and the hypothesis that segregated gains provide higher psychological value. ...
... Whether or not individuals perceive multiple healthcare procedures as parts of a sequence or as a unified event does not depend entirely on the objective features of the situation and can be influenced by framing. [45][46][47] Time preference could be pointed out as a competing explanation for our results. Patients in the partitioned incentives group received an incentive earlier in the process, which may have contributed to the effectiveness of the intervention. ...
Promoting healthy behavior is a challenge for public health officials, especially in the context of asking patients to participate in preventive cancer screenings. Small financial incentives are sometimes used, but there is a little scientific basis to support a compelling description of the best‐practice implementation of such incentives. We present a simple behavioral strategy based on mental accounting from prospect theory that maximizes the impact of incentives with no additional cost. We show how the partition of one incentive into two smaller incentives of equivalent total amount produces substantial behavioral changes, demonstrated in the context of colorectal cancer screening. In a randomized controlled trial, eligible patients aged 50−74 (n = 1652 patients) were allocated to receive either one €10 incentive (upon completion of screening) or two €5 incentives (at the beginning and at the end of screening). We show that cancer screening rates were dramatically increased by partitioning the financial incentive (61.1%), compared with a single installment at the end (41.4%). These results support the hedonic editing hypothesis from prospect theory, and underline the importance of implementing theoretically grounded healthcare interventions. Our results suggest that, when patient incentives are feasible, healthcare procedures should be framed as multistage events with smaller incentives offered at multiple points in time.
... An event refers to "a segment of time […] that is conceived by an observer as having a beginning and an end" (Zacks & Tversky, 2001, p. 17) and that can vary from seconds to tens of minutes . Given that, we assume that customers always partition customer journeys into multiple events (Ariely & Zauberman, 2003;LaTour & Carbone, 2014;Montgomery & Unnava, 2009). This is because customers interact with multiple touchpoints that can occur with different service providers and other customers via different channels and at different stages of the customer journey (De Keyser et al., 2020). ...
... Such moments of truth significantly influence the customer experience (Holmlund et al., 2020). Consistent with our conceptualization, we argue that the stronger influence of moments of truth in the remembered experience occurs because of the intensity of the lived experiences during these events and not because the customer attributes greater weight to a particular moment, as patterns within events predict remembered experiences (Ariely & Zauberman, 2003;Strijbosch et al., 2021). In other words, we assume that when a customer regards one event as more important than another (i.e., a moment of truth), their customer experience in that moment will be more intense (e.g., a service failure in a moment of truth is experienced more intensely than a service failure in a touchpoint that is not as important). ...
Understanding customer experiences through customer journeys has become a managerial priority. The customer experience literature divides customer journeys into stages, but these divisions disregard the customer's perspective. Research has shown that individuals partition extended processes-such as customer journeys-into events, thereby influencing how they subsequently remember their experiences. Therefore, this paper seeks to conceptualize customer journey partitioning and its influence on the remembered experience. Based on the event segmentation and experienced utility literature, we propose that customers partition their journeys when they encounter distinctive changes, and that the interaction of customer journey partitioning and the sequence of lived experiences influences the remembered experience. We then discuss implications for customer journey design and present boundary conditions that provide nuance to these implications. This paper contributes to the customer experience literature by conceptualizing customer journey partitioning, understanding its influence on the remembered experience, and proposing new dimensions for customer journey design.
... The argument that certain memories of particular exchanges are important in determining the future form of a relationship is supported as well by research on the availability or recallability heuristic, which states that individuals overweight information that is most easily recalled (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). The availability heuristic is more likely to be present when an individual experiences an intense event (Ariely & Zauberman, 2003), and is also more likely to impact judgments when an individual is recalling information about the self than when recalling information solely about others (Schwarz et al., 1991). Such intense memories have been called "temporal landmarks" (Shum, 1998), which serve as an aid in organizing and retrieving information from memory. ...
... The most salient and available information likely to be recalled from memory, we argue, is the previous anchoring event, along with the associated affect. The overweighting of information that is easily recalled and most intense (Ariely & Zauberman, 2003;Tversky & Kahneman, 1974), along with the specific affective state that emerges on retrieval, changes the processing of information to make it easier to access information about the benefits of the relationship and reduces the likelihood of an internal attribution about the target's motives. These biases, in turn, cause the individual to not see the unexpected event as a negative exchange or a negative anchoring event. ...
... While the customer Site entrepreneurship: desolation to destination may not be able to articulate the exact reasons for a destination's draw, site entrepreneurs enhance the lure by designing the finest details of the pre-visit, visit, and closing visit interactions the customer has with the destination experience. Known as sequence effects, the predicted utility of the experience before the trip, the experienced utility at the destination, and the closing assessment at the end of the stay determine the overall judgment of the destination (Ariely & Zauberman, 2003;Dixon & Verma, 2013;Dixon et al., 2017;Guyse et al., 2002). ...
In this paper, we develop a concept of “site entrepreneurship.” Distinct from other forms of entrepreneurship, site entrepreneurship is the transformation of remote desolate sites with low commercial value into profitable destinations. The primary theory used to explain how entrepreneurs draw customers to remote locations is the regulatory engagement theory. The primary driver in our concept is the entrepreneur with a vision of what a remote site could be as well as the entrepreneurial passion and hustle to pursue and develop the idea. The phenomenon that we are interested in is how popular destinations in remote areas are designed, developed, and sustained. The primary causes of mechanisms underlying relationships in our concept are (1) the entrepreneur’s vision, passion, and hustle in establishing customer, human capital, and supplier flows to the destination and (2) the mediators in our concept of legitimation, logistics, and transportation, experience design, and sequence effects that enable destination development. Using examples from actual site entrepreneurs, we delineate how these entrepreneurs transform desolate sites into destinations, provide the key aspects involved in the projects, explain the vital role logistics and transportation play in such development, and emphasize the importance of experience design and promotion in attracting customers to remote locations. We conclude the paper with suggestions for future research to expand and apply the concept.
... Plus récemment, c'est le concept de souvenir qui est mobilisé pour monitorer l'expérience vécue en magasin (Flacandji, 2017). Le souvenir permettrait une meilleure prédictibilité que la satisfaction ou la valeur sur le comportement futur d'un individu (Kahneman, 2012 (Ariely et Zauberman, 2003 ;Fredrickson et Kahneman, 1993 ;Kahneman, Fredrickson, Schreiber et Redelmeier, 1993). Par ailleurs, l'encodage du souvenir est meilleur lorsque l'expérience est répétée ou l'environnement familier (Flacandji, 2016), mais il dépend néanmoins de facteurs personnels comme l'âge, le sexe, la personnalité, le niveau d'éducation (Cohen, 1989). ...
Cette étude s’articule autour de trois enjeux que présente le courant expérientiel en marketing : une asymétrie de la recherche puisque la perspective du consommateur est plus développée que celle des organisations (Kranzbühler et al., 2018) ; des confusions régulières entre l’expérience et le contexte expérientiel ; la difficulté de mesurer financièrement les stratégies expérientielles (Ferraro et al., 2017 ; Roederer et Filser, 2015). Le contexte expérientiel physique commercial (CEPC) est conceptualisé sous le prisme de la théorie de l’agencement (Deleuze et Guattari, 1980). Une méthodologie multiméthodes permet de collecter les données qualitatives autour d’entretiens semi-directifs, d’un corpus photographique et d’une observation non-participante. Dans un second temps, le concept de la valeur à vie du client (CLV) est mobilisé pour la première fois, à notre connaissance, pour capturer les effets de la modification d’un CEPC de façon longitudinale. Deux terrains sont investigués dont l’un à caractère hédonique et l’autre utilitaire. Une méthodologie quasi expérimentale est employée afin de comparer les effets entre un groupe traité et de contrôle. Les résultats font émerger une structuration du CEPC autour d’une intention d’expression et de six dispositifs. Le CEPC est rythmé par un cycle de vie, mais aussi par un réseau rhizomique dans lequel il est ancré. La valeur à vie permet de mettre en évidence les effets d’un remodelage d’un CEPC dans le temps selon que le contexte soit utilitaire ou hédonique.
... b) Partition extended purchasing processes to a set of sequences on strategic moments (P 2 ): Extended experiences are usually interrupted -e.g. a customer paused his research of a new car until the end of relocation. With each interruption, customers reset their perception of the experience, and begin a new experience [11]. In such cases, the customer's overall evaluation of the experience is the average of the evaluations of the various subsequences [12]. ...
Customer experience management (CEM) denotes a set of practices, processes, and tools that aim to personalise a customer’s interactions with a company, throughout a purchasing process, around the customer’s needs and desires. The customer journey is the process by which a customer interacts with a company to achieve a goal. The complexity of the purchasing process depends on the nature of the product (cartoon of milk vs. house) and on the different paths (journey) pursued by the customers throughout the purchasing process.
In this paper, we propose an approach for modeling and personalising purchasing processes by marketing analysts using a Purchasing Scenario Specification Tool (PSST). The tool enables marketing analysts to select relevant process steps and interactions to handle the different encounters of the company with their customers. We rely on Case Management Model and Notation
(CMMN) to represent the purchasing processes: 1) to allow marketing analysts to add and remove interactions (tasks and events in CMMN) and 2) to get a flexible process that enables company to track and interact with the different journeys pursued by their customers throughout a same purchasing process. To make the modeling easier for the marketing analyst, PSST uses a simplified notation close to CMMN. We illustrate the approach with two examples of use cases of modeling and personalising purchasing processes having different levels of complexity.
... Compared to other events, anchoring events are disproportionally influential because their vividness and instrumentality leads to their place in autobiographical memory, where self-defining memories are stored (Wheeler et al., 1997). Because autobiographical memory is easily accessible, people may frequently recall anchoring events (Ariely & Zauberman, 2003) as forming the lens through which the entire relationship is viewed (Shum, 1998). As such, one positive anchoring event can lead to positive relational attitudes and behaviors usually reserved for longterm social exchange relationships. ...
Organizations rarely invest in contingent employees, at least relative to the human resources efforts commonly afforded to permanent workers — but should they? Traditional social exchange theory suggests that motivation and loyalty should be difficult to cultivate in short-term, fixed-term relationships like contingent employment. However, a novel social exchange model (i.e., the anchoring model) suggests that socioemotional exchange relationships can develop quickly in response to highly salient “anchoring events.” We position employee onboarding as a positive anchoring event that can quickly and durably drive contingent workers’ socioemotional exchange in the form of work engagement, self-reported task performance, and intent to return to the employing organization. Specifically, we develop and test a temporally grounded process model based on the three proposed stages of the anchoring model. Our model was supported across two studies, an initial cross-sectional evaluation of the basic model within a heterogenous sample of contingent workers (n = 121), followed by a three-wave evaluation of the more detailed process model among an organizational sample of seasonal workers (n = 378). Findings provide evidence that the anchoring model, including the expanded framework developed here, explains contingent workers’ attitudinal and behavioral responses to human resources initiatives in a way that traditional organizational theories have not fully achieved. Finally, recommendations for effectively managing contingent workers, through onboarding as well as through other efforts such as training and development, are also discussed.
... Furthermore, our results demonstrated a decrement in in-task affective valence (Fig. 1C) similar to observed by Zenko et al. [33] in healthy adults performing a 15 min progressive exercise session starting at 0 W and progressing to 120% of the W associated with the ventilatory threshold, and by Olney et al. [34] in physically active adults unfamiliar with HIIE. The in-task affective valence in the end of an exercise session has greater influence in shaping the affective memory [35], and in turn, on if future exercise sessions will be perceived as pleasant or unpleasant. In 46 young healthy adults (∼ 50% overweightto-obese and physically inactive), Zenko et al. [33] demonstrated a significant positive association between the slope of the affective valence with remembered pleasure and forecasted pleasure at future exercise session. ...
... These include the trajectory of displayed joy during the pitch (joy trajectory), which describes the extent to which displayed joy increases or decreases over time. According to prior studies, state trajectory is another important gestalt characteristic that people rely on when summarizing prior experiences (Ariely & Carmon, 2000;Ariely & Zauberman, 2003). Following Bliese and Ployhart (2002) and others (e.g., Liu, Mitchell, Lee, Holtom, & Hinkin, 2012), we computed the trajectory of displayed joy for each video across all frames as the Bayes slope estimate. ...
... Recently, an interesting model of investigation based on theories from behavioral economics was applied to achieve greater enjoyment scores and minimize aversive experiences with exercise [43]. According to behavioral economics, people prefer experiences during which pleasure increases with time rather than those that decay over time [44,45]. In this way, Zenko et al. [43] demonstrated that a protocol starting from 120% of the ventilatory threshold and decreasing to 0 W over a 15-min time period rated higher on post-exercise enjoyment and pleasure scores, but with similar RPE, than a 15-min protocol progressing from 0 W to 120% of the ventilatory threshold intensity. ...
Purpose
The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of exercise intensity on energy intake post-exercise and its relationship with enjoyment and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) generated by exercise.
Methods
For this, nine sedentary overweight men performed high-intensity intermittent exercise and steady-state exercise, totaling 30 min for both exercise sessions, and energy intake post-exercise was evaluated. Rating of perceived exertion and enjoyment scores were also measured immediately post-exercise.
Results
There was no difference in the amount of calories ingested post-exercise between conditions, enjoyment scores and RPE. There was a negative correlation between enjoyment and energy intake (r = − 0.552 [strong]; p = 0.018).
Conclusions
These data demonstrated that independent of exercise intensity, enjoyment scores were related to post-exercise energy intake.
... As the level of perceived continuity within an experience increases so too does the importance of some of the specific affect-based service scheduling principles. Loewenstein and Prelec (1993) state that when events are separated in time, they may not be considered a sequence in the mind of research participants (see also, Ariely & Zauberman, 2003). However, other research has shown evidence of affect-based service scheduling effects in temporally distant and discrete experiences; for example, gift giving in financial services (Haisley, Loewenstein, & Simon, 2011), payment sequences for auto repair and vacations (Langer, Sarin, & Weber, 2005) , and timing of repair services performed in a service contract (Bolton, Lemon, & Bramlett, 2006). ...
... Previous research has shown that humans have an inherent tendency to find patterns and meaningful interrelationships in their behavior and among a set of stimuli (Clary and Tesser 1983;Hastie 1984;Neuberg and Newsom 1993;Pyszczynski and Greenberg 1981). In particular, being able to identify an increasing trend or an improving sequence is especially satisfying and desirable (Ariely and Carmon 2000;Ariely and Zauberman 2003;Loewenstein and Prelec 1993). A piecemeal procedure highlights an increasing trend in one's possessions, so it is expected to result in a more satisfying experience than would a lump-sum procedure. ...
... Dynamic characteristics include the positioning of events over time, such as the trend and rate of change. Behavioral research shows that static and dynamic intensity characteristics allow decision makers to consolidate information into simple statistics used to evaluate sequences (e.g., Ariely and Zauberman 2003, Dixon and Verma 2013, Guyse et al. 2002, Loewenstein and Sicherman 1991. In this study, we refer to these statistics of sequence intensity as sequence effects. ...
The most salient or peak aspect of a service experience often defines customer perceptions of the service. Across two studies, using the same novel form of a scenario-based experiment, we investigate the design of peak events in a service sequence by testing how anticipated and surprised peaks influence customer perceptions. Study 1 captures the immediate reactions of participants and Study 2 surveys participants a week later. In both studies we find a main effect for the temporal peak placement, confirming the positive influence of a strong peak ending. When assessing the peak design strategies of surprise and anticipation, we find in Study 1 that surprise and anticipation moderates the temporal peak placement (e.g., early peak versus late peak) on overall customer perceptions, with the surprise peak at the end of an experience yielding the strongest effect. In Study 2 we see that the remembered experience of a surprise peak positively affects customer perceptions compared to an anticipated peak regardless of the temporal placement of the peak. We also find that the infusion of a surprise peak ending has a lasting effect that amplifies the peak-end effect of remembered experiences. Drawing on these findings, we discuss the role of surprise, anticipation, and sequence effects in experience design strategy. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Some decision outcomes consist of sequences of single experiences. The aim is to propose a conceptualization of how such sequences are evaluated if affective evaluations of single experiences evoke transient emotional responses with lasting changes in current mood. The conceptualization implies three modes in which the sequences of single experiences are evaluated: (i) Aggregation of affective evaluations of the single experiences retrieved from memory; (ii) Aggregation of current moods associated with emotional responses to the single experiences retrieved or reconstructed from memory; and (iii) Updating of current mood. Simulations of parametrized models are used to compare the different evaluation modes to each other and to show to which extent the simulation results are consistent with some common findings in previous research. The previous research has primarily investigated different rules for aggregation of affective evaluations of single experiences. The simulation results motivate research comparing this mode to the other proposed modes.
Problem definition: We study open-shop service networks where customers go through multiple services. We were motivated by a partnering health screening clinic, where customers are routed by a dispatcher and operational performance is measured at two levels: micro-level, via waits for individual services, and macro-level, via overall wait. Both measures reflect customer experience and could support its management. Our analysis revealed that waits were long and increased along the service process. Such long waits give rise to negative waiting experience and the increasing shape is detrimental as it is known to create perceived waits that are even longer. Our goal is hence to analyze strategies that shape and improve customers’ perceived experience. Methodology/results: Analytically, we use a stylized two-station open-shop network to show that prioritizing advanced customers, jointly with pooling (virtual) queues, can improve both macro- and micro-level performance. We validate these findings with a simulation model, calibrated with our clinic’s data. Practically, we find that an automated routing system (ARS), recently implemented in the clinic, had a negligible impact on overall wait—It simply redistributed waiting among wait-for-routing and wait-for-service. However, ARS renders applicable sophisticated priority and routing policies (that were infeasible under the manual routing practice), specifically the ones arising from the present research. Managerial implications: Our study amplifies performance benefits of accounting for individual customers’ system status in addition to station-level load information. We offer insights into the implementation of new technologies: Firms better plan for fundamental changes in their operation rather than harness new technology to their existing operation, which may be suboptimal due to past technical limitations.
History: This paper has been accepted in the Manufacturing & Service Operations Management Frontiers in Operations Initiative.
Funding: M. Chen acknowledges the support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China [Grant 72301280]. O. Baron acknowledges the support from the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada. J. Wang acknowledges the support from the City University of Hong Kong [Grant 11505421]. A. Mandelbaum is partially supported by the Israel Science Foundation [Grant 491/22].
Supplemental Material: The online appendices are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/msom.2022.0590 .
The method for designing tourism experiences has changed from summing up the evaluation of each Point of Interest to evaluating the whole of tourism. Individual excitement level (IEL) curves, which show the time-series changes in the degree of excitement of individual tourists, attract attention as a method for designing tourism experiences by evaluating entire tourism. The tourism experience needs to be evaluated using data collected during and after tourism to implement the IEL curve generation method and tourism design in tourist destinations. However, the previous evaluation of the IEL curve generation method is limited to using the data collected after tourism. Digital transformation in tourism enables data collection during tourism. Thus, this study aims to evaluate the IEL curve generation method from the viewpoints of the data collected not only after tourism but also during sightseeing, focusing on the electro dermal activity data. Besides, our article considers a tourism design based on IEL curves through an experiment. As a result, this article reveals that the generated IEL curve is suitable for reproducing subtle changes in the excitement in tourism and partially expresses the general shape of the changes. The interview survey we conducted complements the validity of these findings.
The current study suggests an effective compensatory control strategy using partitioning experiential consumption that can be implemented into consumers’ daily activities. Across four experiments, we examined the effects of partitioned (vs. aggregated) message formats and financial anxiety on sense of control, subjective well-being, and ad attitudes. Specifically, our findings indicated that consumers with higher (vs. lower) levels of financial anxiety respond more favorably toward partitioned (vs. aggregated) experiential messages. Our results provide timely contributions for researchers and practitioners who are interested in understanding and implementing advertising and marketing strategies in the digital landscape with improving consumers’ well-being in mind.
The role of duration in the evaluation of experiences has been a topic of great interest. Extensive research finds “duration neglect,” defined as the duration of experiences exerting only a negligible direct effect on overall evaluations of experiences over that of key moments, usually peak and end. In contrast, we argue that the temporal location of key moments that are embedded in an experience affects how people experience these key moments. Thus, duration enters overall evaluations indirectly through the experience of key moments. Seven studies, as well as three supplementary studies, employing diverse designs and analyses find that temporal location affects the evaluation of peak and end, and consequently duration has a significant indirect effect on overall evaluations, while also replicating duration neglect. Establishing duration-dependent key moments in the evaluation of experiences, our account also uniquely predicts, and we subsequently test, that the temporal location of key moments matters for evaluations of experiences.
A remaining challenge for optimizing car travel is that route assignments still contain temporary impedance. The question arises as to how the degree and the order of more and less impeding route sections influence experienced utility of routes. On driving simulator routes, participants were assigned one out of two mean speeds and one out of three segmentations (i.e., “Fast Slow,” “Constant,” and “Slow Fast”). Independent of assigned mean speed, routes with the segmentation “Slow Fast” were rated less arousing, more positive, faster and more flowing than routes with the segmentation “Fast Slow.” Further differences were revealed by an interaction between mean speed and route segmentation. In summary, optimized segmentation can increase the utility of impeded routes. This may increase the acceptance of traveler information systems and in turn subjective well-being due to more efficient travel. The study warrants further investigations of varying driving cycles under real-world conditions.
Does the way individuals think about the burdens and benefits of giving time to charity depend on how that time is distributed? Prior work shows that the assessment of a whole is different than the assessment of the sum of its parts. Drawing on this work, we demonstrate that when a volunteer experience is segregated into multiple parts (vs. aggregated into a whole)—for example, volunteering 4 h a day for 2 days versus 8 h in a single day—individuals expect the process to feel less effortful but also the outcome to feel less morally right. In addition, we find that contribution size has a moderating effect on anticipated effort (but not on anticipated morality). Lastly, we find that individuals who focus on minimizing the effort involved in volunteering (vs. maximizing the impact of volunteering) show a greater likelihood of volunteering in a segregated (vs. aggregated) manner. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of these findings.
A hotel’s servicescape – its design elements and quality of service – has been shown to predict customers’ brand experience. However, the underlying mechanism of this association is unknown. Based on the stimulus–organism–response (SOR) paradigm, we developed and tested a conceptual model in which servicescape promotes customers’ mindfulness (focused awareness of the present moment), which in turn improves the brand experience. Data were collected from a questionnaire survey of customers in ten 3–5 star hotels in Guangdong Province, China. Structural equation modeling showed that, as hypothesized, customers’ mindfulness mediated the relationship between perceived hotel servicescape and brand experience. In addition, hotel customers’ length of stay negatively moderated the relationship between mindfulness and brand experience. Our study contributes to the literature by integrating concepts from psychology and marketing and expanded the SOR paradigm by introducing a boundary condition of the effect of mindfulness on brand experience.
Brand experience is conceptualized as sensations, feelings, cognitions, and behavioral responses evoked by brand-related stimuli that are part of a brand's design and identity, packaging, communications, and environments. The authors distinguish several experience dimensions and construct a brand experience scale that includes four dimensions: sensory, affective, intellectual, and behavioral. In six studies, the authors show that the scale is reliable, valid, and distinct from other brand measures, including brand evaluations, brand involvement, brand attachment, customer delight, and brand personality. Moreover, brand experience affects consumer satisfaction and loyalty directly and indirectly through brand personality associations.
The normative value of a medium of exchange is derived from the best consumption that it permits. Adding potential uses can increase the normative value of a medium of exchange but not decrease it. In two large preregistered experiments (total N = 2205), including one with incentive-compatible measures, we find that the perceived value of a medium of exchange systematically lies below this normative benchmark, such that adding a less-attractive set of potential uses decreases a medium of exchange’s perceived value. Moreover, the extent of undervaluation depends on the difference in value between the potential uses, and there is no evidence of undervaluation when preferences among potential uses are articulated in advance. More generally, these findings reveal that the perceived value of a medium of exchange depends not only on the expected value of the best alternative but also on the set of alternatives.
Introduction
Travel behavior research has only started to address how travel affects emotional wellbeing. The development of measurement methods is an important goal of this research.
Methods
A review and assessment of methods of measuring travel-related emotional wellbeing is presented guided by a conceptual framework specifying what is measured (cognitive evaluations, emotional responses, or moods), the way it is measured (proactively, instantaneously, or retrospectively), and when it is measured (before, during, or after travel). Anticipated, current, residual and recalled moods are the objects of the measurement. Only studies of commuting or other types of daily travel are addressed.
Results
We find that no research has measured anticipated moods, some research has measured current moods before, after and during travel, and most research has measured recalled moods.
Conclusions
The most valid and reliable method is to measure current mood instantaneously at several points in time, before, during, and after travel. A measure of emotional wellbeing can then be obtained by objective aggregation. An approximate more feasible method is to retrospectively measure recalled moods for a given specified time period that may not only include travel. The available methods for measuring recalled moods have acceptable psychometric properties but research is needed to validate these methods by comparing the results to an objective aggregation of instantaneous measures of current mood at different points in time.
We develop a conceptual analysis and account of how emotions influence behavior in financial markets. To motivate our approach and to establish the need for such research, we first review the increasingly important literature on emotions in financial markets. While emotions influence investors in financial markets, there is a lack of precision concerning the exact nature of these influences. To remedy this, we identify and address a number of issues deriving from the current state of the finance literature. One issue concerns the lack of clarity in defining different emotion constructs. Another is the lack of a general emotion-based account of financial behavior. Our contribution is a classification of emotion-related phenomena and an emotion-based account of how anticipatory and anticipated emotions interact to determine investors’ buy and sell preferences in asset markets. Preliminary experimental results support our emotion-based account.
Understanding the nature of tourism experiences holds the key to effectively managing tourism destinations. Research in psychology, economics, geography, marketing and, more recently, services management, offers new insight into consumer experiences which are defined by moment-to-moment and as discreet (and summarized) events. This paper synthesizes this literature and then identifies emerging tools such as blueprinting and journey mapping which enable design solutions to better manage tourism experiences. Finally, the implications and directions of this new moments-based paradigm for designing tourism experiences are discussed.
The world of luxury is considered as an environment in which the secular is transformed to the point of becoming sacred. This has led researchers to consider the store as a “capital” of which the luxury brand inspires its values and that’s where the consumer experiences an extraordinary consumption experience. This is contradictory to the principle of the democratization of social media. From where one expresses a fear of the profanation of the luxury store. This leads us to question the legitimacy of the luxury brand’s communication via social media and to try to understand how they operate in the field of luxury consumption and communication and to ask the question: can social media convey the values of luxury?
Past research has provided evidence that customers’ affective responses to service packages, or bundles, include aspects related to the content of the bundle and the timing of bundle elements, or events. Service design efforts that attempt to maximize these affective responses may be inhibited by the degree to which an event is flexible across time and across contextual fit. This article uses numerical simulation of an artificial problem to test hypotheses about the impact of timing flexibility and contextual‐fit flexibility on affect‐based design efforts and provides insight about how differing levels of flexibility constrain or enable designers’ ability to create bundles and schedules that adhere to behavioral‐based design attributes such as the peak, end, trend, and spread effects. Our findings suggest that different kinds of flexibility enable affect‐based schedules in different manners, and managers should consider the impact that flexibility will have on successful affect‐based scheduling efforts.
This paper explores the value creation process in an edutainment context. It attempts to capture the dual, differential value creation processes through two pathways, namely, affective and cognitive. Results revealed that affective and cognitive values not only increase customer satisfaction but also enhance consumer well‐being. Moreover, contrary to conventional belief asserting that value creation is a universal process, this study finds that those who had higher personal relevance with the edutainment context experienced more intense emotional and intellectual values, which in turn enhanced both their satisfaction, well‐being, and revisit intention. Results suggest that marketers need to rethink their engagement strategy in order to create both emotional and intellectual value for customers.
Double‐discount is an effective format for promoting purchase decisions. However, extant literature has overlooked how temporal order of discounts applied affects consumers’ purchase decisions. In this paper, we show that the sequence of discount magnitude (e.g., 10% followed by 40% versus 40% followed by 10%) leads to biases in consumer judgment and influences the perceived appeal and purchase intention of the deal. We term this the double‐discount sequence effect. Using four experiments, we showed that double‐discount in an ascending sequence (e.g., taking 10% off, then an additional 40% off) is preferable over that in a descending sequence. We also found that discount application sequence—but not the presentation order—matters to consumers. Consumers anchor on the first discount they encounter and evaluate the second discount with respect to this first one.
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Objectives:
Affect experienced during high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) is dependent on work-intensity, but the influence of increasing (low-to-high (L-H)) or decreasing (high-to-low (H-L)) work-intensity during HIIE remains unclear in adolescents. The role of prefrontal cortex haemodynamics in mediating changes in affect during HIIE also remains unexplored in adolescents. We examined affect, enjoyment and cerebral haemodynamic responses to HIIE with increasing or decreasing work intensities in adolescents.
Methods:
Participants (N = 16; 8 boys; age 12.5 ± 0.8 years) performed, on separate days, HIIE cycling consisting of 8 × 1-min work-intervals at 100%-to-70% (HIIEH-L), 70%-to-100% (HIIEL-H) or 85% (HIIECON) peak power separated by 75 s recovery. Affect, enjoyment and cerebral haemodynamics (oxygenation (∆O2Hb), deoxygenation (∆HHb) and tissue oxygenation index (TOI)) were recorded before, during, and after all conditions.
Results:
Affect and enjoyment were lower during HIIEH-L compared to HIIEL-H and HIIECON at work-intervals 1 to 3 (all P < 0.043, ES > 0.83) but were greater during HIIEH-L than HIIEL-H and HIIECON at work-interval 8 (all P < 0.048, ES > 0.83). ∆O2Hb was similar across conditions (P = 0.87) but TOI and ∆HHb were significantly greater and lower, respectively during HIIEH-L compared to HIIEL-H and HIIECON at work-interval 8 (all P < 0.039, ES > 0.40). Affect was correlated with TOI (all r > 0.92) and ∆HHb (all r > -0.73) across conditions.
Conclusions:
HIIEH-L offers advancement to the HIIECON and HIIEL-H which bring significant greater affect and enjoyment towards the end HIIE work-interval, implicating the feasibility and adoption of this protocol for health promotion in youth. Also, changes in prefrontal cortex haemodynamics are associated with the affect during HIIE.
In this chapter, we provide an introduction to the topic and a brief overview of Quality of Life and Daily Travel. A short background of why it is relevant to study travel and wellbeing, along with definitions and concepts related to quality of life research – such as objective and subjective outcomes, and hedonic and eudaimonic outcomes – will be followed by an overview of the chapters of the book arranged in three parts: theoretical perspectives and conceptualizations, case studies, and future directions. The aim of this book, Quality of Life and Daily Travel, is to compile current knowledge into one edited volume, where several areas of research are integrated – including traffic and transport psychology, transport planning and engineering, transport geography, transport economics, consumer services, and wellbeing research – in order to discuss the various facets of the links between travel and wellbeing. The importance of mobility, accessibility, experiences and emotions for the wellbeing of people will be highlighted.
Frequent observations showing that travel influences satisfaction with life suggest that transport policy making and planning would increase society’s welfare by taking this influence into account. To do this requires detailed knowledge of how travel influences satisfaction with life. Two routes of influence have been proposed and empirically confirmed, one through the facilitation of out-of-home activities that are important for satisfaction with life, and the other through reducing negative feelings caused by hassles associated with daily travel. The latter route is the focus of the chapter. A theoretical framework is proposed that makes quantitative predictions of the impacts of transient feelings (emotional responses) on enduring feelings (mood) with consequences for well-being during and after travel. Positive and negative emotional responses are assumed to be evoked by both transient critical incidents (e.g. disruptions) and non-transient factors (e.g. noise) during travel. Numerical experiments illustrate the quantitative predictions of changes in mood during and after travel for both types of evoking factors. It is also shown how emotion regulation may moderate effects of transient factors as well as how hedonic adaptation and desensitization associated with non-transient factors may affect mood after travel. The conclusion is that measurement of mood at different points in time should be a valuable complement to or sometimes a substitute for retrospective self-reports of satisfaction with travel that are likely to be more susceptible to systematic errors.
The current study seeks to provide a better understanding of how consumers experience shopping and whether it is contingent on local vs. foreign contexts (i.e., local vs. foreign brand department store). Using data collected by an intercept method with shoppers at a local and foreign brand department store in China, the current study finds that different types of values (i.e., emotional and intellectual) are associated with a local vs. foreign shopping context, which, in turn, affects consumer trust and customer loyalty. Results contribute to consumer experience and branding literature, and suggest that domestic companies should not blindly replicate management and operational practices of foreign companies.
Purpose
In the context of sequential multistage utilitarian service processes, the objective of this paper is to develop and validate propositions to study the impact of service quality (SQ) perceptions developed in intermediate stages along with the impact of service gestalt characteristics, such as peak and end experiences, on quality perception at each stage and on overall quality perception (OSQ). The cascade phenomenon (interdependency between process stages) is considered in the evaluation of OSQ perception of customer, who experiences service through a series of planned, distinct, and partitioned sequential stages.
Design/methodology/approach
In this paper, a conceptual framework is used to evolve the propositions. Subsequently, propositions are tested in 3 different utilitarian service context wherein Customer’s survey was conducted for feedback on attributes at each stage, summary perception evaluations of each stage, and overall service quality evaluation of multistage process. Peak experiences, considered for OSQ evaluation, were defined by a suitable statistical technique. Ordinal logistic regression (OLR) with nested models is the technique used for analyzing the data.
Findings
This work reveals significant cascade effect of summary evaluation of intermediate stages on the subsequent stage. Peak customer experience (negative or positive) is observed to be marginally significant on intermediate stage as well as overall service quality evaluation. In addition, overall service quality is observed to be influenced by summary perception evaluations of intermediate stages, which leads to better model adequacy. Finally, among all the stages, end stage performance is observed to have significantly impact on the overall multistage service quality.
Practical implications
The findings suggest that in view of the cascade effect of intermediate stages, managers need to allocate resources to ensure that all stages are performing at an adequate level instead of only focusing on improving peaks and end effects of customer experiences. The proposed approach is easy-to-implement and suitable for evaluating SQ and OSQ in varied multistage sequential utilitarian service environment.
Originality/value
An integrated approach for evaluation of service quality in sequential multistage utilitarian service processes is proposed from the perspective of cascade effect of intermediate stages as well as peak and end effects on overall service quality perception.
Since the commercialization of the Internet began over twenty years ago, we have been fascinated with the opportunities that computer-mediated environments present for human interaction. As a result, we have spent the last few decades researching the marketing and consumer behavior impact of consumers’ interactions in digital environments.Now, as the consumer Internet of Things emerges, we find ourselves with renewed excitement as we consider the opportunities for consumer interaction in physical environments with objects that have brought the Internet with them into the real world. Just as the Internet was revolutionary because it enabled many-to-many communication through connected digital networks at unprecedented scale, the IoT is a revolutionary advance that brings the digital into the physical realm. Now, interaction is distributed not just virtually “on the Internet,” but also everywhere in the real world where people actually live, work and play.What awaits us as we are able to interact with smart objects in our everyday lives, and these objects are able to interact with each other, often autonomously? What are the implications for human interaction and for consumer experience? Will new marketing approaches be required? In the course of thinking about these kinds of questions over the past few years, we realized we needed a new framework to help our thinking jell. We found that framework in assemblage theory. The smart home assemblage serves as the context for our theorizing, but we believe our approach generalizes to any consumer IoT assemblage.In the monograph linked above, we present an assemblage-theory based conceptual framework and its implications for consumer experience in the smart home. In 8 sections, we discuss the evolution of the Internet and the emergence of the consumer IoT, offer a lay version of assemblage theory, develop our framework and discuss the implications of our framework for research in UX, consumer experience, and marketing strategy. The last two sections offer some early practical insights derived from our theory and some perspective on where things might be going.
Limited previous research shows that travel by different modes evokes feelings. Also after-effects due to stress have been observed. Such travel-related feelings are important to consider in transport planning because of their possible consequences for travelers’ emotional well-being. A theoretical framework is proposed that makes quantitative predictions of the impacts of transient feelings (emotional responses) on enduring feelings (current mood) with consequences during and after travel. Positive and negative emotional responses are posited to be evoked by transient critical incidents (e.g. disruptions) and non-transient factors (e.g. noise) during travel. Numerical experiments illustrate the quantitative predictions on current mood during and after travel for both types of evoking factors.
These three studies found support for a process termed hedonic contamination, whereby exposure to advertisements before a movie or television show activates persuasion knowledge, directs attention to the product placements, and reduces consumption enjoyment. Study 1 showed that exposure to in-theater commercials led to more negative attitudes toward product placements in the feature movie and reduced overall enjoyment of the movie. Study 2 implemented an eye-tracking experiment showing that advertising exposure increased eye fixations on product placements in a subsequent television episode. Study 3 identified the activation of persuasion knowledge as the underlying process driving hedonic contamination. The collective results suggest new research directions for understanding the interplay between advertising exposures and how consumers respond to subsequent entertainment content and marketing messages.
Events in a sequence may each be evaluated as good or bad. We propose that such good-bad evaluations evoke emotional responses that change current mood. A model of recurrent updating of current mood is developed and compared to a model of how a sequence of events evoking emotional responses is evaluated retrospectively. In Experiment 1, 149 undergraduates are presented sequences of lottery outcomes with a fixed probability of losing or winning different amounts of money. Ratings of current mood are made after the sequence. Retrospective evaluations are either made after the ratings of current mood or, in a control condition, when no ratings of current mood are made. The results show an expected effect on current mood of the valence of the end of the sequence. The results are less clear in showing an expected beginning effect on the retrospective evaluations. An expected beginning effect on retrospective evaluations is found in Experiment 2 in which 41 undergraduates are first asked to remember the different amounts of money, then to evaluate the sequence as lottery outcomes.
The shift to consumer-centric marketing accentuates the need for a more comprehensive understanding of consumer desires, including how consumers manage their resources to satisfy these desires. However, the complexity of the resource concept combined with a fragmented research stream thus far provides a limited understanding of consumer resources and their effect on consumer well-being. The purpose of this article is to encourage continued research into consumer resources, including resource exchange, to gain a more complete understanding of the concept and to facilitate the development of a unified theory of consumer resources. To accomplish our objective, resource theories proposed in different disciplines (economics, management/marketing, psychology, and social psychology) are summarized and used to provide research direction into a wide variety of consumer behavior issues related to consumer resource management and resource exchange behavior.
Objectives
Fewer than 1.5% of women with obesity in the USA are physically active at recommended levels. High-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) has been proposed as a possible solution to the problem of low activity, based on the dual promise of accelerating the accrual of benefits while reducing the time commitment. However, concerns have been raised about the appeal and sustainability of HIIE. The purpose of this study was to compare during-exercise affective valence and post-exercise enjoyment in response to a bout of HIIE and a longer, isocaloric bout of moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE).
Design
Within-subjects experiment.
Methods
Low-active women with obesity (N = 24) completed one bout of HIIE (3-min warm-up, four 3-min intervals of recumbent cycling at 115% of Watts at the ventilatory threshold, four 2-min periods of active recovery at 85% of Watts at the ventilatory threshold, 5-min cool-down) and one bout of MICE (3-min warm-up, 25 min of recumbent cycling at 90% of Watts at the ventilatory threshold, 5-min cool-down) in counterbalanced order. The Feeling Scale (FS) was administered during exercise and the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) was administered after cool-down.
Results
Differences were found for both FS (condition by time interaction: p < 0.001, η² = 0.27) and PACES (p = 0.04, d = −0.38), with both outcomes favoring MICE.
Conclusions
The lower pleasure and enjoyment associated with HIIE compared to MICE underscore the importance of considering not only physiological adaptations but also the appeal and sustainability of HIIE for low-active women with obesity.
It is generally assumed that the interruption (break) of positive (comfortable) or negative (uncomfortable) experiences disrupt adaptation and consequently intensify the subsequent positive or negative experience. Therefore, it can be speculated that interrupting a consumption experience makes comfortable experiences more delightful and interruption of uncomfortable and painful experience makes this more irritating. This study aimed at verifying this irrational behavior in adaptation process. The comfortable and uncomfortable experiences were an experience of relaxing massage and that of immersing one’s hand in the cold water. It was explored how the interruptive experience of positive (comfortable) or negative (uncomfortable) stimulus disrupt adaptation and intensify subsequent experience as compared with the continuous experience of the same stimuli (experience of the stimulus by bulk). This was investigated as a function of experience time A (comfort stimulus: 300 and 600 s, discomfort stimulus: 50 and 150 s) and duration of interruption B (30, 60, and 90 s for both comfort and discomfort).
A study tested the hypothesis that individual differences in people's concern, for information or in their information-seeking tendencies should exert a systematic influence on how they unitize ongoing behavior into meaningful actions. Subjects high and low in the need for cognition were instructed to unitize a videotaped behavior sequence into whatever actions seemed natural and meaningful to them. Following the videotape presentation, a measure of free recall for the action-related details of the sequence was administered. As expected, individuals who were presumably inclined to want to understand and to deliberate about their environment (i.e., were high in need for cognition) unitized the behavior sequence into more actions and subsequently recalled more action-related details from the sequence than individuals who were not so inclined (i. e., were low in need for cognition). This pattern of results provides further support for the assumption that the unitization process funclions to regulate information gain from ongoing behavior Some situational factors that could possibly attenuate or enhance the observed difference in unitization rate between individuals high and low in the need for cognition are discussed
Social scientists have found that satisfaction with an outcome is positively related not just to the position (i.e., actual level) of the outcome, but also to the displacement (i.e., directional difference) between the current level and a reference level. Extending the displacement notion, the present research hypothesized that satisfaction is positively related to the velocity (i.e., rate) at which the outcome changes over time, and tested this hypothesis by using hypothetical outcomes presented in questionnaires (Study 1) and displayed on a computer screen (Study 2). Results from both studies supported the hypothesis. The findings are discussed with regard to their implications for a formal model of the outcome-satisfaction relationship and for a dynamic analysis of human behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Existing models of intertemporal choice normally assume that people are impatient, preferring valuable outcomes sooner rather than later, and that preferences satisfy the formal condition of independence, or separability, which states that the value of a sequence of outcomes equals the sum of the values of its component parts. The authors present empirical results that show both of these assumptions to be false when choices are framed as being explicitly defined sequences of outcomes. Without a proper sequential context, people may discount isolated outcomes in the conventional manner, but when the sequence context is highlighted, they claim to prefer utility levels that improve over time. The observed violations of additive separability follow, at least in part, from a desire to spread good outcomes evenly over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested implications for attribution processes of variation in the unit of perception in 2 experiments with college freshmen males (n = 20). In Exp I Ss viewed a 5-min videotaped behavior sequence. Ss were instructed to segment the behavior into as fine units of action or as gross units of action as were natural and meaningful to them. Results indicate that in comparison to gross-unit Ss, fine-unit Ss were more confident in their impressions, made more dispositional attributions, and tended to have more differentiated impressions. In Exp II Ss viewed either of 2 comparable sequences of problem-solving behavior; in 1, an unexpected action was inserted. Following the unexpected act, Ss employed more units of perception/min than controls who did not view it. It is concluded that the unit of perception varies according to situational constraints and that attribution theories assuming constant units are seriously in error. Implications of unit variation for the interpretation of attribution research are discussed. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this paper we take stock of recent research on how people summarize and evaluate extended experiences. Summary assessments do not simply integrate all the components of the evaluated events, but tend to focus on only a few features (gestalt characteristics). Examples of these de®ning features include the rate at which the transient state components of the experience become more or less pleasant over its duration, and the intensity of the state at key instances, in particular the most intense (peak) and the ®nal (end) moments. It is not yet suciently clear which speci®c gestalt characteristics dominate summary assess-ments of experiences, nor how this diers across types of experiences or measure-ment approaches. To address some of these issues, we describe new research in this area, discuss potential methodological diculties, and suggest directions for future research.
This study replicates Andreoni's (Journal of Public Economics, 1988, 37, 291–304) public goods experiments. The results are not consistent with simple learning, but are compatible with strategies, unlike Andreoni's original experiment. An investigation of the variance of contributions provides an organizing explanation of previous results.
The use of decomposition as a procedure for improving the consistency of subjective probability encoding is discussed. Using a psychometric measurement model, an expression is developed that describes the random error associated with decomposition estimates as a function of characteristics of the component assessments. Decomposition is compared to direct assessment in terms of the percent change in measurement error that can be attributed to the use of decomposition. Potential benefits of decomposition are specified and recommendations made on how to utilize decomposition as an approach for error control.
Two experiments documented a phenomenon of duration neglect in people's global evaluations of past affective experiences. In Study 1, 32 Ss viewed aversive film clips and pleasant film clips that varied in duration and intensity. Ss provided real-time ratings of affect during each clip and global evaluations of each clip when it was over. In Study 2, 96 Ss viewed these same clips and later ranked them by their contribution to an overall experience of pleasantness (or unpleasantness). Experimental Ss ranked the films from memory; control Ss were informed of the ranking task in advance and encouraged to make evaluations on-line. Effects of film duration on retrospective evaluations were small, entirely explained by changes in real-time affect and further reduced when made from memory. Retrospective evaluations appear to be determined by a weighted average of "snapshots" of the actual affective experience, as if duration did not matter.
We use a laboratory experiment to study the extent to which investors’ choices are affected by limited loss deduction in income taxation. We first compare investment behavior in the no tax baseline to a tax control setting, in which the income from investments is taxed. We find that investors significantly reduce their risk-taking as predicted by theory. Next we compare the baseline investment choices to choices under three different types of income taxation. We observe that risk-taking is significantly increased with partial and with capped loss deduction, but is unaffected by a tax system that allows no loss deduction. Since in all these treatments the after tax outcomes of the prospects were identical, we conjecture that investors have a positively biased perception of partial and capped loss deduction that promotes their willingness to take risks.
Preference ari gone rs DSE N° 7 e 711 Abstract Survey data show that subjects positively discount both gains and losses but discount gains more heavily than losses. This holds for monetary and non-monetary outcomes.
Social scientists have found that satisfaction with an outcome is positively related not just to the position (i.e., actual level) of the outcome, but also to the displacement (i.e., directional difference) between the current level and a reference level. Extending the displacement notion, the present research hypothesized that satisfaction is positively related to the velocity (i.e., rate) at which the outcome changes over time, and tested this hypothesis by using hypothetical outcomes presented in questionnaires (Study 1) and displayed on a computer screen (Study 2). Results from both studies supported the hypothesis. The findings are discussed with regard to their implications for a formal model of the outcome-satisfaction relationship and for a dynamic analysis of human behavior.
The authors develop several hypotheses regarding the integration of moment-to-moment emotional responses into overall ad judgments, using the psychological literature dealing with people's preferences for sequences of hedonic outcomes, and they conduct three studies to test these predictions. The results of Study 1 indicate that consumers' global assessments of extended affective episodes elicited by advertisements are dominated by the peak emotional experience and the final moment of the series and also are correlated with the pace at which momentary affective reactions improve over time. Ad duration is related only weakly to overall ad judgments, though longer advertisements have an advantage as long as they build toward a peak emotional experience. In Study 2, the authors replicate these findings under more realistic viewing conditions and demonstrate that the results cannot be attributed solely to memory artifacts that are based on recency. Study 3 implicates adaptation as a possible explanation for the preference for delayed peaks and high ends and further explains the weak effects of ad duration by showing experimentally that longer advertisements can both enhance and depress ad judgments depending on how duration affects the peak emotional experience and the final moment.
Thirty-five subjects segmented one of two videotapes of an actor methodically assembling 20 five-page questionnaires. In one sequence, the completion of each questionnaire resulted in a highly visible change in the stimulus fields: The top page of the stack changed from black to white or from white to black with the completion of each questionnaire. In a second sequence the action was identical, but the changing feature was concealed from view. Results disclosed that subjects viewing the tape with the visible change segmented the action on the basis of that change. Subjects viewing the same action without the visible change segmented the behavior into its fine-unit components, despite the fact that the higher-level organization in the behavior was readily understood.
Satisfaction N~ith n desired outcome depends both on it.sposition li.e., the actual value of the outcomel and on it.svelocityli.e.,the change in the slue) .In u yrre.stionncrire .study,sve in- vesti,~>ated _/iuuorsthat in/lnetrceNre rel- ative x~eikhtinyof position crud relocitr In satisfawtion and found that the rela- tive weight of relocity loomed larker x~hen the outcome was lu) framed in terms of change Iratl:er than in terms of overall position),Ibl related to corr.snnt- mutory (rather than instrumental) be- haviors, or Ic)internally(rather than ex- ternally) controlled . Tlre findings .srrk- kest that the relative importance of position and velocity in satisfactionvar- ies,dependink on the condition and na- ture of the outcome .
Whereas choices among individual outcomes at different points in time generally show a positive time preference, choices between sequences of outcomes usually show a negative time preference, that is, a preference for improvement. The present studies explored how this preference for improving sequences is moderated by expectations about how sequences are usually experienced. Subjects in three experiments evaluated four types of health sequences with multiple sequence lengths. The length of the sequence and the particular health attribute described influenced both preferences and expectations such that preferences tracked expectations about how the sequences would realistically occur. Several mechanisms by which expectations could influence preferences are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Subjects were exposed to two aversive experiences: in the short trial, they immersed one hand in water at 14 °C for 60 s; in the long trial, they immersed the other hand at 14 °C for 60 s, then kept the hand in the water 30 s longer as the temperature of the water was gradually raised to 15 °C, still painful but distinctly less so for most subjects. Subjects were later given a choice of which trial to repeat. A significant majority chose to repeat the long trial, apparently preferring more pain over less. The results add to other evidence suggesting that duration plays a small role in retrospective evaluations of aversive experiences; such evaluations are often dominated by the discomfort at the worst and at the final moments of episodes.
Two experiments were conducted to examine the effects of various factors on retrospective pain evaluation. The factors examined in Experiment 1 were the rate and pattern of change, the intensity (particularly the final intensity), and the duration of the painful experience. Experiment 2 manipulated these factors and, in addition, examined the effect of continuous (on-line) ratings on the overall retrospective evaluation. The two experiments utilized different pain modalities, heat in the first and mechanical pressure in the second. In addition, all subjects in Experiment 1 experienced stimuli with the same physical magnitude, while in Experiment 2 stimuli were individually tailored to make them subjectively equivalent. In both experiments, subjects were presented with a series of painful stimuli and evaluated the intensity of each stimulus immediately upon its termination. The stimuli themselves were composed of multiple intensity levels that differentially changed over time (Intensity-Patterns). Subjects' on-line ratings in Experiment 2 closely mirrored the physical patterns of the intensities. The main conclusion from both experiments is that the retrospective evaluations of painful experiences are influenced primarily by a combination of the final pain intensity and the intensity trend during the latter half of the experience. In addition, results indicated that duration has little impact on retrospective evaluations for stimuli of relatively constant intensity. However, when the stimulus intensity changes over time, duration does play a role. Finally, the task of continuously reporting the stimulus intensity had a moderating impact on the retrospective evaluations.
Intuitions relating to outcomes extended over time are examined. Utility integration is proposed as a normative rule for the evaluation of extended episodes. In Experiment 1, subjects explicitly compared aversive experiences of varying durations. By several measures, disutility was a marginally decreasing function of episode duration, even for experiences that were thought to become increasingly aversive. This pattern is a qualitative violation of the integration rule. In Experiment 2, subjects made global evaluations of a hypothetical person's aversive experiences, on the basis of a series of subjective ratings of discomfort made at periodic intervals. The results showed an extreme sensitivity to improving or deteriorating trend and a striking neglect of duration. The final moments of an extended episode appear to exert a strong influence on the overall judgment. This leads to violations of monotonicity when adding some moments of moderate pain reduces judgments of global aversiveness.
Experiences often consist of a number of temporally separated events or outcomes, events which might be positive or negative. Building on previous research, the present paper proposes that the chronological order of the component events influences overall evaluations of these experiences. In particular, a preference for happy endings is hypothesized such that an experience consisting of a positive and a negative event is evaluated as more satisfactory if the positive event occurs last. This preference is examined in three studies in a variety of contexts. A preference for happy endings is shown to influence people's preferences, even to the extent of influencing preferences for segregated versus integrated events (Thaler, 1985). The implications of a preference for happy endings for decision researchers are also explored.
How do people create overall evaluations for experiences that change in intensity over time? Wharules' do they use for combining such dierent intensities into single overall evaluations? And what factors in¯uence these integration rules? This paper starts by examining the relationship between the patterns of experi-ences over time and their overall evaluations. Within this framework, we propose and test the idea that the rules for combining such experiences depend on whether the experiences are perceived to be composed of single or multiple parts (i.e. con-tinuous or discrete). In two experiments we demonstrate that an experience's level of cohesiveness moderates the relationship between its pattern and overall evaluation. The results show that breaking up experiences substantially reduces the impact of patterns on overall evaluations. In addition, we demonstrate that continuously measuring momentary intensities produces a similar eect on this relationship, causing us to speculate that providing continuous intensity responses causes subjects to self-segment the experience.
Originally published in 1976, this classic work helped to establish the legitimacy of understanding economic behaviour in psychological terms. Its central theme was that, despite the economic abundance that Americans enjoyed in the mid-twentieth century, they were at heart dissatisfied with much of their lives. Mainstream economics could not account for this kind of reaction and Scitovsky sought to explain it in theories that combined economics with psychology. Scitovsky has revised the last chapter and added a new chapter dealing with some contemporary aspects. In addition, Robert Frank, author of Choosing the Right Pond (OUP, 1985) has written a foreword.
Documented with 2 experiments a phenomenon of duration neglect in people's global evaluations of past affective experiences. In Study 1, 32 Ss viewed aversive film clips and pleasant film clips that varied in duration and intensity. Ss provided real-time ratings of affect during each clip and global evaluations of each clip when it was over. In Study 2, 96 Ss viewed these same clips and later ranked them by their contribution to an overall experience of pleasantness (or unpleasantness). Experimental Ss ranked the films from memory; control Ss were informed of the ranking task in advance and encouraged to make evaluations on-line. Effects of film duration on retropsective evaluations were small, entirely explained by changes in real-time affects and further reduced when made from memory. Retrospective evaluations appear to be determined by a weighing average of "snapshots" of the actual affective experiences, as if duration did not matter.
The authors present survey data challenging the assumption implicit in analyses of labor supply that, all else being equal, workers prefer declining over increasing wage profiles. The authors test several explanations for their results, including that (1) there is something special about wages (e.g., their association with productivity), as opposed to other types of payments, that induces the preference for increasing wages; (2) utility depends not only on absolute levels of consumption, but also on changes in consumption over time; and (3) respondents who prefer increasing wage profiles are irrational and would change their behavior if the rationale for preferring declining wages were explained. Copyright 1991 by University of Chicago Press.
Patients' memories of painful medical procedures may influence their decisions about future treatments, yet memories are imperfect and susceptible to bias. We recorded in real-time the intensity of pain experienced by patients undergoing colonoscopy (n = 154) and lithotripsy (n = 133). We subsequently examined patients' retrospective evaluations of the total pain of the procedure, and related these evaluations to the real-time recording obtained during the experience. We found that individuals varied substantially in the total amount of pain they remembered. Patients' judgments of total pain were strongly correlated with the peak intensity of pain (P < 0.005) and with the intensity of pain recorded during the last 3 min of the procedure (P < 0.005). Despite substantial variation in the duration of the experience, lengthy procedures were not remembered as particularly aversive. We suggest that patients' memories of painful medical procedures largely reflect the intensity of pain at the worst part and at the final part of the experience.
Retrospective evaluations of aversive episodes were studied in the context of a general model of "judgment by prototype" that has been applied in other situations. Unpleasant sounds of variable loudness and duration were the stimuli. In Experiment 1, continuous reports of annoyance closely tracked variations of noise intensity. Hypotheses about the determinants of retrospective evaluation were examined in Experiment 2. Experiment 3 confirmed a prediction of judgment by prototype: The effects of sound duration and intensity are additive in multitrial experiments. Experiment 4 confirmed a robust preference for aversive episodes that are "improved" by adding a period of reduced aversiveness.
We show that likelihood judgments are biased toward an ignorance-prior probability that assigns equal credence to each mutually exclusive event considered by the judge. The value of the ignorance prior depends crucially on how the set of possibilities (i.e., the state space) is subjectively partitioned by the judge. For instance, asking "what is the probability that Sunday will be hotter than any other day next week?" facilitates a two-fold case partition, [Sunday hotter, Sunday not hotter], thus priming an ignorance prior of 1/2. In contrast, asking "what is the probability that the hottest day of the week will be Sunday?" facilitates a seven-fold class partition, [Sunday hottest, Monday hottest, etc.], priming an ignorance prior of 1/7. In four studies, we observed systematic partition dependence: Judgments made by participants presented with either case or class formulations of the same query were biased toward the corresponding ignorance prior.
This paper presents a model of intertemporal choice that incorporates "savoring" and "dread"-i.e., utility from anticipat ion of delayed consumption. The model explains why an individual with positive time preference may delay desirable outcomes or get unpleas ant outcomes over with quickly, contrary to the prediction of convent ional formulations of intertemporal choice. Implications of savoring and dread for savings behavior, empirical estimation of discount rate s, and public policy efforts to combat myopic behavior are explored. The model provides an explanation for common violations of the indepe ndence axiom as applied to intertemporal choice. Copyright 1987 by Royal Economic Society.
- G Ariely
- Zauberman
Ariely, G. Zauberman / Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 91 (2003) 128–139
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- D Ariely
- G Zauberman
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D. Ariely, G. Zauberman / Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 91 (2003) 128–139