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Overview of the Chinese Electricity Industry and Its Current Issues
Abstract
In China, many ongoing problems in the electricity sector can be traced back to the old ‘centrally planned’ economy. Since the start of liberalization in the 1980s, the clash between a liberalized economy (excluding a few so-called strategic industries) and a centrally controlled electricity industry has gradually become more and more apparent. The Chinese electricity industry is in need of constructive restructuring. In the absence of a universal agreement on optimal industry design, the Chinese government should have a firm and clear understanding of the implications of electricity restructuring for long-term social welfare. Otherwise the electricity industry might, again, be locked into an inferior industry design which would be very costly to change.
... China was responsible for approximately 30% of global CO 2 emissions, with its power generation sectors accounting for 41% of its total CO 2 emissions (Shan et al., 2018). Yang (2006) observed that the power sector enjoyed significant development at that time, with emissions levels increasing by a considerable amount. To cope with the increasingly higher emissions levels, China has launched several emissions mitigation programs. ...
Estimating the shadow price of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions is the key to understanding the cost of low-carbon transition for China. This study estimates the shadow price of CO2 emissions for China's coal-fired power plants over the period 2005 to 2010 by applying a conventional approach introduced by Färe et al. (2012), which combines quadratic directional distance function (DDF) with the stochastic frontier analysis (SFA). We further extend the model by introducing the quantile regression (QR) method, which is more robust to perturbations and outliers. We also compare the estimated shadow price from QR with the prices obtained from the ordinary least square (OLS) regression and standard SFA. The estimated average shadow price of CO2 emissions is 10,442.70 Yuan/ton and 10,231.97 Yuan/ton for the OLS regression and SFA, respectively. The average shadow price of CO2 emissions estimated by the QR is lower: 9623.95 Yuan/ton at the 50th percentile, 9304.21 Yuan/ton at the 56th percentile, 9588.74 Yuan/ton at the 80th percentile, and 9565.11 Yuan/ton at the 95th percentile. Finally, the spatial distribution of estimated shadow prices is reported. The results show that coastal provinces and municipalities have higher shadow prices of CO2 emissions.
... IEA (IEA, 2016b) statistics show that China is the largest SO 2 emitter (22Mt) among all countries. Among all industrial sectors, the power sector enjoyed significant development in past years (Yang, 2006) with emissions levels increased by a considerable amount. To cope with the increasingly higher emissions levels, China has announced an emissions mitigation strategy. ...
Shadow prices are widely employed in guiding environmental policies. This paper contributes to the literature by developing a novel partial frontier approach for estimating shadow prices. The proposed method is advanced in handling outliers, and provides a precise estimation of the marginal rate of substitution along the production frontier. To cope with the different disposability characteristics of undesirable emissions, SO2 is treated as an environmental input that is strongly disposable. Because most different undesirable outputs are jointly reduced, this study is the first to use directional derivatives instead of partial derivatives and proposes a new separation method that separates individual directional shadow price from the cost of joint reduction of multiple undesirable outputs. We apply the proposed method to a sample of 93 coal-fired power plants covering six years. The estimated average shadow prices of CO2 and SO2 are 69 /tonne under the newly developed partial frontiers. When assuming some undesirable output to be strongly disposable, both shadow prices fall (20.32 /tonne). The present paper suggests the estimated shadow prices will be much different across different levels of disposability. The cost of joint reduction is calculated as 91.05 /tonne and 1250.06 $/tonne. The estimated shadow prices for both undesirable outputs dispersed widely under the partial frontiers. Spatial distribution of estimated shadow prices shows that coastal provinces and municipalities have higher CO2 shadow prices but lower SO2 shadow prices, whereas the northeast provinces are the opposite. The CO2 shadow price is comparatively stable over the study period while the SO2 shadow price fluctuates. Policy implications are discussed.
... Regarding the retail market there no competition as the different areas have assigned a single retailer that can supply electricity. [50] Italy. Generation and Distribution sector in Italy are very similar in terms of competence and HHI index, showing that privatized companies like ENEL still have an important role in the sector. ...
During the recent years several technologies and services based in Internet of Things (IoT) and Machine-to-Machine communications (M2M) have appeared in many different sectors; where IoT can be defined as the idea that any device that can be benefited by being connected will be connected and M2M communications is defined as the kind of communication between devices with minimal human interaction. IoT and M2M solutions can be applied in many sectors, like healthcare, transport, logistics, media or utilities. In every sector the motivations to implement this new services is different, as each sector has different final objectives and different actors and business models.
When new technologies (like Smart Grid) appear two types of challenges can be defined: technical and business challenges, therefore innovation has to be applied in both of them. Too often innovation is focus on the technologic evolution and underestimated on the business field, however it is a key aspect for new technologies and services to reach commercial success.
From the technological point of view the state of research on Smart Grid applications and services is quite advanced, while authors consider that innovation in the business part is one of the biggest challenges for Smart Grid technologies to reach success. The goal of this project is to understand the Smart Grid environment and context in different
countries and propose business models suitable for the Smart Grid environment.
... About the distribution network is also fully control by the public institutions following a very similar pattern as in the generation sector. Regarding the retail market there no competition as the different areas have assigned a single retailer that can supply electricity [22]. ...
During recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the potential opportunities that can be attained with the use of smart devices in order to gather data or automate processes. This type of communications between devices with minimal human intervention is referred to as Machine-to-machine (M2M) communications that can be applied to optimize resources and improve service delivery applications. Smart Grid is one of the M2M communications applications that is attaining more attention during recent years, because of its potential to change the complete energy ecosystem; going from a unidirectional system to a bidirectional one where customers will have an important role in the ecosystem.
Depending on the country and its characteristics and situation, Smart Grid development can be very different. This article identifies commonalities and differences in Smart Grid communication development considering the current status in developed and developing countries. The process is done by evaluating the following techno-economic aspects: Technology development, Public initiatives, Regulator policies and Economic situation/Business perspective of the country. The article is concluded by showing that regulator policies regarding the level of liberalization in the energy market are a key element when defining business strategies and different stages of Smart Grid communications development has a critical influence in the definition of business models, as it defines the key activities, partners and value proposition for the business.
... The focuses are typically confined to technicalities; few have addressed the organizational and market contexts under which the schemes operate to compare their strengths and weaknesses. For instance, in China, there is acute tension between electricity supply and demand, but electricity price is highly regulated [18] . With market forces rendered irrelevant, demand surges have resulted in power-outages in some regions, leading to supply restraints. ...
Buildings are key target of policies that aim at promoting environmentally sustainable development. Amongst policy instruments that address environmental burdens incurred by buildings, labelling and certification schemes are arguably the most cost-effective. Since the first building environmental assessment scheme was launched in the 1990's, similar schemes have emerged in about 30 countries. These are mainly domestic schemes tailored to suit local contexts. Whilst most of these schemes take a voluntary, market driven approach, some have become a part of mandatory building approval requirements, though different certification schemes may co-exist in some regimes. Benchmarking the strengths and characteristics of different schemes has been advocated. In this connection, this paper provides a comprehensive review and comparison of the issues and metrics of five representative assessment schemes, namely, BREEAM, LEED, CASBEE, BEAM Plus and the Chinese scheme ESGB. Comparison of these five schemes shows that BREEAM and LEED are the most comprehensive. A two-phase certification method is adopted in LEED, CASBEE and BEAM Plus, which is considered preferable. Statistical analysis also reveals that there is a moderate degree of agreement amongst the five schemes on weights and ranks of weights allocated to five key assessment aspects. Through comparison, the weighting coefficients adopted by ESGB were found the most representative. Strengths and characteristics of the five schemes have been identified for reference of policy makers in developing their domestic schemes.
Trade, climate change, and the green economy are aspects that converge on the carbon footprint of organisations, products and countries. The carbon footprint is in turn linked directly to the grid emission factors (GEFs) of a country or sub-regions within that country. In an epoch where global citizens are increasingly aware of the adverse impacts of high greenhouse gas emissions leading to global warming, low carbon footprints are likely to attract greater trade opportunities. African and Asian countries have embraced the green economy to address economic development, environmental management and social equity challenges. The advent of the green economy means that trade is likely to result in the more efficient allocation of natural resources, as well as improved access to green goods, services and technologies. Through the examination and analysis of publicly available and accessible data and documents, this article seeks to compare the ‘green’ trade competitiveness of Asian and African economies as measured through carbon footprints. The results of the study show that Africa is relatively cleaner than Asia. Therefore, ceteris paribus, if GEFs are used to determine trading partners, Africa stands a better chance. The research findings can be used to make informed strategic trade decision in favour of environmental sustainability.
In the past three decades, the electric energy industry made great contribution to support rapid social and economic development in China, and meanwhile has been grown at the highest rate in the human history owing to the economic reform. In its new national development plan, more investment has been put into installation of both electricity generating capacity and transmitting capacity in order to meet fast growing demand of electric energy. However, energy resources, both fossil fuel and renewable types, and energy consumption and load centers in China are not evenly distributed in both spatial and temporal dimensions. Moreover, dominated by coal as its primary energy source, the whole eastern China is now entering an environmental crisis in which pollutants emitted by coal power plants contribute a large part. To balance the regional differences in energy sources and energy consumption while meeting the steadily increasing demands for electric energy for the whole country, in addition to increase electric generating capacity, building large-scale, long-distance ultra high voltage power grids is the top priority for next five years.
This paper investigates the effects of electricity reforms on productivity and efficiency of China's generation plants, based on the third industrial census data and the first economic census data. Partial factor productivity (PFP) analysis indicates that the productivity improvements in labor and capital inputs associated with the reforms are approximately 26% and 45% respectively. The effect of the reforms on fuel expense is weakly significant, but there is evidence of significant productivity improvement in fuel usage. Further total factor productivity (TIP) analysis shows that the efficiency gain from the reforms is still significant when the substitution effect of labor and capital inputs are considered, though the magnitude is much lower than that of the PFP analysis. The effect of the reforms on technical efficiency becomes weakly significant when fuel expense is further included in TFP analysis, but a significant positive effect is expected if fuel input is measured in physical quantity.
China׳s 12th Five-Year Plan addresses new challenges and sets new goals in the country׳s power sector. The structure of power generation development is to be optimised to properly balance coal transportation and power transmission. The controversy over the direction of grid transmission and distribution is also to be reconciled. The Plan puts forward specific requirements for energy conservation, developing clean energy, optimising the production of coal-fired electricity, rationalising the allocation of peak power, developing distributed energy and constructing a strong smart grid. It also strongly advocates renewable and other forms of clean energy resources. Considering all the above goals and requirements, it is necessary for China to adjust its blueprint for electricity market development by fine-tuning the original market-oriented reform momentum. This paper aims to design a policy framework for this and discusses how China should develop policies and strategies to meet these requirements and achieve these goals. Examples of compatible international experiences illustrate how China can secure a sustainable energy future.
This paper estimates the returns to household income due to improved access to electricity in rural India. We examine the effect of connecting a household to the grid and of the quality of electricity, defined as hours of daily supply. The analysis is based on two rounds of a representative panel of more than 10,000 households. We use the district-level density of transmission cables as instrument for the electrification status of the household. We find that a grid connection increases non-agricultural incomes of rural households by about 9 percent during the study period (1994-2005). However, a grid connection and a higher quality of electricity (in terms of fewer outages and more hours per day) increases non-agricultural incomes by about 28.6 percent in the same period.
The electricity industry of China has been in a process of reforms since the 1980s. This paper gives a review on the three main stages of reforms in China so as to trace out key features of various reform measures including those for power investment financing, the separation between government and power enterprises, and the division between power generation firms and power grids. The findings suggest that further regulatory change in China's electricity market reform is necessary when integration of the electricity markets and increased competition are paving the way ahead for a market-oriented structure. Prospective electricity regulation in the form of a strong legal system and effective institutions that protect market competition and promote appropriate incentives for efficiency are suggested in the paper.
In the past two decades, China has experienced a series of regulatory reforms in its electricity industry, aimed at improving power production efficiency. The central planning system was broken up and the market-oriented modern enterprise system was established. Furthermore, the former vertically integrated electricity utilities were divested and the generation sector was separated from the transmission and distribution networks. In this paper, we intend to estimate the impact of regulatory reforms on production efficiency of fossil-fired generation plants using the plant-level national survey data collected in 1995 and 2004. Applying the econometric method of Differences-in-Differences, we estimate the effects of these reforms on the demand for inputs of employees, fuel and nonfuel materials. The results show that the net efficiency improvement in labor input associated with the regulatory reforms is roughly 29% and the gains in nonfuel materials are about 35%, while there is no evidence of efficiency gains in fuel input associated with the electricity reforms.
The continuation of China's remarkable economic growth will depend on continued increases in electricity supply. China has commenced a program of electricity sector restructuring, with the announced aim of relying on markets and competition to provide incentives for attracting private investment and encouraging efficiency. However, a close examination of the generation markets being created suggests that truly free wholesale prices are likely to be both high and volatile. This may be the reason that these prices have not yet been freed — and it may not bode well for true market liberalization in the future.
"Market power in electricity wholesale spot markets is more likely if there is market segmentation. We show that principal component analysis is a natural tool for the qualitative and quantitative assessment of the presence of local markets. We study whether the New Zealand market has been a national market or a set of local markets since its inception in 1996 and find that increased competition induced some segmentation that was eliminated by transmission enhancement and the introduction of generation downstream from the constrained circuits. Transmission investment policy that ensures one market will contribute to the efficiency of electricity, water, and related other markets." ("JEL" D4, L1, L4) Copyright 2007 Western Economic Association International.
This volume of papers, originally presented at Stanford in March 1997 in a conference sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute, examines several questions about the restructuring and deregulation of electricity markets. Its stated goal is to present guiding principles for evaluating proposals to restructure the US electric power industry. While a collection of essays is perhaps not the best place to lay out guiding principles, the volume does contain a great deal of learning about restructuring. The first essay is a reprint of Paul Joskow's excellent article in the ``Journal of Economic Perspectives''. An essay by William Hogan on the debate between zonal and locational pricing is next. Paul Kleindorfer lists the various governance schemes which other countries that have restructured have used to govern system operation, access to the market for power, and transmission ownership and pricing. One difficulty with the book, as well as the debate in the US, is that it fails to draw adequately upon the international experience. Shmuel Oren lays out the potential areas over which an ISO could have authority. The chapter by Stephen Rassenti and Vernon Smith that bilateral trading should never be allowed, implying that a mandatory pool should be established. A reduction in regulation may increase the incentives for technological innovation. Martin Baughman suggests a number of ways by which costs of transmitting and storing electricity may be reduced. Robert Wilson returns to the volume with a chapter on institutional design. To end the volume, Hung-Po Chao and Stephen Peck present an extension of their earlier work in the ``Journal of Regulatory Economics'' showing how markets for transmission rights would work in a transmission grid of three points.
We develop a simple model to analyse the ‘dual-track’ approach to transition to a market economy as a mechanism for implementing efficient Pareto-improving economic reform, that is, reform achieving efficiency without creating losers. The approach, based on the continued enforcement of the existing plan while simultaneously liberalizing the market, can be understood as a method for making implicit lump-sum transfers to compensate potential losers of the reform. The model highlights the critical role of enforcement of the plan and full liberalization of the market track. We examine how the dual-track approach has worked in product and labour markets in China’s economic reform in practice.
Over the last fifteen years the world's largest developing countries have initiated market reform in their electric power sectors from generation to distribution. This book evaluates the experiences of five of those countries - Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa - as they have shifted from state-dominated systems to schemes allowing for a larger private sector role. As well as having the largest power systems in their regions and among the most rapidly rising consumption of electricity in the world, these countries are the locus of massive financial investment and the effects of their power systems are increasingly felt in world fuel markets. This accessible volume explains the origins of these reform efforts and offers a theory as to why - despite diverse backgrounds - reform efforts in all five countries have stalled in similar ways. The authors also offer practical advice to improve reform policies.
Ping, Director of general engineer office of Chongqing Energy Conservation Technical Service Center. Overview Since 1994, China's electric power industry has seen a considerable transformation. An Electric Power Law was put in force April 1996. This was a major event in China's electric power history. The new law promotes the development of the electric power industry, protects legal rights of investors, managers and consumers, and regulates generation, distribution and consumption. Before electricity supply was managed by electric power bureaus of the provinces and cities by administrative agents. Now utilities have been changed into companies outside of administration. It is expected that the municipal electric power companies will be divided into electric power generating and electric power supply companies. A policy of competition between the different generators will be implemented in the next years . China's electric power industry continuously maintains a high growth rate. By the end of 2000, the total installed power was 315 GW, that means an increase of 16,5 GW or 5.5% compared to 1999. Hydropower amounted to 77 GW, accounting for 15 %; thermal power amounted to 235 GW, accounting for 83 %.and nuclear power amounted to 2GW, accounting for 1 % of installed capacity. Electricity generation reached 1400 TWh, 13.5 % more than in the previous year. In 1999, the construction investment of the electric power industry reached 14 billion US dollars, of which 49.3 % were dedicated to thermal power, 12.5 % to hydropower 6.4 % to nuclear 26.1 %, to transmission lines and transformers and 5.7 %.to other investments. By the end of 2010, it is expected that the total installed capacity will reach 500 GW. Annual generation of electricity will exceed 2040 TWh. Figure 1 shows the expected contributions of different sources to this production.
The following consists of brief notes culled from information obtained on a visit to Liaoning (Shenyang, Anshan and Dalien), Peking and Canton during May and June 1973.
Introductory Preface Introduction 1. The command economy and the China difference Phase One. The Bird in the Cage, 1979-1983: 2. Crisis and response: initial reorientation of the economy 3. State sector reforms 4. Growth of the non-state sector Phase Two. Reforms Take Off, 1984-1988: 5. Reformulation and debate: the turning point of 1984 6. The second phase of reform 7. Rapid growth and macroeconomic imbalance Phase Three. To a Market Economy: 8. The post-Tiananmen cycle of retrenchment and renewed reform 9. Conclusion.
“The nations accepting this constitution being determined to promote the common welfare by furthering separate and collective action on their part for the purpose of raising levels of nutrition and standards of living of the people under their jurisdiction, securing improvements in the efficiency of the production of all food and agricultural products, bettering the conditions of rural populations, and thus contributing toward an expanding world economy, hereby establish the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.”
Chinese economic growth in the transition era between the deaths of Mao Zedong in 1976 and Deng Xiaoping in 1997 has been exceptionally rapid by historical and international standards. However, and contrary to the conventional wisdom espoused by the Washington consensus, it is shown here that only a small part of Chinese growth can be explained by trade, foreign direct investment, and the mobilization of surplus labour. Instead, growth has been driven by China's state‐led industrial policy, and facilitated by the many favourable industrial and infrastructural legacies of the Maoist era. But the Chinese developmental state did not emerge from a vacuum. Rather, its existence and effectiveness depended upon the limited degree of inequality of income and wealth in China at the end of the 1970s. As inequality has increased over the course of the 1980s and 1990s, so the ability of the Chinese state to promote growth has diminished.
Since the spring of 2000, energy problems have plagued California. Californians have faced blackouts, seen the state budget surplus disappear, watched Pacific Gas and Electric file for bankruptcy, and listened to state officials point fingers at many organizations and individuals for allegedly causing the crisis. The chain of events began as an opportunity for California to restructure and improve its electricity system. But after political leaders mismanaged the electricity crisis, California now faces an electricity blight while it struggles to recover from its self-imposed wounds. The California Electricity Crisis focuses on policy decisions, their consequences, and alternatives: the saga California has faced and is still facing. Throughout this saga, one policy decision led logically to another, yet at almost every juncture very different choices were possible. James L. Sweeney examines how the opportunity for restructuring was turned into risk, how challenges of increased demand for electricity and escalating wholesale costs were mishandled, and how the growing crisis ultimately turned into disaster. He documents how the California governor and legislature responded to the short-term crisis by adopting ill-conceived long-term measuresâcreating a harmful legacy for decades to come. But Professor Sweeney also shows how the state can still move past its difficulties by improving electricity markets, reducing risk, and appropriately managing the state's financial obligations.
In this article, recent development and future challenges in generation, transmission, and the market aspect of electric energy systems in China are described. For each of the subjects, the major challenges being faced and the measures and policies being taken are listed. China has to take a leadership role in future technology R&D in all aspects, including clean energy development and efficient energy utilization with state-of-the-art power electronics and information technologies. Hopefully, China will be able to lead, not just in the deployment and utilization of electric energy systems but also in the development of new technologies in the coming decade to benefit the nation and the world.
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