Report on comparative results of tested water saving techniques, with respect to mainly physical factors at local and regional level, including ranking of techniques for a range of environmental conditions

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Project no. 516731
WATER REUSE
Sustainable waste water recycling technologies for irrigated land in Nis and
Southern European States
INCO-2003-D1 Environmental protection
DELIVERABLE 26: Report on comparative results of tested water saving techniques, with
respect to mainly physical factors at local and regional level, including ranking of
techniques for a range of environmental conditions
Date of preparation: July 2010
Start date of the project: Sept. 1st 2005. Duration: 5 years
Authors:
Simone Verzandvoort (Alterra, WUR), Demie Moore (Alterra, WUR) , Erik van den Elsen (Alterra, WUR),
Fuensanta Garcia Orenes (University Miguel Hernandéz, Spain), Jorge Solera Mataíx (University Miguel
Hernandéz, Spain), Alicia Morugán (University Miguel Hernandéz, Spain), Vasilis Diamantis (Democritus
University of Thrace, Greece), Tatyana Laktionova (Institute for Soil Science and Agrochemistry Research,
Ukraine), VitalyiMedvedev (Institute for Soil Science and Agrochemistry Research, Ukraine), Anatoly
Zeiliguer (Moscow State University of Environmental Engineering), Olga Ermolaeva (Moscow State
University of Environmental Engineering)
Project coordinator: Prof. Dr. Coen Ritsema, ALTERRA
Project co-funded by the European Commission within the Sixth Framework Programme (2002-
2006)
Dissemination Level
PU Public PU
PP Restricted to other programme participants (including the Commission Services)
RE Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Commission
Services)
CO Confidential, only for members of the consortium (including the Commission
Services)

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3 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 5
2 Short biophysical description of study areas ....................................................................... 7
2.1 Alicante province, Spain ...................................................................................................... 7
2.1.1 Climate ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.1.2 Soils and land use ........................................................................................................ 7
2.1.3 Social and economic aspects ....................................................................................... 9
2.1.4 Waste water use .......................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Saratov Region, Russia ......................................................................................................... 9
2.2.1 Climate ....................................................................................................................... 10
2.2.2 Soils and land use ...................................................................................................... 11
2.2.3 Water resources and irrigation history ..................................................................... 12
2.3 Kharkiv region, Ukraine ..................................................................................................... 14
2.3.1 Climate ....................................................................................................................... 14
2.3.2 Soils and land use ...................................................................................................... 15
2.3.3 Use of wastewater for irrigation ............................................................................... 16
2.4 Maggana region, Greece ................................................................................................... 16
2.4.1 Climate ....................................................................................................................... 18
2.4.2 Soils and land use ...................................................................................................... 18
2.4.3 Hydrogeological setting and irrigation practice ........................................................ 18
3 Major problems in sustainable land and water management motivating water saving
strategies ................................................................................................................................ 21
3.1 Major land use problems related to soil, water, and land management .......................... 21
3.1.1 Spain .......................................................................................................................... 23
3.1.2 Russia ......................................................................................................................... 23
3.1.3 Ukraine ...................................................................................................................... 24
3.1.4 Greece........................................................................................................................ 25
3.2 Objectives of water saving strategies ................................................................................ 26
4 Biophysical conditions in the test applications of water saving strategies .......................... 27
4.1 Land use and terrain conditions ........................................................................................ 28
4.2 Soil characteristics ............................................................................................................. 30
4.3 Agro-climatic conditions .................................................................................................... 35
4.4 Water-related conditions .................................................................................................. 37
4.5 Importance of biophysical factors for applicability of water saving strategies................. 39
5 Identification of areas where the environmental conditions exist for successful use of the
water saving strategies ........................................................................................................... 41
5.1 Outcomes of tests on water saving strategies in terms of the objectives of the Water
Reuse project ................................................................................................................................. 41

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5.1.1 Alicante province, Spain ............................................................................................ 41
5.1.2 Saratov Region, Russia ............................................................................................... 42
5.1.3 Kharkiv region, Ukraine ............................................................................................. 43
5.1.4 Maggana region, Greece ........................................................................................... 43
5.2 Biophysical conditions under which the strategies are likely and not likely to be effective
and identification of potential areas for application..................................................................... 44
5.2.1 Alicante province, Spain ............................................................................................ 45
5.2.2 Saratov region, Russian Federation ........................................................................... 46
5.2.3 Kharkiv region, Ukraine ............................................................................................. 48
5.2.4 Maggana region, Greece ........................................................................................... 50
6 Summary and conclusions ................................................................................................ 53
6.1 Biophysical conditions motivating the introduction of water saving strategies ............... 54
6.2 Implications for the selection of water saving strategies for an area ............................... 56
7 References ...................................................................................................................... 59

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1 Introduction
In irrigated areas in the New Independent States (NIS) and southern European States, inefficient
use of conventional water resources occurs through incomplete wetting of soils, which causes
accelerated runoff and preferential flow, and also through excessive evaporation associated with
unhindered capillary rise. Furthermore, a largely unexploited potential exists to save conventional
irrigation water by supplementation with organic-rich waste water, which, if used appropriately,
can also lead to improvements to soil physical properties and soil nutrient and organic matter
content (e.g. Lazarova and Asano, 2005). The overall objective of the Water Reuse project was to
develop new and to advance existing sustainable water saving strategies in the NIS and
Mediterranean states focusing on largely unexploited opportunities for (a) water saving, and (b)
using organic-rich wastewater as a non-conventional water resource on irrigated land. In
particular, the project aimed to (a) reduce irrigation water losses by developing, evaluating and
promoting techniques that improve the wetting properties of soils, and (b) investigate the use of
organic-rich waste water as a non-conventional water resource in irrigation and, in addition, as a
tool in improving soil physical properties and soil nutrient and organic matter content.
This report discusses the findings of the Water Reuse Project in relationship to biophysical
environmental conditions. The objective is to identify where the water saving strategies tested on
plot scale, may be applicable or not on a field and/or regional scale, and why – in terms of the land
conditions, independent of socio-cultural-economic factors.
The report is structured as follows. Chapter 2 gives a short biophysical description of the study
areas. Chapter 3 outlines major problems in sustainable land and water management motivating
the introduction of water saving strategies in the studied regions. Chapter 4 sketches the
biophysical conditions where the water saving strategies were tested, and the importance of each
condition for the applicability of the water saving strategies. Finally, Chapter 5 describes the
environmental (biophysical) conditions under which the strategies are likely and not likely to be
effective, and suggests locations in the participating countries, Europe and the world where the
environmental conditions may exist for successful use of the water saving strategie(s) tested.
Sunset on Volga River. Photo: Anatoly Zeiliguer

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2 Short biophysical description of study areas
2.1 Alicante province, Spain
Alicante province is located in the Southeast of Spain, and is one of the three provinces that
constitute the Valencian Community, next to Valencia and Castellon de la Plana. The province of
Alicante is formed by a total of 8 sub-regions and has a total area of 5883 km2 corresponding to
1.16 % of the total area of Spain.
2.1.1 Climate
Due to the geographical situation of Alicante temperate-humid, semiarid, and dry
climates interact in the province, causing a high incidence of heatstroke. Alicante can be assigned
to the typical Mediterranean climatic zone. Winters are smooth; values lower than 0º C are not
frequent in coast zones and in internal zones oscillate among 4º and 6º C. There is a scarcity of
rain in the southern zone, with two annual rainfall maxima and minimum rainfall in July and
August, when the rainfall barely surpasses 20 mm. This limits agricultural activities in certain parts
of the province.
The provincial orography provides an altitudinal contrast between internal areas and coastal zones
and conditions the spatial distribution of rainfall and temperatures. The most important rainfalls
are produced in the northern part of the province, with annual values over 1000 mm joined to
periods of intense rainfalls. Intense rainfall occurs more frequently in autumn. These events are
characterized for their great spatial and temporary irregularity.
Zones receiving more than 200 mm of rainfall during an event may be located next to zones
receiving very little rainfall. Runoff events due to intense rainfall are characteristic of the Spanish
Mediterranean environment.
2.1.2 Soils and land use
Forest, agricultural, industrial and urban areas are the main land uses in the region. In the study
area the main land use is the agricultural, especially that dedicated to the grape. The soils in the
region are very diverse, a common situation in the Mediterranean. The soil of the experimental
site (Calcareous Regosol) is however one of the most common soil types of the province the
region.
Figure 2-1 Golf course, Alicante, Spain. Source: UMH progress report for the Waterreuse project, year 1.

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Figure 2-2 Agricultural land on a sandy, calcareous soil. Biar, Alicante. Photo: UMH ©.
Figure 2-3 Location of the experimental field site of the Water Reuse project in Alicante, Spain. Source:
UMH ©.
Figure 2-4 Experimental field site of the Water Reuse project in Alicante, Spain. Source: UMH ©.

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2.1.3 Social and economic aspects
Although the province has showed a continuous population growth during the 20th
century, during the first 50 years, this was less than in the rest of Spain due to outmigration to the
French colonies of North Africa. Nevertheless, since1960 there was an increase of population
growth. This fact caused a very significant increase of the relevance of the province in the country.
At present, with 3.93% of the Spanish population, the province of Alicante is in the best economic
and demographic moment of its history, being already one of the most densely populated
provinces. Immigration has significantly contributed to this growth.
The economic productivity of Alicante is important compared to other provinces. The most
productive sectors include tourism, services (mainly in the capital) and industry (textile, footwear,
toy industry, marble industry). Traditional activities, such as agriculture, are in a clear backward
movement, although the cultivation of citrus, vegetables and grapevine is still important.
2.1.4 Waste water use
The shortage of natural water resources in arid and semiarid zones in the Mediterranean regions
affects all water users. Fresh water is scarce in these regions due to a large consumptive domestic
use by the growing population with changing lifestyles, the flourishing tourism sector and the
agricultural sector in particular (Figure 2-1, Figure 2-2). Irrigated agriculture is a vital component of
the agricultural sector in Spain. Even if it just occupies about 20% of total crop area, it produces
60% of the total Gross Value Added (GVA) of this sector (MIMAM, 2007). The economic
productivity (€/ha) in irrigated agriculture in Spain is about five times higher than that of rainfed
agriculture (Plan Nacional de Regadios, 2009). A biophysical cause of the water scarcity in the
province of Alicante is the low rainfall and its irregular distribution over the year. In combination
with the limited resources of fresh water and the afore mentioned demand for fresh water, this
leads to groundwater depletion.
This context motivates the reuse of wastewater in agriculture as a logical option to be considered
for the sustainable management of water resources. Wastewater has been used for irrigation
since ancient times by the Greek and Roman civilizations to take advantage of the nutrients
carried in the water and to avoid the contamination of rivers. With the invention of new
technologies for water treatment and irrigation systems the use of wastewater in agriculture has
experienced a new impetus. In Alicante province, the number of waste water treatment plants has
risen from 121 in 2001 to 140 in 2005, and the volumes of available treated wastewater for
agriculture have accordingly increased.
2.2 Saratov Region, Russia
The field experimental site for the Water Reuse project in Saratov region is located in the
southwest of Russia, in the northern part of the Marks District, in the Saratov Region. This area is
part of the Great Russian Plain, on the eastern bank of the lower part of the Volga River (Figure
2-5).

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Figure 2-5 Location of Water Reuse study area in Saratov Region, Russia. Source: Zeiliguer and Ermolaeva
(2009). Yellow area in the upper picture indicates location of Saratov Region.
2.2.1 Climate
The Marksovsky district has a moderately continental climate. The summer is quite long and hot,
lasting from May through September, winter lasts from December through February. The
difference between maximum winter and summer temperatures is 85°C, the difference between
average temperatures of winter and summer is 35°C. The annual precipitation varies from 391 to
435 mm (Fig. 4). The relative air humidity never exceeds 80%, during summertime it averages
about 60%. A blanket of snow settles on the region in the beginning of December and melts away
during the last ten days of March (Figure 2-6). The average maximum snowfall is 28.5 cm in the
forested plains, 26.5 cm in the plains. In April the water storage in the upper 100cm layer of soil
reaches 80-150 mm (Zeiliguer and Ermolaeva, 2009).

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Figure 2-6 Snow covered field in Saratov region. Source: MSUEE (2009).
2.2.2 Soils and land use
The irrigated lands are located mainly on the right bank of the Volga River valley at one of five
river corridor terraces. This territory is characterized by the most favourable soil and hydro-
geological conditions and is suitable for irrigated farming. Fertile automorphic chestnut soils have
been formed on the terraces. As a rule, the ground water is fresh, slightly alkaline; sometimes it
contains salts but their concentration is very low. The ground water table was mainly located at a
depth of 5-7 m and deeper. The unsaturated zone has a two-layer structure: a low penetration
upper layer (loamy soil) and a water bearing lower horizon (sand or loamy sand) (Zeiliguer and
Ermolaeva, 2009).
A thick layer of alluvial sediments (up to 40-60cm) contains a fresh water-bearing horizon.
Therefore, the first industrial irrigation systems have been built here in the 1960s. In spite of the
relatively high natural drainage, the development of irrigation has caused the groundwater table
to rise and water-logging conditions on the adjacent areas. This was followed by dissolution of salt
in the upper unsaturated ground layers and by a rise of ground water with higher salt
concentrations into the root zone with a negative impact on soil fertility. Water-logging occurs first
at the lower terraces above flood lands because of both infiltration of irrigation water and
subsurface inflow from the upper terraces.
Figure 2-7 Land use map of the Marks District, Saratov, Russian Federation. Source: Zeiliguer and
Ermolaeva (2009). For the location of the Marks District, see Figure 2-5.

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The Marks District is an area of intensive agricultural production. Most people in the region are
working in the agricultural sector. Arable lands are covering 195,400 ha of the Marks District. The
crops constitute of around 50% cereals, 1% vegetables and potatoes, 20% technical plants and
20% forage. The number of livestock in the Marks district is 32,300 heads, of which 13,000 cows,
26,600 pigs, 15,800 sheep and 276,000 birds. The field experiments i the Water Reuse project
were done in alfalfa and corn fields (Figure 2-8).
Figure 2-8 Corn (left) and alfalfa fields for field trials in Water Reuse project. Source: MSUEE (2009).
2.2.3 Water resources and irrigation history
Water resources are pivotal for the agriculture in this region. The region has ample water
resources. The average long term river flow from sources located within the Saratov Region's
boundaries is 264.8 km3/year. Estimated resources of underground water use are 1.98 km3/year.
However, the Volga River has multiple uses, like for hydropower generation, irrigation, navigation
and fishery. Therefore water resources should be managed in an adequate manner, taking into
account all water users as well as the ecology of the river system.
Every irrigated hectare of land in Marks District gives about 40 - 45 centers of forage. Around 75%
of the forage yield is provided by irrigated agriculture. However, irrigated land requires financial
expenditures for repairing and exploitation of pumping stations, canals and other structures. The
main cause of the decreasing area for irrigation is the bad condition of structures and ageing of
the irrigation network. The main canals and distribution network of irrigation system are in
exploitation for more than 30 years, but these structures already finished their resources. There is
a need for quite a big financial support to repair or replace these structures. As these structures
belong to state, the financial problem is imposed on governmental services (Zeilguer and
Ermolaeva, 2009).
Figure 2-9 Pivotal sprinkler irrigation system, Saratov region, Russian Federation. Source: MSUEE (2009).
A major land degradation problem in this area is caused mainly by the long time irrigation system
used since its construction in the 1960s, which provoked a ground water table rise due to over
application of irrigation water from a minimal depth of 5-7 meters prior to the irrigation systems,
to the active root zone at present (Pankova, 1993). As a consequence, the rising ground water
provokes (1) water logging of irrigated and surrounding areas causing a change of soil water
regime from semi-arid to semi-humid, (2) a secondary soil salinization due to dissolution of salt

13 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
crystals held in the ground layers of the vadose zone and raising them to the upper root zone,
which creates toxic conditions for plants and augments a soil water osmotic pressure leading to
diminished water availability for plants water in soil, (3) decreasing soil organic matter content
due to leaching, which leads to soil compaction, damage of soil structure, worsening hydraulic
conductivity & water retention capacity and other soil parameters. From the land users' point of
view a high groundwater level, a non-uniform pattern of soil fertility and extensive weed growth
are consequences of former extended irrigation that is still maintained in some areas (Zeiliguer
and Ermolaeva, 2009).
An irrigation system called "Komsomolsky" was constructed at the territory of the Marks District,
pumping water from Volga River (Fig. 9). However, from the beginning (1960) this system was
designed for the use of industrial irrigation with localized pivotal type of sprinkler equipment like
Valley (for irrigation at once about 50-70 ha) by agri-industrial collective farms to produce crops
for farm animals (Figure 2-9). Actually at the market conditions in this region there are many
farmers looking to diversify agricultural irrigated production by growing legumes. Unfortunately,
the existing irrigation technology and equipment (water supply canals and huge pivot sprinkler
systems with pressured water) is not compatible with the new mobile irrigation method for small
plots. Therefore many new farmers use an old furrow irrigation system (exported from Central
Asia) in the fields located near existing water supply canals. This irrigation system in the context of
local conditions (soil types and ground water with accumulated salts) is very dangerous in terms of
soil degradation/salinization as well as erosion.
Figure 2-10 Water erosion induced by an over-application of irrigation water. Photo: Anatoly Zeiliguer.

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Figure 2-11 Komsomolsky irrigation system. Source: Zeiliguer and Ermolaeva (2009).
2.3 Kharkiv region, Ukraine
The field experimental stations employed for the Water Reuse project in Ukraine are located in
the Kharkiv region, Kharkiv District, v. Korotych on almost plain land. The region is located in east
part of Ukraine (Figure 2-14).
2.3.1 Climate
The area belongs to the Forest Steppe zone, and is characterized by a moderately moist, warm
climate, with 470-515 mm of annual rainfall. Hydrothermal coefficients range from 1.3-1.0,Σ>100 C
– 2500-2900; Average annual temperature is 6.0-7.0° C. The absolute minimum air temperature is
−34°C, and the absolute maximum + 35° C. Warm period is 290 days, vegetation period is 165-198
days.

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2.3.2 Soils and land use
The study area is part of the Dniper-Donetzk lowland in the Eastern-European plain. This belongs
to the Southern Left Bank of Forest Steppe zone. The soil type of the experimental plot isHaplic
Chernozem heavy loam (code 12 in Figure 2-12), formed in a loess substrate. The groundwater is
deep (>10 m). Humus content in soil profile is from 4.5% (H horizon) to 1.6% (Hp). The general
composition of the soil profile is:
- humus horizon (H) - 0-50 cm
- 1st transition horizon (Hp) - 51-80 cm
- 2nd transition horizon (HP) - 81-115 cm
- loess (P) - > 115 cm.
The Kharkiv region is chracterised by the occurrence of different types of Chernozems (codes 8 to
21 in Figure 2-12).
Figure 2-12 Soil map of Kharkiv region, scale 1:1500000 (Source: Atlas of Ukrainian soil properties maps,
CD.- T.Laktionova, V.Medvedev et al., 2006, Ukr.)
The main crops grown in irrigated agriculture are corn and wheat (spring and winter)
Figure 2-13) sunflower and vegetables. The experimental plot was set-up in a fallow land, which
was tilled before the start of the experiment.
Figure 2-13 Experimental field plot for
the Water Reuse project in Kharkiv
region. Spring wheat in a mulched
surface. Source: ISSAR (2009).

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2.3.3 Use of wastewater for irrigation
In Ukraine there is a long record of positive experiences in using wastewater for irrigation and
fertilization in agriculture. Nevertheless, currently only 5% of wastewater produced in Ukraine is
used for irrigation, while 16% would be suitable according to national standards (Salo et al., 1991).
Due to the economic crises following the transition from the Soviet regime to a market economy,
the material and financial resources to maintain irrigation systems have declined, and the
awareness of wastewater as a resource for irrigation has decreased.
The region has insufficient rainfall for rainfed agriculture, and therefore field cultures require
irrigation. At the same time fresh water resources are insufficient for irrigated agriculture. The use
of wastewater for irrigation provides a logical water saving strategy. The wastewater used in the
irrigation experiments was derived from municipal waste water from Kharkiv and Mariupol. These
wastewater types are most widespread, are currently used for irrigation in the region, and have
scope for wider application in the future.
Figure 2-14 Location of Kharkiv regionand city (marker) in Ukraine. Adapted from Google Maps.
2.4 Maggana region, Greece
The study area in Greece is situated in the East Nestos river delta (Prefecture of Xanthi) at a
distance of 1.7 km from the coast. The area is located in the coastal plain. The plain region of
Maggana is part of the Nestos River and Laspias stream alluvial field, forming a large alluvial fan
which extends south to the coastline of Thracean Sea (Figure 2-15).

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Figure 2-15 Location of the study area for the Water Reuse project in Maggana region, Greece. Rectangle
indicates the location of the study area. Source: DUTH (2005).
Figure 2-16 Location of Nestos River Delta and Maggana study area. Source: DUTH (2009).
Thracean Sea
Vistonida
Lagoon
BULGARIA
TURKEY
STUDY
AREA
THRACE
THRACE
KOMOTINI
ALEX/POLIS
XANTHI
GREECE

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2.4.1 Climate
Greece is characterized be a severe water imbalance particularly in the summer months, due to
low precipitation and, at the same time, increased demands for irrigation and water use due to
tourism. The climate of Greece is sub-humid Mediterranean with humid and relative cold winters
and dry and warm summers with an average rainfall of 870 mm/year. Annual rainfall ranges from
300 to 500 mm in the southeast of Greece and from 800 to 1200 mm in the north-western plains
of the mainland, while in some mountainous areas it may be above 2000 mm. Thelarge
climatologically differences are due to the complex vertical and horizontal distribution of the
mountains and the great number of islands.
In the experimental coastal region, the climate is semi-humid Mediterranean type, and the
average annual precipitation is 550 mm. Maximum temperature is 38°C during July and August
and minimum temperature -5°C during December to February. The average daily humidity ranges
from maximum 100% during winter to minimum 40% during summer.
2.4.2 Soils and land use
There is a variety of soil types in the prefecture of Xanthi from clay to sand. Most abundant soil
types are sandy, sandy clay loam and sandy and silty loam (Table 1). The main crop types and area
farmed, based on the Statistical Service of Greece, are shown in Table 2.
Table 2-1Main soil types in the Prefecture of Xanthi, Greece. Source: Democritus University of Thrace,
Greece.
Soil type
Percentage of
agricultural land (%)
Soil type Percentage of agricultural
land (%)
Sand 22.0 Clay loam 4.4
Pegmatic sand 2.2 Sandy clay loam 20.2
Loamy sand 9.0 Sandy clay 6.5
Sandy loam 13.4 Loamy & blocky peds 2.2
Silty loam 13.4 Metamorphic rocks 2.2
Table 2-2 Agricultural farmland, crops by categories and fallow land during the year 2004 (in 1000 m2).
Source: Democritus University of Thrace, Greece.
Prefecture Xanthi
Land area farmed as a whole 450.303
Total farm land plus fallow land 453.783
Cultivated land (land ploughed) 403.708
Land used for vegetable farming 22.831
Orchards
Total 10.461
Olive groves 4.292
Vineyards – currant vineyards 551
Fallow land (1-5 yr) 16.232
2.4.3 Hydrogeological setting and irrigation practice
The study area is extended within a recent sedimentary delta environment of a thickness of some
tens of meters formed by the Nestos deposits. The alterations of sand, clay and silt layering
deposits, which resulted from a wide range of structural and depositional processes, produced a
heterogeneous geological environment. The presence of organic clay at some locations due to the
Delta marshes is also important. The topsoil in the flood plain consists of fine grained sediment.

19 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
Soil surface elevation is 1.8 m above mean sea level and the groundwater table is near soil surface
during in the winter and spring seasons.
Laspias stream is located across the eastern side of the study area where the degraded industrial
and sewage treatment effluents are discharged. Northerly, at a distance of about 2 km, a drainage
trench is located, which after draining the northerly irrigated land, conveys water into the Laspias
stream.
Irrigation water is pumped from groundwater. Continuous pumping for irrigation
has resulted in sea water intrusion into the coastal aquifers, and soil salinization and alkalinization.
Two distinct hydrogeological systems exist within the alluvial deposits of the wider study area:
• The shallow system, consisting of phreatic and mostly of semi-confined aquifers extended
down to a depth of approximately 30 m. Natural recharge to this system originates mostly
from the infiltration of rainfall and less from the stream percolation of the north hilly area.
During the last decade, a great amount of small diameter shallow wells (up to 15 m depth)
were pumping water out of the system. Nowadays, only few of them are operated, whilst
many of the other shallow wells have been replaced by deeper wells (up to 50 m depth), like in
Dekarchon area.
• The deeper system, consisting of confined aquifers extended to a depth of at least 190 m.
Natural recharge to this system comes to a great extent from river Nestos percolation through
buried old stream beds, and from the lateral groundwater inflows coming from the adjacent
hydrogeological basinof Vistonida Lake .
Figure 2-17 Soil salinity in the Nestos Delta, Greece. Photo: I. Giougkis.

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3 Major problems in sustainable land and water management motivating
water saving strategies
3.1 Major land use problems related to soil, water, and land management
The major problems in sustainable land and water management motivating the introduction of
water saving strategies in the studied regions were stated by the research teams and by
consultation of land users. They were summarized as ‘land use problems’ based on FAO’s
definition of ‘land’ as including soil and terrain forms, attributes of the near-surface climate, the
plant and animal populations, the human settlement pattern and physical results of past and
present human activity (terracing, water storage or drainage structures, roads, buildings, etc.)
(FAO/UNEP, 1997).
A synoptic overview of the problems mentioned by both groups in all regions is given in
Figure 3-2, Figure 3-3 and Figure 3-4. This shows that salinization is the most frequently mentioned
problem related to soil, the scarcity of fresh water is the most frequently mentioned water related
problem, and low crop productivity is the most frequently mentioned land management problem.
Figure 3-1 Salinization of soils. Example from Maggana region, Greece. Source: DUTH (2009).

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Figure 3-2 Overview of soil related problems in studied regions mentioned by researchers and land users.
Figure 3-3 Overview of water related problems in studied regions mentioned by researchers and land
users.
Figure 3-4 Overview of problems related to land management in studied regions mentioned by
researchers and land users.

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There is no consistent pattern in the difference between the mentioning of land use problems by
the researchers and land users. In all regions except the Maggana region in Greece, the
researchers mention more land use related problems than land users. Most differences were
observed among the problems mentioned with regard to land management. These include
problems that would indeed not be expected to be mentioned by land users, referring to the
inappropriate use of resources and water and to the lack of knowledge on technologies or the
consequences of land or water management.
3.1.1 Spain
For the Spanish region, according to the researchers soil related problems include the low organic
carbon content, salinity, erosion, degradation, contamination with heavy metals, and urbanization.
Water related problems in the Alicante region include the scarcity of fresh water, contamination
of groundwater, and the low quality of surface and groundwater. Problems related to land
management include the inappropriate use of fertilizers and manure, low crop productivity.
According to the land users, low soil quality, soil salinization and degradation constitute the most
important soil related problems. With regard to water, land users mention the scarcity of fresh
water and the low availability of wastewater as problems. Land management problems include the
low crop productivity and overexploitation of aquifers.
Problems dealing with soil fertility (low soil quality, low organic matter or carbon contents) were
uniquely mentioned for the Spanish region. This also applied to problems dealing with soil
degradation and soil threats (erosion, heavy metal contamination, urbanization). Also, the
overexploitation of aquifers was uniquely mentioned as a land use problem for the Spanish region.
3.1.2 Russia
From the researchers’ point of view soil salinization and soil alkalinisation constitute one of the
major soil related land use problems for the irrigated land in the Saratov region. In Soviet times
widespread irrigation provoked the rising of groundwater levels, inducing secondary soil
salinization and alkalinization (in case the salts dominantly consist of sodium carbonates) in the
unsaturated zone of the soils (Gabchenko, 2008).
The capillary rise of dissolved salts to the root zone causes toxic conditions for plants due to the
increase of the osmotic pressure gradient in the soil. This results in the diminished availability of
water for plants. Another negative effect of soil salinization and alkalinisation is the development
of spots with low infiltrability or permeability for rainfall and irrigation water.
The low and inhomogeneous permeability of soils is mentioned as a major problem in agricultural
fields irrigated by pivotal sprinkler installations by both researchers and land users. The low
permeability on local elevations runoff accumulates temporarily in local depressions, where
preferential flow takes place. Land users report that at the same time significant parts of irrigated
fields are too dry and too wet. By leaching from the root zone, the percolated water is often lost
for crops to the groundwater, with consequent rising of the groundwater level with included salts.
This type of secondary salinization is attributed to inappropriate irrigation techniques. However,
the researchers report that land users are not aware of the fact that salinization is caused by the
rise of the groundwater table, which in turn is caused by the inappropriate application of irrigation
water.

24
Among the problems related to land management the researchers mention the absence of a
stimulus to land users to modernize irrigation techniques and to increase the efficiency of
irrigation in agriculture. This relates to the regional policy, which subsidizes the energy used for
the transport of water from the Volga River to fields.
As a result of the inhomogeneous permeability of fields, land users in Saratov region experience
similar patterns in crop productivity, with sub-optimal yields on spots which are too dry and too
wet. Overall, the average yield from fields is sub-optimal.
Land users also experience the scarcity of fresh water resources as a major land use problem,
which is even more problematic due to the large distances from fields to water resources for
irrigation (usually rivers) (Figure 3-5). Land users turn to snow melt water from small ponds as a
resource of irrigation water. With regard to land management, the cost-benefit ratio of irrigated
agriculture is unfavourable for land users, with costs of water supply and operational costs largely
surpassing revenues from crop yields. Without the regional subsidies on energy used for irrigation,
many agricultural enterprises would go bankrupt.
Figure 3-5 Empty water supply canal in Saratov Region, Russian Federation. Photo: Anatoly Zeiliguer.
3.1.3 Ukraine
From the research team’s point of view there are no major soil related problems hampering
agricultural land use in Kharkiv region. The physical soil properties and nutrient availability are
favourable. This is also experienced by the land users.
The unreliability of rainfall and the incidence of drought in the period April-June however may
hamper agricultural land use. Land users have adapted to this phenomenon in several ways. Soil
moisture cumulated in the soil during autumn and winter is conserved by minimizing the number
and depth of soil tillage in the spring. When soil moisture contents are low, and not too much
weed is present, farmers usually only perform harrowing and tillage to small depths. Other agro-
technological methods to conserve soil moisture include tillage without turning the top layer
(reduced tillage) and leaving plant residues in the form of mulch or stubbles. On slopes soil tillage
is adapted to retain draining overland flow.

25 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
According to the researchers, the main reasons for the low performance of agriculture in the
region is the sub-optimal application of good land management practices like crop rotations and
practices related to tillage, weeding, and the insufficient use of fertilizers (about 50 kg NPK/ha,
whereas 150-200 kg/ha should be used in the region for the crop production systems studied), and
pesticides.
From the land users’ point of view the lack of credits and resources (fertilizers and equipment)
cause problems with agricultural land management.
3.1.4 Greece
From the research team’s point of view soil water repellency is an important soil related problem
for irrigated agriculture, at least in coarse textured soils. Soil water repellency results in significant
water losses (due to evaporation and runoff) and un-even distribution of irrigation water with
corresponding poor plant growth (dry spots) (Ritsema and Dekker, 2003). Soil salinization was also
mentioned by researchers as a major soil related problem in the East Nestos Delta region. The use
of saline groundwater for irrigation purposes, the lack of freshwater sources and the limited
awareness of the farmers, are factors responsible for land degradation and desertification in the
region.
Figure 3-6 Dry spots and preferential flow pathways in an olive orchard in East Nestos Delta Region,
Greece.
From the land users’ point of view soil water repellency is a serious problem for the olive orchard
investigated in the Waterreuse experiments. The farmer reported that the soil does not absorb
water easily. After a strong irrigation event (flooding) the soil 5-10 cm below the surface was dry.
It generally required large amounts of water for complete wetting. Tap water, is being used by the
farmer for the olive orchard.Groundwater salinity is reported by land users as a significant
problem in the wider region. The scarcity of fresh water resources is also reported as a major
issue, since farmers have to pump (operational costs due to diesel pumps employed) water from

26
adjacent streams and transport it several kilometres inland for irrigation. The revenues from crop
yields are considered low by land users due to the low crop prices.
3.2 Objectives of water saving strategies
The objectives of the Water Reuse project were:
Overall objective: To develop new, and advance existing, sustainable water saving strategies in the
NIS and Mediterranean States by focusing on largely unexploited opportunities for (a) water
saving and (b) use of organic-rich waste water as a non-conventional water resource on irrigated
land.
Specific objective 1: Develop strategies for the exploitation and advanced management of soil
wetting characteristics to counter water losses which occur through surface runoff, evaporation
and uneven wetting and preferential flow in the subsoil, and
Specific objective 2: Develop strategies for the use of organic-rich municipal, agricultural and
industrial wastewater as an additional water resource for irrigation and nutrient source, and
means for improving soil hydraulic properties and increasing medium-term carbon storage in soils.
Based on WPs 3 and 4, water saving strategies were selected and ranked by effectiveness with
regard to the project objectives for all study sites using the results from the SWAP model (see
deliverables 201 and 212
Figure 3-7
). The measures resulting from the most promising strategies were
selected for investigation in field experiments. The ranking of the water saving strategies is
summarized in below. This figure shows that irrigation with wastewater ranked highest
as a strategy useful to test for the objectives of the Water Reuse project, followed by irrigation
scheduling. It also shows that all sites have tested at least 2 relevant strategies. The evaluation and
ranking of water saving strategies with regard to physical performance is described in Deliverable
25 (Moore et al., 2010).
Figure 3-7 Ranking of water saving strategies tested in study areas based on the SWAP model analysis for
each site. Colors from green to red denote increasing rank order.
1 Evaluation of results from WP 3 and WP 4 with respect to water saving potential and applicability of proposed water
saving techniques for each site
2 Final selection of water saving approaches to be evaluated in field trials at each site based also on results from initial
laboratory trials.
Water saving strategy Spain Russia Ukraine Greece
Irrigation scheduling
Irrigation with waste water
Mulching
Use of surfactant
Claying

27 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
4 Biophysical conditions in the test applications of water saving strategies
The applicability of water saving strategies in an area is determined by biophysical and socio-
economic conditions of the region. The biophysical conditions are the subject of this report. They
can be subdivided in four groups according to Figure 4-1.
Figure 4-1 Main groups of biophysical conditions determining the applicability of water saving strategies.
Agro-climatic conditions
Water saving strategies:
• irrigation scheduling
• irrigation with wastewater
• mulching
• claying
• use of surfactant
Water-related conditions
Soil characteristics
Land use and terrain-related conditions

28
4.1 Land use and terrain conditions
Figure 4-2 gives an overview of the land use and terrain conditions in the test applications of the
water saving strategies. The land use typology as used in the WOCAT questionnaire on
technologies was used (WOCAT, 2008) to indicate the land use types where the main types of
water saving strategies were applied. The land use types concerned included tree cropping (all
strategies), annual cropping (irrigation scheduling, irrigation with wastewater and mulching), and
perennial cropping (irrigation scheduling and irrigation with wastewater). The tree cropping
referred to vinegrapes (Figure 4-5) and olive trees in Spain and Greece. The annual crops included
alfalfa, corn, oats and wheat in the Russian Federation and Ukraine (Figure 4-3). Finally, the use of
surfactant and claying were trialled in a wasteland irrigated with wastewater during almost 20
years in Spain (Table 4-1).
Land use type Altitudinal zonation Slopes Landforms3
Main water saving strategy Ct Ca Cp Oo 0-100 100-500
500-
750 0-2%
Plateau/
plains1
Vally
floors2
Irrigation scheduling
Irrigation with waste water
Mulching
Use of surfactant
Claying
1 Plateau / plains: extended level land (slopes less than 8 %).
2 Valley floors: elongated strips of level land (less than 8 % slope), flanked by sloping or steep land on both sides.
3WOCAT, 2008
Figure 4-2 Overview of land use and terrain conditions in the test applications of water saving strategies.
Land use types are explained in Figure 4-4
Figure 4-3 Wheat cultivation in Saratov Region, Russian Federation. Photo: A. Zeiliguer.

29 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
Table 4-1 Land use types where the main water saving strategies in each study area were applied. Land
use types are explained in Figure 4-4.
Main water saving strategy Alicante, Spain Saratov region,
Russia
Kharkiv region,
Ukraine
Maggana
region, Greece
Irrigation scheduling
Ct
Cp/Ca
Ca
Irrigation with waste water Ct Cp/Ca Ca Ct
Mulching Ct Ca
Use of surfactant Oo* Ct
Claying Oo* Ct
* The historical plot. Abandoned land that during approximately 20 years (1981-2000) was irrigated with waste waters
with very low degree of depuration and during that period there was a Populus alba tree stand used as a “green filter”. In
2000 the trees were cut and the land was abandoned.
Figure 4-4 Land use typology (selected) from the WOCAT questionnaire on technologies for sustainable
land management (WOCAT, 2008).
Figure 4-5 Vitis labrusca, the vinegrape used in the field experiments in Alicante Region, Spain.
The water saving strategies were tested in flat areas in the lower range of altitudinal zones
(between 0 and 750 m ASL), which are mostly located in plateaus, plains and valley floors (Figure
4-2). The situation in lower altitudes is related to the ease to supply irrigation water from sources
usually available in lower parts of the landscape from wastewater collection points or surface or
groundwater water bodies, through channels, pipelines or in tanks. The application on terrain with
smaller slopes is understandable as most strategies aim to optimize infiltration of irrigation water

30
and rainfall, which will more easily be lost from the surface as runoff at steeper slopes. Therefore,
the applicability of the strategies using irrigation water decreases with application at higher
locations in the landscape and at steeper slopes. For the Ukrainian site, irrigation is specifically
undesirable on slopes above 5° and on soils susceptible to water erosion (ISSAR, 2010). It is often
found that the uniform application of irrigation water on areas with microrelief causes some areas
to receive too much water and others too little (e.g. Bader et al., 2010; Playan et al., 1996;
Zeiliguer et al., in press). For this reason irrigation is advised to be performed on preliminarily
levelled areas in the Ukrainian site (ISSAR, 2010).
4.2 Soil characteristics
The soil characteristics in the areas for test application of the water saving strategies are shown in
Figure 4-6 and Figure 4-9.
Soil type Soil depth Soil texture
Main water
saving
strategy
fluvent
1
/Calc
areous
Regosol2
Autmorphic
Chestnut3
Chernozem
Chernic4
Entisol-
Psamment5
very shallow
(0-20 cm)
shallow (20-
50 cm)
deep (80-120
cm)
Coarse/light
(sandy)
Medium
(loam)
Fine/heavy
(clay)
Irrigation scheduling
Irrigation with waste water
Mulching
Use of surfactant
Claying
1 SSS (2006): Soil Survey Staff, 2006. Keys to Soil Taxonomy. 10th ed. NRCS, Washington, DC
2 WRB (2006): FAO, 2006. World Reference Base for Soil Resources. World Soil Resources Report 103, FAO, Rome.
3Russian soil classification system (1997)
4WRB (1998)
5 USDA Soil taxonomy (1975)
Figure 4-6 Overview soil characteristics in the test applications of water saving strategies. Coloured cells
denote the occurrence of a condition in one or more study areas.
For the soil type, the (sub-)orders in the soil classification systems used by the research teams in
the study countries was mentioned, because a detailed assessment of the soil type would be
required to perform a correct transformation of soil taxonomical classes. The soil types on which
water saving strategies were trialled in the Water Reuse project have been selected because they
require irrigation for crop production for various reasons, which include the low moisture
retention capacity or the periodic lack of soil moisture in dry seasons.
All strategies were trialled in Calcareous Regosols in the study site in Alicante, Spain. Regosols are
very weakly developed mineral soils in unconsolidated materials that are not very shallow or very
rich in gravels, sandy or with fluvic materials. Regosols are extensive in eroding lands, particularly
in arid and semi-arid areas and in mountainous terrain (Figure 4-7).Regosols with rainfall of 500–
1000 mm/year need irrigation for satisfactory crop production (Lal, 2006). In the Alicante region,
annual rainfall is below 500 mm (Table 4-3), and therefore water saving strategies should include
forms of irrigation. The low moisture holding capacity of Regosols calls for frequent applications of
irrigation water (Lal, 2006).

31 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
Figure 4-7 Areas in Europe where Regosols are the dominant soil type. Source: Soil Atlas of Europe, EC
(2006).
Irrigation scheduling and irrigation with wastewater were also trialled on autmorphic chestnut
soils in Saratov Region, Russia. These soils have formed on terraces of the Volga river, which are
very suitable for agriculture when irrigation is applied (Kireycheva et al.). Chestnut soils in the
Russian soil classification system correspond to Kastanozems in the WRB (2006) system due to the
chestnut-brown colour of the surface soil. These soils are dark brown and rich in organic matter.
They are part of the Eurasian short-grass steppe belt (southern Ukraine, the south of the Russian
Federation, Kazakhstan and Mongolia), south of the Eurasian tall-grass steppe belt with
Chernozems. Kastanozems are potentially rich soils, but the periodic lack of soil moisture is the
main obstacle to high yields. Irrigation is nearly always necessary for high yields; care must be
taken to avoid secondary salinization of the surface soil, as was also described in the major land
use problems in the area (see chapters 3.1.2 and 3.1.3 and Figure 3-2). Phosphate fertilizers might
be necessary for good yields (IUSS Working Group WRB. 2006). Small grains and irrigated food and
vegetable crops are the principal crops grown; in the study area of the Saratov region alfalfa, and
in the Ukrainian study site corn and winter wheat. Wind and water erosion is a problem on
Kastanozems, especially on fallow lands (IUSS Working Group WRB. 2006). However, erosion was
not reported as a land use related problem in the study areas in Russia and Ukraine.
Irrigation scheduling, irrigation with wastewater and mulching were trialled on Chernozems(WRB
1998) in the study area in Ukraine. Chernozems have a thick black surface layer that is rich in
organic matter. According to the IUSS Working Group WRB (2006), Russian soil scientists rank the
deep, central Chernozems among the best soils in the world. However, the favourable soil
structure should be preserved through timely cultivation and careful irrigation at low watering
rates in order to prevent ablation and erosion. Application of P fertilizers is required for high
yields. Wheat, barley and maize are the principal crops grown, alongside other food crops and

32
vegetables. In the study area in Ukraine, the crops grown include corn, spring wheat and winter
wheat.
Figure 4-8 Chestnut soil in Saratov Region, Russian Federation. Photo: Anatoly
Zeiliguer.
Irrigation with wastewater, the use of surfactant and claying were trialled in the study area in
Greece on Entisols, suborder Psamment (USDA Soil Taxonomy, 1975). Entisols are defined as soils
that do not show any profile development other than an A horizon. Most Entisols are basically
unaltered from their parent material (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entisol). In the study area in
Greece, this consists of unconsolidated sediment. Psamments are Entisols with sandy parent
materials, covering about 3% of the Earth’s surface. Therefore they are commonly low in plant
nutrients, have low water-holding capacity and rapid permeability. These characteristics make
irrigation indispensable for crop production. Irrigation and proper management may also help to
prevent wind erosion (Lal, 2006).
Soils in which the strategies were trialled were shallow to very shallow (0-50 cm) for the areas in
Spain and Greece (Figure 4-6), and deep for the study areas in the Russian Federation and Ukraine
(80-120 cm). In the Greek site, below 20 cm coarse sand is found extending till below the water
table. Irrigation with wastewater is better applicable in deeper soils in order to prevent runoff to
other areas and channels.
Soil texture is medium for the Calcareous Regosol in the Spanish site and the Automotphic
Chestnut soil in the Russian site, and fine to heavy in the Chernozems in Ukraine (Figure 4-6 and
Table 4-2). The Entisols of the site in Greece have a coarse (sandy) texture. Soils with loamy and
clayey textures, the study areas in Russia and Ukraine, have lower infiltration capacities than
coarser soils, but higher water holding capacity. Fine soil textures increases the applicability of
irrigation with wastewater depending on the water quality. Several common problems related to
soil, water and cropping may occur under wastewater irrigation: decreased crop growth and
permeability due to salinity of wastewater, toxicity of plants to sodium, chloride, boron,

33 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
imbalanced nutrient supply, release of microbiological contents in the soil (Pedrero et al., 2010)
and the influx of heavy metals in the soil and from there in the food chain with harmful effects on
animals and humans. These problems are more prominent in fine-textured soils due to the greater
binding of nutrients and heavy metals in soils with high values of cation exchange capacity, organic
matter content and oxides of iron and alumunium (e.g. Sidle et al., 1977). Coarse textured soils,
like in the study area of the Water Reuse project in Greece, appear to be more sensitive to the
development of water repellency. Therefore, soil texture is a critical criterion for selecting water
saving strategies.
Table 4-2 Soil texture in the study areas.
Soil texture Study area
Coarse/light
(sandy)
Maggana, Greece
Medium (loam) Alicante, Spain;
Saratov, Russia
Fine/heavy (clay) Kharkiv, Ukraine
The water saving strategies were tested on soils with low to medium fertility (Figure 4-9), but
organic matter contents were medium to high. For the Calcareous Regosols in Spain the relatively
high soil organic matter content is attributed to the grass cover developed during the experiment
and the manure added by the farmers in the past (UMH, 2010). Particularly the Entisol in the
Greek site is characterized by a low fertility because nutrients are easily leached from the soil due
to its high permeability. The low to medium fertility of the soils examined offers scope for
irrigation with wastewater, since the effective use of nutrients contained in wastewater for
irrigation has been widely reported to have the potential to increase crop production and
decrease fertilizer application (e.g. Lazarova and Assano, 2005; Pedrero et al., 2010; Silva-Ochoa
and Scott, 2004). Positive effects from wastewater use on crop yields were indeed observed in the
study areas in Russia and Ukraine on respectively alfalfa and corn and wheat (see deliverable 25).
Irrigation with wastewater or raw greywater3
3 Greywater is the non-toilet portion of the domestic wastewater stream – i.e., bath, laundry, and kitchen wastewater
(Travis et al., 2010).
may induce water repellency in sandy and loamy
soils if the wastewater has high contents of dissolved organic matter (Wallach et al., 2005; Travis
et al., 2010). This may have negative effects on soil permeability (e.g. Doerr, 2000). This effect was
not observed in the field trials in the Water Reuse project. The results for Greece even suggest
that the use of wastewater may even reduce water repellency in already water repellent soils (see
deliverable 25).
In general, soil fertility and topsoil organic matter content increase the applicability of irrigation
with wastewater. With regard to soil fertility, this is because any effort to increase the economic
benefit of irrigation can best be performed on the most productive soils. With regard to topsoil
organic matter content, the applicability of wastewater irrigation is larger because organic matter
increases the infiltration capacity and water holding capacity of the soil.

34
Soil fertility SOM Soil drainage/infiltration Soil water storage capacity
Main water
saving
strategy
medium
low
High (>3%)
Medium (1-
3%)
Good
Medium
High
Medium
Low
Irrigation scheduling
Irrigation with waste water
Mulching
Use of surfactant
Claying
Figure 4-9 Overview soil characteristics in the test applications of water saving strategies (continued).
Soil drainage and infiltration capacity are medium to good for all test applications of the water
saving strategies (Figure 4-9). In the Greek study site, the internal drainage of the soil is excellent,
but periodic rises of the groundwater table up till 40 cm below the soil surface may impede
infiltration and drainage. Soils with good drainage capacity are better suited for irrigation with
wastewater, but the applicability is conditioned by the quality of water, due to the risk of
groundwater contamination in case soils are well drained.
On nonsodic soils, irrigation with wastewater may decrease the hydraulic conductivity, but
increase that of sodic soils (Li et al., 2010). The positive effect on hydraulic conductivity in sodic
soils is because wastewater usually has higher Na+ and soluble salt concentrations. These inhibit
clay swelling, dispersion and mobilization, and therefore increase soil aggregate stability and the
maintenance of high soil hydraulic conductivity (Levy, 2000; Mace and Amrhein, 2001; Li et al.,
2010). However, in nonsodic soils, Na+ concentrations in the wastewater through the exchange of
cations may lead to sodification4
4Sodification: the accumulation of water-soluble Na+ salts in the soil (EC, 2009)
, and consequently to the degradation of soil structure and
hydraulic conductivity (Yoon et al., 2001; Gloaguen et al., 2007; EC, 2009; ISSAR, 2010). Sodic soils
are those which have an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of more than 15 (FAO, 1988).
The field experiments in the Spanish study site showed that the use of wastewater from secondary
treatment for irrigation was characterized by high salt concentrations (high values of the electric
conductivity) compared to fresh water and water from tertiary treatment.The soils in the Spanish
study site can be considered nonsodic, having an ESP of 0.06% and 0.04 % measured at the start of
the irrigation experiments on the plots with wastewater from secondary treatment and
freshwater respectively. Based on the characteristics of the wastewater and soils, irrigation with
wastewater on these soils might negatively affect soil drainage and infiltration through a decay of
the soil structure. However, this effect was observed also in the treatments with fresh water and
wastewater from tertiary treatment, and could not be demonstrated to be related to the high salt
concentrations of the wastewater from the secondary treatment.
The soil water storage capacity is medium to high for all test applications, except for those in the
Greek study site. This is favourable for all strategies targeted in the first place at increasing the soil
moisture content of the root zone (irrigation scheduling, irrigation with wastewater, use of
surfactant and claying). This was confirmed by the results of the field trials in several sites by the
observed increased delivery of water to soil depths accessible for plant growth and increased soil
moisture contents in the root zone compared to control situations.

35 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
4.3 Agro-climatic conditions
Figure 4-10 gives an overview of the agro-climatic conditions in which the water saving strategies
were tested. The strategies were tested in areas with annual rainfall between 250 and 750 mm,
except for the use of surfactant and claying, which were tested only in areas with annual rainfall
between 250 and 500 mm. Details on the rainfall distribution in the test areas are given in Table
4-3. The dry period for the applications of most strategies is from June till September, and has a
length of 2.5 till 4 months. The test applications were located in the sub-humid and semi-arid
agro-climatic zones, which are characterized by a length of the growing period5
of respectively
180-269 days and 75-179 days (WOCAT, 2008).
Figure 4-10 Overview agro-climatic conditions in the test applications of water saving strategies
The length of the dry periods, the growing periods and their timing in the year are important for
the adaptation of water saving strategies to local applications, especially for the strategies based
on irrigation (irrigation scheduling and irrigation with wastewater). For example in the Saratov
region, the infiltration capacity of soils is worst in dry conditions during the dry period, when
winds are strong and the evapotranspiration is high. Therefore more frequent irrigation
applications are necessary in smaller doses to obtain sufficient soil moisture contents in the root
zone, and irrigation scheduling will give the best results in areas where dry periods coincide with
growing periods.
Areas in semi-arid agro-climatic zones are characterized by large periods with minimum rainfall
and high evapotranspiration. These conditions result in soil drying. Soil water repellency may occur
when the soil moisture content drops below a critical threshold. Therefore these areas are most at
risk for the development of soil water repellency. Consequently, for the strategies aiming at the
improvement of soil wettability through the use of surfactant or claying, the best performance is
obtained when soil moisture content is below the threshold for the development of soil water
repellency, like in the summer period in the Greek study site, with average rainfall < 120 mm.
5 The length of growing period (LGP) is defined as the period when precipitation > 0.5 PET (potential evapotranspiration)
and the temperature > 6.5° C (definition used in the WOCAT questionnaire on technologies, WOCAT, 2008).
Average annual
rainfall Dry period
Agro-climatic
zone Thermal climate
Growing
season
Main water
saving strategy
250-
500
500-
750
May-
July
June-
Sep
Sub-
humid
Semi-
arid
Sub-
tropics
Tempe-
rate
Feb-
Jun
Apr-
Aug
Sep-
Jul
Year
round
Irrigation
scheduling
Irrigation with
waste water
Mulching
Use of surfactant
Claying

36
Table 4-3 Average annual rainfall, seasonality and length of dry periods in study areas.
Average annual
rainfall (mm)
Study
area
Average annual rainfall (mm) and
seasonality (e.g. monsoon,
winter/summer rains)
Length of dry periods
< 250
250-500 Maggana,
Greece
550 mm
Wet winter period from November to
April (5 months)
Dry summer period from June to
September (4 months)
Alicante,
Spain
486.0 mm annual
134.5 mm Spring (March-May)
79.1 mm Summer (June-Aug)
170.9 mm Autumn (Sept-Nov)
101.4 mm Winter (Dic-Feb)
The length of dry period is mainly
in summer: June-September,
some years more (October)
Saratov,
Russia
400 mm
Snow winter time from the beginning of
December to the end of March (4
months)
Dry summer time period is from
beginning of May to and of July
(2 – 2,5 months)
500-750 Kharkiv,
Ukraine
511.0 mm annual
161.7 mm growing season (Apr.-Sept.
2009)
The period without a rain in
May-July can reach 60 days
750-1000
1000-1500
1500-2000
2000-3000
3000-4000
>4000
All water saving strategies were tested in areas with temperate of subtropical thermal climate
(Figure 4-10). The thermal climate expresses the intra-annual variation of mean monthly
temperatures in an area. Temperature is an important variable to consider in the design of water
saving strategies, because high temperatures cause increased losses of green water from soils
through evapotranspiration. A temperate thermal climate is defined as having at least 1 month
with monthly mean temperatures6
The water saving strategies were tested in areas and on crops with growing seasons covering
different parts of the year (
below 5° C and 4 or more months above 10° C. The study areas
in the Russian Federation, Ukraine and Greece have a temperate climate. In combination with the
dry period of the year and string wind, the temperate thermal climate causes dryness of the root
zone and water stress for crops in these areas. Apart from the direct effect of deficient soil
moisture to crops, the dryness of the soil may cause a low soil hydraulic conductivity (Russian
Federation) and soil water repellency (Greece), which in turn may increase crop water stress. A
subtropical thermal climate has one or more than one month below 18 ° C but above 5 ° C
(definitions from FAO 2000, used in the WOCAT questionnaire for technologies on SLM: WOCAT,
2008).
Figure 4-10 and Table 4-4). A growing season is a period of time where
there is sufficient rainfall and moisture in the soil as well as high enough temperatures to grow a
crop (WOCAT, 2008). The applicability of the water saving strategies depends on the timing of the
crop water requirements during the growing season compared to the availability of soil moisture
6 All temperatures indicated as monthly mean temperatures corrected to sea level)(Source (FAO 2000, in:WOCAT, 2008).

37 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
and rainfall. Irrigation scheduling and irrigation with waste water are best applied in situations
where crop growth is inhibited during the growing season due to deficient rainfall. In designing
irrigation scheduling, it is important to realize that a soil water deficit does not inhibit crop growth
unless it also inhibits evapotranspiration (ET) (FAO irrigation manual, cited in Greenwood et al.,
2009). This implies that high yields of many crops can be obtained even when the soil moisture
content to the depth of rooting is maintained far below that at field capacity (Greenwood et al.,
2009). In case of perennial crops, the use of water saving strategies based on irrigation (irrigation
scheduling and wastewater irrigation) care should be taken that the absence of tillage operations
may lead to compaction of the topsoil with negative effects on the infiltration capacity of the soils.
This is the case in the Saratov region in the Russian Federation.
Table 4-4 Crops and growing seasons in the regions for test application of the water saving strategies.
Study area Crop or crop rotation From which month to
which month
Alicante province, Spain grapevine February-June
Saratov region, Russia Alfalfa All year
Kharkiv, Ukraine maize (2006 & 2008)
winter wheat (2007)
spring wheat (2009)
April – August
September - July
April – August
Maggana region, Greece Olive tree All year
4.4 Water-related conditions
An overview of water-related conditions in the areas where the water saving strategies were
tested is given in Figure 4-11. It shows that all strategies are applicable in situations where the
groundwater is rather deep (between 5 and 50 m), which also explains the need to reduce water
loss from the root zone. In Alicante region, Spain, the groundwater level varies between 10 and 20
m from the surface during the year. Also in Ukraine the groundwater table is deep, at 20 m below
the surface on average. In the Saratov region the groundwater table is closer to the surface (7-10
m) in spring time, and rises after irrigation applications.
In Maggana region, Greece, the situation is different, with the groundwater table on average at
less than 5 m from the surface, with variations from 0.5 m during winter and spring, to 2.2 m
during summer and autumn. Despite the proximity of the groundwater table to the surface, the
root zone may experience a soil moisture deficit due to the large permeability of the soil. Water
saving strategies based on irrigation are less useful here; instead strategies aiming at improving
the wettability of the soil are more appropriate.
Depth of
groundwater
Availability of
surface water Quality of groundwater Quality of surface water
Main water
saving strategy <5 m
5-50
m
Mediu
m Poor
Good
drinking
water
Poor
drinking
water
Not usable
except for
irrigation
Good
drinking
water2
Poor
drinking
water3
Irrigation
scheduling
Irrigation with
waste water
Mulching
Use of
surfactant
Claying
Figure 4-11 Overview water-related conditions in the test applications of water saving strategies

38
All strategies were tested in areas where, as expected, the availability of surface water is poor. The
more limited the availability, the more applicable water saving strategies are. In Alicante region,
Spain, in July and August usually less than 20 mm of rain is received. In the study region in Ukraine,
surface water deficiency is common, especially with the increasing frequency of dry years. In
Maggana region, Greece, there is no surface water available to fields like the experimental olive
orchard. Groundwater is of poor quality, and therefore farmers use water from the tap for
irrigation. This makes the use of treated wastewater an interesting alternative for irrigated
agriculture (Figure 4-12). In addition, the nutrients and organic matter present in the effluents
used can be recycled to the soils. In Saratov Russia, the availability of surface water is best,
because water for irrigation is supplied by channels which form part of large irrigation systems.
However, for irrigated fields at long distance from the irrigation channels, water availability is also
limited. In these cases, the use of treated wastewater is an interesting alternative.
Figure 4-12 Disposal lagoon for olive mill wastewater management in Greece (Xanthi). Photo: Vasilis
Diamantis.
The quality of groundwater is medium to good in the test applications of irrigation scheduling,
irrigation with wastewater and mulching in Spain, Russia and Ukraine (Figure 4-11 and Figure
4-13). Here, the tested water saving strategies based on irrigation offer an alternative source of
irrigation water from precious groundwater resources. The quality of the groundwater is worst in
Maggana region, Greece, where the salinity prevents its use as a resource for irrigation. In all
regions, the available surface water is of poor quality as drinking water, but usable for irrigation. In
Maggana region, Greece, surface water is not available. In general, the scarcity (depleting
groundwater bodies or limited availability of surface water) or poor quality of groundwater and
surface water increase the applicability of water saving strategies, and especially irrigation with
wastewater as an alternative source.
Water source Alicante, Spain Saratov, Russia Kharkiv, Ukraine Maggana, Greece
Ground water
Surface water n.a.

39 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
Figure 4-13 Quality of surface and groundwater in the regions for test application of the water saving
strategies.
4.5 Importance of biophysical factors for applicability of water saving strategies
The importance of the biophysical factors discussed above for the applicability of water saving
strategies was indicated by the research teams in the study regions (Table 4-5). Overall, most
factors were considered important in three of the four investigated regions. Agro-climatic
conditions and soil texture, soil fertility and topsoil organic matter content were considered
important in all environmental settings of the study regions.
The agro-climatic conditions matter because they indicate the extent and timing in the year of
crop water deficit as governed by the amounts and timing of rainfall and evapotranspiration. An
exception to this observation is the length of the growing period, which was not considered
important for the applicability of water saving strategies in the regions in Ukraine and Greece. For
Ukraine, this is probably because the growing period encompasses the dry period of the year for
all crops studied, and is not a discriminating factor for the type of water saving strategy to select.
For the study region in Greece, the crop investigated was a perennial tree crop (olive), with a year-
round growing period. Therefore the length of the growing period was not discriminating.
The importance of soil texture, soil fertility and topsoil organic matter content was motivated by
the notion that any effort to apply water saving strategies with the purpose to increase the
profitability of agriculture is best focused on the most favorable biophysical settings for crop
growth apart from the limitations set by water scarcity.
Least important for the applicability of water saving strategies were considered factors expressing
the relief of the terrain: the altitudinal zonation and landforms.
Table 4-5Importance of biophysical factors for applicability of water saving strategies.
Good drinking water
Poor drinking water
Not usable for any purpose other than possibly irrigation
Quality grades:
Column1
Alicante province,
Spain
Sarat ov region,
Russia
Khar kiv's oblas t,
Ukraine
Maggana r egion,
Greece
average annual rainfal l, seasonali ty, dry periods
agro-climatic zone
thermal climate
length of growi ng seas on
altitudinal zonation
la ndforms
sl ope
soi l depth
so il texture
soil fertility
tops oil orga nic matter c onten t
soil drainage/infiltration
soil water storage capacity
depth of groundwater table
availability of surface water
qual ity of surface and ground water

40

41 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
5 Identification of areas where the environmental conditions exist for
successful use of the water saving strategies
5.1 Outcomes of tests on water saving strategies in terms of the objectives of the
Water Reuse project
The outcomes of the field experiments on water saving strategies are indicative of the biophysical
conditions under which the strategies are likely to be effective, and also of the possible adverse
effects on those biophysical conditions, in particular soil and water-related conditions. The
biophysical conditions include the conditions related to land use and terrain, climate, soils and
water described in chapter 4. The detailed outcomes of all tests are described in deliverable 25.
Below, the main outcomes are summarized for each of the study regions in Spain, the Russian
Federation, Ukraine and Greece, and indications deriving from the main outcomes for all study
areas are synthesized.
5.1.1 Alicante province, Spain
Irrigation scheduling
• Irrigation scheduling, in combination with mulching, increased the aggregate stability of the
soil surface, thus decreasing negative effects of drying and wetting cycles on soil wettability.
Irrigation with wastewater
• Irrigation with wastewater did not lead to the development of water repellency, as is often
reported in the literature (e.g. Wallach et al.,2005; Wiel-Shafran et al., 2006; Tarchitzky et al.,
2007; Travis et al., 2010). The development of water repellency was not expected in the long
term due to the fact that organic matter content was not observed to be increasing in the soil
during the 3 year trial period.
• Irrigation with wastewater did not result in the accumulation of heavy metals in the soil, also a
commonly reported environmental problem associated with the use of wastewater for
irrigation (e.g. Qadir et al., 2007; Pedrero et al., 2010).
• Chemical and physical soil properties were not greatly influenced due to the use of
wastewater for irrigation instead of fresh water.
• Adverse effects of waste water use were observed on crop growth, but it is not clear if this is
due to the water used or the early development stage of the crop.
Mulching
• Mulching had positive effects on soil aggregate stability, but did not increase soil moisture
content.
Claying
• The amendment of kaolinite clay resulted in reduced soil water repellency in an already water
repellent soil.
Use of surfactant
• The use of surfactant reduced the water repellency of an already water repellent soil, but
fresh water had the same effect.

42
These outcomes suggest that the combination of soil characteristics, agro-climatic conditions and
water-related conditions in the test applications of the water saving strategies in
Alicante province supported the objectives of the Water Reuse project to better employ soil
wetting characteristics and reduce irrigation water losses, and to use wastewater as an alternative
resource for irrigation. In particular the use of wastewater for irrigation was favourable in terms of
impacts on the environment (human health and soils), though fertilising effects were not
observed. The results offer scope for the application of the tested strategies in areas with
biophysical conditions similar to the Alicante region. However, possible adverse effects from the
use of wastewater from secondary treatment on crop growth require further research.
5.1.2 Saratov Region, Russia
The results from the field experiments on water saving strategies in the Saratov region referred to
the infiltration capacity and irrigation management, and to the use of alternative water resources
for irrigation management.
Infiltration capacity and irrigation management
• The use of secondary treated industrial wastewater did not result in the appearance of soil
water repellency in a loamy soil with alfalfa perennial cropping.
• Irrigation scheduling by reduction of doses and frequency of application diminished the
percolation of irrigation water to below the root zone.
Alternative water resources for irrigation
• The use of secondary treated industrial wastewater resulted in an increased yield of alfalfa
biomass and corn compared toirrigation with freshwater.
• Irrigation with wastewater did not result in significant changes of soil water repellency and soil
chemical properties like sodium content or heavy metal contents.
Figure 5-1 Field experimental work in the Saratov Region, Russian Federation. Photo: S. Zatinasky.
Overall, the results from the field experiments in the Saratov region indicate that irrigation
scheduling and the use of wastewater for irrigation are positive for irrigation management, and

43 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
invite to considering the use of wastewater for irrigation as a serious alternative to freshwater
resources in biophysical contexts similar to those in the Saratov region. In particular, irrigation
scheduling has three major positive effects with regard to irrigation management. In the first place
the water availability to crops is augmented. A second positive effect is that the decreased
seepage of irrigation water to the groundwater helps to control groundwater levels and through
this the ecological situation in irrigation fields and adjacent territories. This is especially of value in
case wastewater is used for irrigation. The third positive effect is that the maintenance of a deep
groundwater position protects the topsoils from salinization/alkalinisation with concomitant
negative effects on crop growth and soil hydraulic properties.
5.1.3 Kharkiv region, Ukraine
• The field experiments demonstrated that the use of wastewater for irrigation resulted in
increased yields of wheat and corn and increased water use efficiency.
• Irrigation with wastewater did not result in adverse effects on soil parameters, including
no increase in soil water repellency, provided that the composition of wastewater from pig
farms is controlled. Positive effects on soil parameters included the increase of total
available water in the soil.
• Irrigation scheduling and mulching (Figure 5-2) resulted in a faster, more complete and
more uniform wetting of the rootzone and reduced losses in evaporation from ponding,
losses due to preferential flow and losses to deep percolation.
Figure 5-2 Manual sprinkling (left) and mulching of plots after sowing in the field experimental site in
Khariv Region, Ukrain. Photos: Tatyana Laktionova.
The results indicate that irrigation scheduling and irrigation with wastewater in combination with
the biophysical conditions at the site and the selected crops offer scope for the wider application
of these strategies in areas with biophysical conditions similar to those in the study area.
Considering that the use of wastewater for irrigation in Ukraine is subject to strict control since the
1990s, the results from the Water Reuse experiments give cause for a return to the situation
before 1990, when irrigation with wastewater was applied on extended surfaces in Ukraine.
5.1.4 Maggana region, Greece
The main results from the field experiments on water saving strategies in Maggana region, Greece,
refer to the improvement of the wetting properties of soils and to the use of wastewater as an
alternative resource in irrigation.

44
Management of wetting properties of soils
• The use of secondary treated municipal wastewater did not increase soil water repellency
of a sandy soil with olive trees and grass cover. In contrast, a slight decrease of water
repellency was observed under summer conditions compared to the soil irrigated with
freshwater. The presence of residual surface active compounds and hydrophilic acids is
thought to cause the slight increase in soil wettability.
• The use of olive mill wastewater in irrigation decreased soil water repellency some weeks
after application.
• The use of commercial surfactant was beneficial for decreasing water repellency
immediately after application.
• The use of clay in suspension was also beneficial for decreasing water repellency.
Alternative water resources for irrigation
• The use of secondary treated municipal wastewater resulted in high biomass production
(grass cover) compared to the soil irrigated with freshwater alone.
• No significant changes in soil chemical properties (heavy metalcontamination, major ions
and cations) were observed after irrigation with treated wastewater.
Figure 5-3Experimental design for testing treated wastewater application on soil water repellency. Photo:
Vasilis Diamantis.
The results from the field experiments on water saving strategies in the Greek study area indicate
that under the biophysical conditions of the site, the use of various types of wastewater,
commercial surfactant and claying helps to improve the wetting properties of soils by reducing soil
water repellency, and therefore help to reduce water losses from rainfall and irrigation. The
results also show that the use of wastewater from municipal sources may increase the biomass of
cover crops, and has no adverse effects on soil chemical properties.
5.2 Biophysical conditions under which the strategies are likely and not likely to be
effective and identification of potential areas for application

45 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
5.2.1 Alicante province, Spain
In semi-arid conditions, like those in Alicante region, Spain, the scarcity of fresh water, rain and
high temperatures keep the soils very dry and in many cases unproductive. In these circumstances,
irrigation with wastewater is likely to be effective, because it offers the possibility to keep soil
moisture contents at minimum levels required for crop growth at low costs. Semi-arid areas cover
a large part of Spain (Figure 5-4). However, within these areas, care should be taken to prevent
surface runoff and erosion from irrigation on sloping land. Therefore valley floors and foot slopes
are likely to be the better locations to apply water saving strategies based on irrigation.
Figure 5-4 Agro-climatic zones in Spain, based on the aridity index. Source: Spanish Ministry of
Environment (http://www.mma.es/images/general/biodiversidad/desertificacion/1_Aridez_red1.jpg).
Semi-arid zones in orange shading.
Limitations to the application of the tested water saving strategies in the Spanish study area with
regard to environmental conditions mainly refer to the quality of the wastewater used. The
wastewater used in the field trials was representative of the water used in the Valencian
Community Region in Eastern Spain. Based on the experimental results, this water proved to be a
suitable alternative resource for irrigation with the aim to reduce water losses and to save
freshwater resources. However, the main problem regarding the water quality was the high salt
content testified by the high electrical conductivity of the wastewater from secondary treatment
during a part of the experimental period of the study, which possibly affected crop growth and soil
wetting characteristics, though this could not be reliably demonstrated in the field trials.
Therefore it is recommended that for crops sensitive to soil salinity, like almond, beans and fruit
crops (apricot, orange, peach, strawberries) (UC ANR, 2002), tertiary treatment is applied to
wastewater, and that the electric conductivity and sodium content of the water are monitored to
avoid problems with crop yield and crop quality and possibly reduced soil infiltration capacity due
to salinization and sodification.

46
The problem of reduced soil infiltration capacity could be amplified because the calcareous, loamy
soils used in the field trials are nonsodic. This causes them to be potentially sensitive to the
deterioration of the soil structure due to the high content of sodium salts and other salts in the
wastewater from secondary treatment (e.g. Al-Hamaideh and Bino, 2010). These soils are very
common in the eastern and southeastern part of Spain, though the Mediterranean region is
characterized by a wide variety of soils. It is recommended that the use of wastewater from
municipal sources of different quality in combination with different soil types in the semi-arid
regions of Spain is given more consideration in future research.
Figure 5-5 Wastewater treatment plant of Biar, Alicante. Source: UMH (2006).
Areas with similar soils and quality of wastewater in the Spanish Mediterranean region where the
tested water saving strategies might be applicable include the regions of Andalucia, Castilla la
Mancha, the Ballearic Islands, Catalonia, Murcia and the Valencian Community. In other regions
with similar soils and wastewater quality outside Spain the strategies could also be used, like in
Greece, Italy, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and Israel .
5.2.2 Saratov region, Russian Federation
Based on the field experimental trials in the Saratov region, the environmental conditions in which
irrigation with wastewater would be most effective include:
• Semi-arid environments with limited rainfall and a long dry period
• Scarce freshwater resources for irrigation purposes.
• Intermittently high levels of saline groundwater risking the occurrence of soil salinization
and alkalinization
In applying wastewater irrigation, care should be taken not to increase the risk of deteriorating soil
hydraulic properties, which would undo the beneficial effects of wastewater irrigation. The
following conditions increase the risk of deteriorating soil hydraulic properties as a result of
irrigation:
• Shallow levels of saline groundwater, particularly rich in sodium
• The use of wastewater with high concentrations of sodium
• Loamy or/and clayey soil texture sensitive to sodification (montmorolinite or smectite clay
minerals)
• Low soil organic matter contents (partly due to leaching)

47 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
• Inappropriate irrigation scheduling. This is often related to the use of outdated irrigation
technologies, like pivotal irrigation systems programmed to apply large doses at low
frequencies (e.g. Pankova and Novikoba, 2000) (Figure 5-6).
Figure 5-6 Pivot sprinkler irrigation system (left) and supplying irrigation channel (right). Photograph:
Wisse Beets.
Based on these conditions, it is recommended that in environmental settings similar to the Saratov
region, wastewater irrigation is combined with irrigation scheduling to keep the root zone at soil
moisture contents corresponding to (minimum) crop water requirements, while at the same time
preventing percolation of wastewater from the root zone to the groundwater, and on the other
hand capillary rise of saline groundwater to the root zone.
Suitable environmental conditions for the application of irrigation scheduling and wastewater
irrigation include the regions in the Southern part of Russia between the Volga River and Don
River, and the regions near the northern Caucasus and along the middle part of the Ural river in
Kazakhstan (Figure 5-8). These areas include also parts of southern Ukraine, Romania, Moldavia
and Bulgeria. These areas are all characterized by a scarcity of fresh water resources. The
application of irrigation with wastewater is conditioned by the proximity of agglomerations
producing wastewater and treatment plants (Figure 5-7).
Figure 5-7 Pond for sewage collection in Saratov Region, Russian Federation. Photo: S. Zatinatsky.

48
Figure 5-8 Potentially suitable areas for the application of irrigation scheduling and wastewater irrigation
in the southern part of the Russian Federation and Kazakhstan (red).White circle indicates location of the
study site. Source upper map: Anatoly Zeiliguer, MSUEE (2010). Source lower map: Google Maps, 2010.
Outside Eurasia, similar combinations of agroclimatological zone, land use, soils, limited
availability of fresh water resources exist in Australia, New Zealand, Brazil, Chile, the US and
Canada.
5.2.3 Kharkiv region, Ukraine
According to the researchers and experts involved in the Water Reuse field experiments, irrigation
scheduling in combination with mulching will be effective in areas with soils with a non-leaching
water regime, and sensitive to structural decay due to drop impact from sprinkler irrigation. This
generally applies to all (irrigated) Chernozem soils in the south-eastern part of the Forest steppe
and Steppe zones of Ukraine (Figure 5-9). Due to the non-leaching water regime, agricultural
production on these soils depends to a large extent on irrigation.

49 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
These soils are also sensitive to cracking when drying. Therefore irrigation water loss due to
preferential flow may occur in these soils. The effect of mulch is to delay the infiltration rate of
irrigation water and thus to increase the water available to the crop.
Figure 5-9Water regime of Ukrainian soils (Source: Atlas of Ukrainian soil properties maps, CD.-
T.Laktionova, V.Medvedev et al., 2006, Ukr.)
Code Name of water regime Soil moistening source
Leaching Atmospheric precipitates
Leaching Ground- Atmospheric including allochthonic waters
Leaching Ground- Atmospheric including flood waters
Periodic leaching Atmospheric and Atmospheric with additional surface
moistening
Nonleaching
Atmospheric precipitates
Desuctive-exudative and
Exudative Ground- Atmospheric and Atmospheric-Ground at close
allochthonic waters
Ponds
Conditions under which the water saving strategies are likely to be not effective include the
application on sloping terrain and application of the strategies in combination with irrigation water
supply by channels, due to the risk of soil erosion and the removal of mulch by overland flow. The
use of mulch, if uncontrolled, may endanger the application of irrigation scheduling due to the
incidence of pests and diseases. This situation contrasts with experiences in Europe, where mulch
combined with no-tillage has been promoted and adopted as an agri-environment measure in
several EU member states, and the incidence of pests and diseases under mulching is much more
controlled, though implementation problems with weed and disease (fusarium) infestation have
also been reported (DE, 1996; LU, 2002; DED, 2007) (SoCo project team, 2009).
Land users have given the following recommendations for the environmental conditions in which
to apply the tested water saving strategies:
• Irrigation with treated wastewater can be high in (semi-)arid zones having sources of
good-quality waste water and significant areas under fodder cultures.

50
• Irrigation scheduling may be effective in regions with a shortage of water resources for
irrigation, or for irrigation of cultures for which compliance with national irrigation
standards is required (usually vegetables).
• Land users are well aware of the water saving potential of applying irrigation during night
time.
Land users notice a risk for the application of irrigation scheduling and irrigation with wastewater
in the southern part of Ukraine where dark, alkaline chestnut soils prevail (Figure 5-9). This is due
to the susceptibility of these soils to cracking and consequent loss of irrigation water to
percolation from the root zone to the groundwater. Land users are aware of the adverse
ecological effects of the loss of irrigation water to percolation, mentioning the rise of the
groundwater level, water logging and salinization. They recommend the preparation and
protection of the soil surface before irrigation in order to prevent percolation.
On identifying suitable areas for the application of irrigation with wastewater, it should be realized
that the use of wastewater for irrigation of agricultural crops is prohibited since 1990. When fresh
water resources become more scarce in the near future, this prohibition is likely to be relieved.
This would open up possibilities to apply wastewater irrigation around the large industrial centers
in the Steppe and Forest Steppe zones, where wastewater irrigation had been successfully
practiced until 1990. These include the suburban territories near Odessa, Mariupol, Simferopol,
Kiev and Kharkiv.
5.2.4 Maggana region, Greece
The environmental conditions motivating the trialling of water saving strategies in the Greek site
as part of the Water Reuse project include the occurrence of coarse textured, water repellent soils
in a semi-arid environment with limited rainfall and a long dry period, and limited availability of
fresh water resources. In addition, the vegetation cover is an important factor affecting the
appearance of soil water repellency. According to Doerr et al. (2000), plants most commonly
associated with the cocurrence of water repellency in semi-arid environments include evergreen
tree types like eucalypt and pine, Mediterranean shrubland (Giovannini et al., 1987), and, in other
environments, also grass on pasture (e.g. Crockford et al., 1991).
The broader region of the study site (East Nestos Delta region) has environmental conditions
similar to those in the site used for the field experiments (Figure 5-10b). During a previous
research project (www.water-repellency.alterra.nl), water repellent soils were detected in the
broader region of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace. The most important factors were determined to
be soil texture (coarse soil) and the vegetation and crop types: winter wheat, olive trees and
natural grass cover increased soil water repellency.

51 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
Figure 5-10 Location of the study site in Maggana Region in the Northern part of Greece. Source: Vasilis
Diamantis, DUTH (2010).
The southern part of Greece and especially the Islands encounter serious water scarcity problems
(Figure 5-11). They are characterized by long dry periods, significantly longer compared to the
northern part of Greece. Under these conditions the reuse of treated wastewater and increasing
soil wettability are important factors for sustainable agriculture, water resources management
and environmental protection. Municipal wastewater treatment plants are already in operation in
different islands, offering possible supplies of effluents to be reused after advanced treatment for
irrigation purposes.
Olive oil production is a significant branch of trade for Greece. The wastewater produced during
olive oil production is usually disposed into evaporation ponds. This material could be reused to
increase the soil wettability for irrigated land.
The use of commercial surfactants is of significant importance for regions with limited access to
freshwater supplies, such as the Greek islands
The use of clay is of significant concern for coarse textured soils, and can contribute to an increase
of soil wettability.
Figure 5-11Location of the Aegean Islands in the Southern part of Greece. Source: Vasilis Diamantis, DUTH
(2010).
a
b c

52

53 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
6 Summary and conclusions
Several problems in sustainable land and water management motivate the (re)introduction of
water saving strategies in the regions in the NIS and Mediterranean investigated in the Water
Reuse project. These problems mainly relate to soil conditions, water conditions and land
management. According to the research teams and consulted land users, salinization is the most
frequently mentioned problem related to soil, the scarcity of fresh water is the most frequently
mentioned water related problem, and low crop productivity is the most frequently mentioned
land management problem.
Soil salinization
Problems due to soil salinization are most prominent in the study regions in Russia, where
salinization is caused by irrigation in past decades, which caused groundwater levels to rise. Apart
from salinization, the rising groundwater tables caused water logging and decreased soil organic
matter due to leaching, leading to soil compaction, damage of soil structure, and worsening of soil
hydraulic functions7
Socio-economic conditions leading to water scarcity in the study regions include the unavailability
of irrigation system infrastructure at short distance and the cost-benefit ratio of irrigated
agriculture, with costs of water supply and operational costs largely surpassing revenues from crop
yields in the study regions in Russia and Ukraine. Also, in Russia, water scarcity is maintained
. From the land users' point of view a high groundwater level, a non-uniform
pattern of soil fertility and extensive weed growthare consequences of former extended irrigation
that is still maintained in some areas.
These conditions motivate irrigation scheduling in order to prevent percolation of irrigation water
from the root zone to the groundwater. This was demonstrated successfully for the research sites
in Spain, Russia and Ukraine. The use of wastewater, if controlled for salinity, was shown to
provide an alternative resource for irrigation to saline groundwater without negative effects on
soils and crops in the research sites in Russia, Ukraine and Greece.
Water scarcity
Fresh water is scarce in all study areas. This relates to biophysical conditions (availability of fresh
water resources, climate, soils, crops), but also to socio-economic conditions. Fresh water
resources are scarce in all studied regions. In Spain this is due to the scarce surface water
resources and the overexploitation of aquifers. In Greece and Russia groundwater is available even
at shallow depth, but the quality is bad due to the use of saline water for irrigation in previous
periods, or due to sea water intrusion. The unawareness of farmers of the effects of unlimited
irrigation with saline water also contributes to the water scarcity problems in Greece. In Greece,
Russia and Ukraine fresh water resources from surface water are at long distance from farmers’
fields.
The main climatic conditions inducing fresh water scarcity in the study regions include the rainfall
deficit in the summer growing season. In the study regions Ukraine and Spain this situation is
exacerbated due to the unreliability of rainfall and the incidence of drought in this period. Soil
conditions inducing water scarcity include the sensitivity to structural decay and consequent
reduced infiltration due to drop impact from rainfall and sprinkler irrigation in Ukraine, and the
water repellent nature of the coarse, sandy topsoils in the Greek study region, leading to reduced
infiltration.
7 Water retention and soil hydraulic conductivity characteristics.

54
because farmers are not stimulated to modernize irrigation techniques and to increase the
efficiency of irrigation in agriculture. This is induced by the regional policy, which subsidizes the
energy used for the transport of water from the Volga River to fields.
The use of wastewater for irrigation provides a logical water saving strategy in response to the
mentioned problems of water scarcity, since treated waste water is increasingly available in the
studied regions year-round at shorter distance to agricultural areas than fresh water resources in
parts of the study regions. If waste water treatment plants are present, the quality of irrigation
water is more easily controlled than if the water is pumped from aquifers or directly withdrawn
from surface water bodies. The availability of wastewater and possibilities for treatment were
outside the scope of the Water Reuse project, but would require further research for a more
detailed assessment of the benefits of wastewater irrigation in response to the problems of water
scarcity in the studied regions. The use of wastewater for irrigation may be supplemented with
irrigation scheduling, mulching and amendments with clay or surfactant to improve the water use
efficiency of crops and/or the wetting properties of the soil surface and topsoil, as was shown for
all study regions.
Low crop productivity
Problems with low crop productivity motivating the introduction of water saving strategies are
partly related to soil conditions, and partly to land management and economic conditions. The soil
conditions refer to the inhomogeneous permeability of fields in Saratov region, which cause
similar patterns in crop productivity, with sub-optimal yields on spots which are too dry and too
wet. The land management conditions refer to the sub-optimal application of crop rotations and
practices related to tillage, weeding, and the insufficient use of fertilizers and pesticides, which is
the case in the study region in Ukraine. Low crop productivity is not so much of a problem in the
Spanish study region, considering the large economic productivity of irrigated agriculture, which is
about five times higher than that of rainfed agriculture (Plan Nacional de Regadios, 2009). In the
study region in Ukraine, the lack of credits and resources (fertilizers and equipment) are
responsible for low crop productivity. In the study region in Greece, the revenues from crop yields
are considered low by land users due to the low crop prices.
Water saving strategies like irrigation scheduling, mulching and amendments of clay or surfactant
help to homogenize the wettability of soils under crops or grass covers, as was shown for the
experimental sites in Russia and Greece. The use of nutrient-rich wastewater for irrigation was
shown to solve nutrient deficiencies by improving crop yields in the research site in Ukraine.
6.1 Biophysical conditions motivating the introduction of water saving strategies
The biophysical conditions influencing the applicability of the water saving strategies investigated
in the Water Reuse project include land use and terrain conditions, soil characteristics, agro-
climatic conditions and water-related conditions. Of the biophysical conditions relevant to the
implementation of water saving strategies, agro-climatic conditions and soil texture, soil fertility
and topsoil organic matter content were considered important in all environmental settings of the
study regions by researchers and land users. Least important for the applicability of water saving
strategies were considered factors expressing the relief of the terrain: the altitudinal zonation and
landforms.
With regard to land use and terrain conditions, the applicability of the strategies using irrigation
water decreases with application at higher locations in the landscape and at steeper slopes, due to
difficulties in the accessibility of irrigation water and increased risks for surface runoff and erosion,
especially in the sites with medium- to fine-textured soils (Spain, Russia, Ukraine).

55 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
The soil types on which water saving strategies were trialled in the Water Reuse project require
irrigation for crop production for various reasons, which include the low moisture retention
capacity (Spain, Greece) or the periodic lack of soil moisture in dry seasons (all sites). Especially
the Chernozems and Kastanozems soils in the study areas in Russia and Ukraine are potentially
rich soils, but the periodic lack of soil moisture is the main obstacle to high yields. In these soils,
careful irrigation scheduling is required not only to prevent irrigation water loss, but also to
prevent ablation and erosion.
Soil texture appeared to be a critical criterion for the effectiveness of the tested water saving
strategies to reduce irrigation losses or to apply wastewater as an alternative source. This relates
to the infiltrability and water holding capacities of the soils, the binding capacity for nutrients and
toxic substances, and the susceptibility to the development of water repellency.
With regard to soil fertility, the low to medium fertility of the soils examined offers scope for
irrigation with wastewater due to the potential of nutrients contained in wastewater to increase
crop production and decrease fertilizer application. Positive effects from wastewater use on crop
yields were indeed observed in the study areas in Russia and Ukraine on respectively alfalfa and
corn and wheat. Effects on the development of water repellency, as often reported in the
literature for sandy and loamy soils if the wastewater has high contents of dissolved organic
matter, were not observed in the field trials in the Water Reuse project. The results for Greece
even suggest that the use of wastewater may even reduce water repellency in already water
repellent soils
The good soil drainage and infiltration capacity of the soils in the research areas favors the
applicability of wastewater irrigation, provided that the quality of the water is controlled to
prevent groundwater contamination due to percolation. This can be prevented by combining
wastewater irrigation with proper irrigation scheduling and mulching.
The medium to high soil water storage capacity in the study areas appeared to be favourable for
all strategies targeted in the first place at increasing the soil moisture content of the root zone
(irrigation scheduling, irrigation with wastewater, use of surfactant and claying). This was
confirmed by the results of the field trials in several sites by the observed increased delivery of
water to soil depths accessible for plant growth and increased soil moisture contents in the root
zone compared to control situations.
With regard to agro-climatic conditions, irrigation scheduling proved to be beneficial for the
project’s objectives to resolve problems with crop water stress during the dry period of the year
and indirect effects on crop water status through decreased infiltration capacity of soils (Russia)
and soil water repellency (Greece).
The water-related conditions of the study areas reveal that all strategies are applicable in
situations where the groundwater is rather deep (between 5 and 50 m), which also explains the
need to reduce water loss from the root zone. Where groundwater tables are less deep during
parts of the year, like in the study area in Greece, care should be taken that the root zone may
experience a soil moisture deficit due to the large permeability of the soil. Water saving strategies
based on irrigation are less useful here; instead strategies aiming at improving the wettability of
the soil are more appropriate.
The results of the Water reuse project show that the scarcity of fresh water resources for
irrigation, either due to depleting groundwater bodies or the limited availability of surface water,

56
together with the poor quality of the groundwater and surface water in several areas increase the
applicability of water saving strategies, and especially irrigation with wastewater as an alternative
source.
6.2 Implications for the selection of water saving strategies for an area
The results of the field experiments of the water saving strategies in the Water Reuse project
showed that the combinations of land use and terrain conditions, soil characteristics, agro-climatic
conditions and water-related conditions in the studied regions in Spain, Russia, Ukraine and
Greece were generally favourable to support the objectives of the Water Reuse project to better
employ soil wetting characteristics and reduce irrigation water losses, and to use wastewater as an
alternative resource for irrigation. In particular the use of wastewater for irrigation was favourable
in terms of impacts on the environment (human health and soils), though fertilising effects were
only observed in the study area in Ukraine. Areas offering scope for applying the tested strategies
based on biophysical conditions were identified in this report.
Several particularities in the combination of the biophysical conditions and implementation of the
water saving strategies require attention in the selection of water saving strategies for an area:
• In areas similar to the study area in Spain, possible adverse effects from the use of wastewater
from secondary treatment on crop growth and soil wetting characteristics require further
research. It is therefore recommended that the use of wastewater from municipal sources of
different quality in combination with different soil types in the semi-arid regions of Spain is
given more consideration in future research.
• In areas similar to the study area in Russia, care should be taken in applying wastewater
irrigation not to increase the risk of deteriorating soil hydraulic properties if sodium-rich water
is used on land with shallow saline groundwater in medium-to fine textured soils, low in
organic matter content.
• In regions belonging to the former Soviet Union, particular attention should be paid to the risk
of inappropriate irrigation scheduling due to the use of outdated irrigation technologies.
Under these conditions, it is recommended that wastewater irrigation is combined with
irrigation scheduling to keep the root zone at soil moisture contents corresponding to
(minimum) crop water requirements, while at the same time preventing percolation of
wastewater from the root zone to the groundwater, and on the other hand capillary rise of
saline groundwater to the root zone.
• Irrigation scheduling in combination with mulching will be effective in areas with soils with a
non-leaching water regime, and sensitive to structural decay due to drop impact from
sprinkler irrigation. This applies to areas with biophysical conditions similar to the study areas
in Spain and Ukraine.
• Care should be taken in applying water saving strategies based on irrigation (irrigation
scheduling and wastewater irrigation) on sloping terrain and application of the strategies in
combination with irrigation water supply by channels, due to the risk of soil erosion and the
removal of mulch by overland flow.
• Strategies to reduce or prevent the development of soil water repellency (use of surfactants
and clay) are likely to be effective in situations where coarse textured, water repellent soils
occur in a semi-arid environment with limited rainfall and a long dry period, and limited
availability of fresh water resources. The Water Reuse project demonstrated positive effects of
these strategies in olive trees with a grass undercover, but many other crop and vegetation
types have been reported in the literature to be associated with water repellent behaviour of

57 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
soils (e.g. Doerr et al., 2000), and may therefore be suitable for the application of claying and
surfactant amendments.
• The biophysical conditions of a region influence the accessibility of irrigation water (either
fresh water or wastewater), and should be taken into account in designing irrigation
management plans for a region. Where fresh water resources are either scarce or at long
distance, wastewater offers an alternative resource, provided that treatment plants for
wastewater from municipal, industrial or agricultural production sites (e.g. pig farms, olive
mills) are in the proximity, and transport infrastructure is available. Where target areas are in
physically isolated positions with limited access to either fresh water or wastewater, like on
the Greek isles, the use of commercial surfactants offers scope.
• The use of surfactant and claying were not tested in the study areas in the Russian Federation
and Ukraine, and therefore no results are available of these strategies reflecting the
biophysical conditions in these areas. Considering the relative novelty of these strategies and
their successful reports in the literature (e.g. ), it may be useful for future research in water
saving strategies to include trials with surfactant and claying in these or similar areas.

58

59 | Water Reuse – deliverable 26
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