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Supported and unsupported breast displacement in three dimensions across treadmill activity levels
Journal of Sports Sciences
Abstract
Appropriate sports bras are crucial to limit potential breast pain and ptosis. In an attempt to optimize breast support during exercise, manufacturers now produce activity level-specific sports bras. However, until breast movement across activity levels is understood, the criterion for such apparel is unknown. Therefore, the aim of this study was to quantify multi-planar breast displacement across treadmill activity levels and breast support conditions. Twenty-one D cup participants had markers attached to their nipples and trunk to calculate relative 3D breast displacement. Supported and unsupported mediolateral, anterioposterior, vertical, and resultant breast displacement was assessed during treadmill walking up to maximum running. Unsupported resultant breast displacement increased from 4.2 ± 1.0 cm during walking to 15.2 ± 4.2 cm during running. There was no change in breast displacement amplitude or direction as running speed increased above 10 km · h⁻¹, with vertical breast displacement then accounting for ∼50% of overall displacement. While breast support was effective in reducing the amplitude of breast displacement during walking and running, the direction was unaffected. In conclusion, instead of activity level-specific breast support, future research should identify multi-planar breast kinematics during various sporting modalities. This might lead to production of a sports-specific bra to reduce the negative consequences of breast movement.
... Indeed, the breasts can move up to 15 cm during vigorous physical activity, and excessive breast motion is associated with breast discomfort, affecting as many as 56% of females. [10][11][12][13] In fact, one study suggested as little as 2 cm of breast motion during exercise is associated with discomfort. 14 Unfortunately, this breast pain often deters women and girls from exercising and participating in sports. ...
... 24,25 Although in research studies sports bras appear to reduce breast pain and movement during physical activity, breast pain continues to be a reported barrier to physical activity, even as recent as 2023. 10,12,26,27 Thus, there is a need to synthesize the literature aimed at understanding how breasts and bras impact physical activity to identify potential explanations as to why breast-related barriers to physical activity still exist. ...
... Following title, abstract, and full text screening, 77 articles were eligible for inclusion in our review ( Figure 1). 8,[10][11][12][13][14][16][17][18]20,21,26, Reasons for exclusion at the full text level are listed in Table S3, with the most frequent reason for exclusion being the article was not an original research study. Tables S3 and S4 Detailed study information was extracted from the included articles and is listed in Table S3. ...
BACKGROUND: Breast motion may cause breast pain in active women, which can negatively impact physical activity. Sports bras are essential pieces of sporting equipment and were designed to help women comfortably participate in sports and engage in physical activity. Thus, the purpose of this systematic review was to summarize how breasts and bras influence physical activity in women and girls. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted by performing electronic searches of PubMed, Physiotherapy Evidence Database, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. Title, abstract, and full text screening were performed by two independent reviewers to identify articles investigating how breasts or bras impact physical activity related outcomes in women or girls. We performed meta-analyses to evaluate the effect of (i) breast size, (ii) bra type, and (iii) breast reduction on (i) breast pain, (ii) physical activity level, and (iii) breast biomechanics. Standardized mean differences and pooled standard deviations of outcome measures were calculated using the DerSimonian-Laird method. All meta-analyses were performed using SPSS Statistics Software. RESULTS: Of the 323 articles identified, 77 were included in the final analysis. The majority of articles studied participants who were 20-29 years old, identified as white, lived in Western countries, were non-athletes, and weighed between 45-65 kg (BMI: 18.5-29.9), while they were performing a running movement. Very few articles reported household income and ethnicity/race. Key themes investigated by this body of literature were breast biomechanics, breast pain, and physical activity levels. Meta-analyses revealed that women and girls with larger breasts reported more exercise-induced breast pain and experienced greater breast mediolateral velocity and anterior/poster acceleration during physical activity than women and girls with smaller breasts. Meta-analyses revealed that sports bras were associated with less breast pain during physical activity than standard bras. CONCLUSION: This body of literature largely studied a homogenous population, and there is a need for greater inclusion of women and girls who identify with under-represented minorities, with disability, who are post-menopausal, and who are overweight. Factors such as ethnicity/race and household income, were underreported in the literature, and studies of movement patterns beyond running are needed. Mediolateral breast velocity and anterior/posterior breast acceleration may be contributors to breast pain in women and girls with larger breasts, thus these biomechanical outcomes are of particular interest for future research and for consideration in sports bra optimization.
... Due to the limited anatomical support, women's breasts will move relative to the chest wall when they participate in physical activities [1]. Therefore, sports bra, which was proven to be effective at reducing breast movement and exercise-related breast pain, has been advocated for exercising females [1]. ...
... Due to the limited anatomical support, women's breasts will move relative to the chest wall when they participate in physical activities [1]. Therefore, sports bra, which was proven to be effective at reducing breast movement and exercise-related breast pain, has been advocated for exercising females [1]. Because of its high performance in tactility and pressure comfort, a seamless knitted sports bra is becoming popular. ...
... XIAOFANG LIU 1 XIAOFEN JI e-mail: xiaofenji@zstu.edu.cn ...
Seamless knitted sports bra is becoming popular for its high performance in tactility and pressure comfort, however, it also encounters the problem of insufficient support. To improve the support performance, it is always knitted with strong elastic material in a reduced size than the body dimension, which will generate much pressure on the body, leading to discomfort. As the pressure distribution may affect the pressure comfort and support performance of the sports bra, this study aimed to explore novel information in optimizing the pressure comfort and support performance by applying elasticity distribution. 4 sports bras with different elasticity distribution on the under-band were developed to compare with the one without elasticity distribution, and 12 healthy women were involved as subjects. The pressure distribution and pressure comfort sensations both in static and dynamic conditions, and the reduction of breast displacement (RBD) of 5 sports bras were measured and analysed by ANOVA analysis. The results indicated that the pressure distribution, the pressure comfort and RBD were effectively changed by elasticity distribution. Bra D with a high Young’s modulus on the side area of the under-band was ideal and typical both in pressure comfort and RBD.
... The suprasternal notch was used to eliminate trunk motion with six degrees of freedom. The trunk angles (lean) during the four exercises were ignored because they were relatively small in (a) Front side (b) Back side [30]. Vertical breast displacement was calculated via vertical relative breast coordinates, which were the difference between the Z coordinates of the left breast nipple and those of the suprasternal notch. ...
... The results showed a significant difference in vertical breast displacement between rope skipping and walking, partially accepting the first hypothesis. Besides, there were significant differences in vertical breast displacement between walking and jogging, and walking and running, confirming the findings by Mason et al. and Scurr et al.'s research [9,21,30]. These findings may be explained by the different levels of intensity of the four modalities. ...
... Namely, when the intensity of trunk motion was higher than jogging, the vertical breast displacement did not increase to comply with the intensity. According to Scurr et al.'s research [30], the vertical breast displacement remained similar when the speed of the running tasks was above 8 km/h in both bra and no bra conditions, which was consistent with this study. Ligamentous structures in the breast limit the motion to some extent, resulting in breast displacement peaking at a certain state instead of continually rising with the landing force. ...
Asian women have smaller breast sizes and greater breast density, which suggests specific research on their breast kinematics and biomechanics. To investigate vertical breast displacement of Asian women among exercise modalities (rope skipping, walking, jogging, running) in different support conditions (wearing everyday bra or sports bra), and assess the motion between different parts of the breast, seven participants were selected to participate in this study. Five infrared markers were placed on each of their left breasts, and a three-dimensional motion capture system (NDI Optotrak Investigator) was used to collect the data on vertical breast displacement during walking (5 km/h), jogging (7.5 km/h), running (10 km/h) and rope skipping (2 Hz). No significant difference was found in the vertical displacement of different parts of the breast in the two bra conditions. Also, there was significant difference in vertical breast displacement among rope skipping, jogging and running. Breast size did not significantly affect its vertical displacement. The smaller, denser breast appears to reach a threshold of vertical displacement that is similar at high severities of dynamic exercises (jogging, running and rope skipping). The results might be useful for designing special sports bras for Asian women with small breasts or rope skipping participants to improve the shock absorption function.
... Excessive breast movement can increase embarrassment, reduce willingness to exercise, decrease self-confidence, and lower self-esteem (Moreno & Johnston, 2014;Burnett et al., 2015;Scurr et al., 2016). Whilst movement as little as 2 cm can induce breast pain (McGhee et al., 2007), breast movement of up to 19 cm vertical plane and 4 cm in the medial-lateral and anterior-posterior planes have previously been recorded during physical activity (Mason et al., 1999;McGhee et al., 2007;Scurr et al., 2011). Therefore, correct breast support is required for women to minimize exercise-induced breast pain and prevent breast sag (ptosis; Coltman et al., 2017;Page & Steele, 1999). ...
... The main themes and focus of the studies were breast motion during physical activity for sports bra design, perceived barriers to participation in physical activity and education/ knowledge of breast support and bra fit. Ten studies used quantitative methods to measure breast motion and breast support (McGhee et al., 2007;Scurr et al., 2009Scurr et al., , 2010Scurr et al., , 2011Mills et al., 2015a;Risius et al., 2015;Mills et al., 2015bMills et al., , 2017 and breast knowledge (McGhee et al., 2010). The remaining 13 studies used qualitative methods to measure perceived barriers and knowledge of breast support and bra fit Burnett et al., 2015;Scurr et al., 2016;Burbage et al., 2017;Smith et al., 2018;Brown et al., 2018;Coltman et al., 2019;Brisbine et al., 2019;Omrani et al., 2020;Brisbine et al., 2020;Brown et al., 2021;Rizzone et al., 2021). ...
... Breast comfort was most closely correlated with breast velocity and displacement but a low correlation with breast acceleration. Scurr et al. (2011) 21 Healthy women (25.1 ± 4.8 years) ...
The breasts are reported as the fourth largest barrier to participation in physical activity (PA). This scoping review provides a comprehensive understanding of experiences, knowledge and challenges relating to bra fit and sports participation. The search strategy was adopted by the Preferred Reporting Items for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines and multiple databases were searched. All research was in English and within the last 20 years. Exclusion criteria excluded reviews, male participants and the inability to locate or access full-text articles. The JBI critical appraisal tool assessed methodological quality. Twenty-three studies were included. Key themes from the studies are breast motion during PA, sports bra design, perceived barriers to participation in PA and education/knowledge of breast support and bra fit. Increasing breast support reduces breast movement during PA yet breast motion and bra fit are still the most common breast concerns for females. This is likely influenced by poor breast knowledge, leading to poor breast support choices. Future research should explore to what extent breast motion, knowledge and bra fit influences sport participation, and this research should include a more diverse range of adult ages, cup sizes, ethnicities and PA levels to provide a wider understanding. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Prior breast motion research has mainly been aimed at women with large breasts, such as C and C+ cup size [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8]. Nevertheless, women with smaller breasts also require adequate breast support [9,10]. ...
... Brown et al. [12] found that the average distance from the suprasternal notch to the nipple of women with smaller breasts was less than the average distance observed in women with larger breasts. ported that the mediolateral (4.0 ± 2.0 cm at 10.8 km/h and 4.8 ± 3.4 cm at 15 km/h) and anteroposterior breast displacement (4.0 ± 1.0 cm at 10.8 km/h and 5.1 ± 3.4 cm at 15 km/h) for women with D cup in the no bra condition were at a similar level [6,7]. Furthermore, a different study reported a complicated result in the form of a figure, where anteroposterior breast displacement was greater than mediolateral breast displacement for women with a cup size ranging from A to C during a two-step star jump, and was less than mediolateral breast displacement for women with the cup size ranging from D cup to G cup [16]. ...
... Gait speed has been reported to be related to breast displacement. For instance, test results showed that each 1 km/h increment in treadmill speed resulted in a significant increase in breast displacement from 5 km/h up to 10 km/h with no bra, up to 9 km/h in an everyday bra, and a less uniform pattern with both sports bras [6]. Another study reported that none of the bras tested consistently provided a significant reduction in resultant breast movement at all speeds (4 km/h, 6 km/h, 8 km/h, and 10 km/h) during treadmill tests [10]. ...
This paper investigated three-dimensional breast displacement under different breast support conditions and gait speeds for women with small breasts. The breast coordinates of fifteen female participants with small breasts (sizes ranging from A to C) were recorded during treadmill walking and running tests under two different sports bra conditions and a no bra condition. The results showed that although vertical breast displacement was always the greatest in each condition, mediolateral breast displacement was significantly greater than anteroposterior breast displacement. Mediolateral breast displacement was not effectively reduced in the two sports bra conditions compared to the no bra condition. It is recommended that sports bra designed for women with small breasts should aim to limit mediolateral breast displacement instead of anteroposterior breast displacement, on the premise of controlling vertical breast displacement. The findings also suggest that the effectiveness of sports bras at reducing side-to-side breast movement requires further optimisation.
... The growth of the global sports bra market is driven by increased female participation in sports and exercise and increased awareness of the need to support the breast (O'Connell, 2019). The breast has limited intrinsic support and as a consequence excessive breast movement can occur during physical activity (Page and Steele, 1999;Scurr et al., 2009Scurr et al., , 2011. This movement has been reported to range from 4 cm during walking to 15 cm when running (Bowles et al., 2008;Scurr et al., 2011). ...
... The breast has limited intrinsic support and as a consequence excessive breast movement can occur during physical activity (Page and Steele, 1999;Scurr et al., 2009Scurr et al., , 2011. This movement has been reported to range from 4 cm during walking to 15 cm when running (Bowles et al., 2008;Scurr et al., 2011). Repeated loading on the delicate breast supporting structures, due to excessive breast motion, may result in breast discomfort, breast sag and embarrassment (Bowles et al., 2008;Mason et al., 1999;Page and Steele, 1999;Starr et al., 2005). ...
... Up to 72% of exercising females (Gehlsen and Albohm, 1980) are reported to experience breast pain and, despite the success of the global sports bra market, one in five adult women (Burnett et al., 2015) and nearly half of adolescent girls report the breast as a barrier to exercise. Well-designed sports bras are more effective in limiting breast motion than standard fashion bras or crop tops (Boschma et al., 1996;Bowles et al., 2008;Bowles et al., 2012;Mason et al., 1999;Page and Steele, 1999) and are advocated to reduce breast motion and discomfort during physical activity (Mason et al., 1999;Scurr et al., 2010Scurr et al., , 2011White et al., 2009White et al., , 2011. Currently, there are three distinct sports bra designs on the market: compression, encapsulation and combination. ...
Purpose
Previous research suggests that many active females are not engaging in sports bra use, despite the positive health benefits. The aim of this study was to establish and compare sports bra use, preferences and bra fit issues for exercising females in some of the largest and most diverse global underwear markets (the US, the UK and China).
Design/methodology/approach
A survey covering activity levels, sports bra use and preferences, bra issues and demographics was administered via Qualtrics and completed by 3,147 physically active females (aged ≥ 18 years) from the US ( n = 1,060), UK ( n = 1,050) and China ( n = 1,037).
Findings
In general, participants were 25–29 years, 121 to 140 pounds, 34B bra size and pre-menopausal. “I cannot find the right sports bra” was the most frequent breast barrier to exercise (25.4%). Three-quarters of women wore a sports bra during exercise, with significantly higher use in China (83.9%), compared to the UK (67.2%). A third of all participants reported sports bra shoulder straps “digging into the skin”. Sports bra preferences were: compression sports bras with a racer back, wide straps and thick straps in the US and the UK; thin straps in China and adjustable straps and underband, no wire and maximum breast coverage in the US and the UK, including nipple concealment and with padded/moulded cups.
Originality/value
Information provided on differences in sports bra use, preferences and bra issues across three major global markets could be utilised by brands and manufacturers to optimise bra marketing and fit education initiatives and inform future sports bra design and distribution strategies.
... Within the sports bra market, breast movement reduction is often used as an outcome measure to determine the breast support provided by garments and consequently may be used as a surrogate measure of sports bra performance (Zhou, Yu, and Ng 2013) (Shock Absorber V R (Josephson 2015), Triumph V R (Triumph 2019). Represented as a percentage, breast movement reduction has been identified to range from 50% (Triumph 2019) to 78% (Shock Absorber 2020) in the sports bra market, with similar values also previously reported within breast biomechanics literature (59%, Scurr, White, and Hedger (2011), 53% and 64%, Boschma, Smith, and Lawson (1994). Additionally, compared to other performance outcome measures utilised within breast biomechanics research such as strap pressure (Bowles and Steele 2013), bra comfort (Lawson and Lorentzen 1990), thermal comfort (Ayres et al. 2013), skin temperature (Ayres et al. 2013), and muscular activity (Milligan et al. 2014), it has been suggested that reporting the percentage of breast movement reduction achieved for a sports bra helps the consumer understand the support that bra may provide (Bowles, Steele, and Munro 2008;Krenzer, Starr, and Branson 2005). ...
... During running Zhou, Yu, and Ng (2013) identified that better performing sports bras reduced breast movement and contained characteristics such as compression, high neck drop, cross back shoulder straps, no padding and no underwire. Similarly, Scurr, White, and Hedger (2011) also utilised breast movement reduction to assess sports bra performance during running, however Scurr, White, and Hedger (2011) identified an encapsulation style as better performing than a compression style for larger-breasted females (D cup). Zhou et al. (2009) also utilised breast movement reduction to report that better performing bras, during walking, stepping and running, contained increased polyamide (commonly identified as nylon (Deopura et al. 2008) content. ...
... During running Zhou, Yu, and Ng (2013) identified that better performing sports bras reduced breast movement and contained characteristics such as compression, high neck drop, cross back shoulder straps, no padding and no underwire. Similarly, Scurr, White, and Hedger (2011) also utilised breast movement reduction to assess sports bra performance during running, however Scurr, White, and Hedger (2011) identified an encapsulation style as better performing than a compression style for larger-breasted females (D cup). Zhou et al. (2009) also utilised breast movement reduction to report that better performing bras, during walking, stepping and running, contained increased polyamide (commonly identified as nylon (Deopura et al. 2008) content. ...
Breast movement reduction (%) measures breast support and sports bra performance, however limited evidence exists on the sports bra characteristics which affect it. This study investigated breast movement reduction achieved by 98 sports bras, the categorisation of support levels, and the characteristics that contribute. Each bra was tested on ∼12 females (total n = 77). Relative breast position was recorded during sports bra and bare-breasted running, and breast movement reduction calculated; low, medium, high breast support tertiles were identified and compared to brand-classified support levels. Ten bra characteristics were identified, and regressions determined which characteristics contributed to performance. Breast movement reduction ranged from 36% to 74%; 69% of bras marketed as high support were in the high support tertile (>63%). Encapsulation style, padded cups, nylon, adjustable underband and high neck drop accounted for 37.1% of breast movement reduction variance. Findings facilitate high performance sports bra development and inform consumer choice.
Practitioner summary: Little is known about the biomechanical breast support which sports bras actually provide. This original research facilitates high performance sports bra development, and helps inform consumer choice, by identifying the breast movement reduction of a large sample of sports bras, and the characteristics which impact sports bra performance.
Abbreviations: A-P: anterior-posterior; BMI: body mass index; C7: 7th cervical vertebrae; LNIP: left nipple; M-L: medial-lateral; PX: xiphoid process; ROM: range of motion; S-I: superior-inferior; SD: standard deviation; STN: suprasternal notch; T8: 8th thoracic vertebrae
... Bra and sports bra act as external support for the breasts (McGhee et al., 2013;Risius et al., 2017). It has been suggested that adequate support, provided by these types of sportswear, may limit the vertical and lateral movements of the breasts relative to the body (Mason et al., 1999;Scurr et al., 2011). Therefore, it is clear in the literature that the use of adequate breast support may reduce the movement of the breasts (Scurr et al., 2010). ...
... Retro-reflective markers (15 mm diameter) were positioned, according to the biomechanical model, on the left nipple, the suprasternal notch, and the left and right anteroinferior aspect of the 10th ribs (Scurr et al., 2011(Scurr et al., , 2010 (Fig. 1A). In the everyday and sports bra conditions, markers were repositioned on the bra, over the nipple (Gehlsen and Albohm, 1980;Lorentzen and Lawson, 1987). ...
... In addition, to establish the breast kinematics relative to the trunk, a local coordinate system was created (Fig. 1A). The origin of the trunk local coordinate system (Scurr et al., 2011(Scurr et al., , 2010 was defined in the suprasternal notch marker. The vertical axis k was defined using the midpoint between right rib and left rib and suprasternal notch, pointing upwards. ...
Running is a modality that has a large number of adepts, including women. Therefore, it is important to understand how sportswear can help women, with special attention to the breast movement. The aim of this study was to analyse the effect of different combinations of breast support and footwear on the breast movement during walking and running. Twenty women performed treadmill walking (5 km/h) and running (7 and 10 km/h) combining different footwear (barefoot, minimalist, and traditional) and breast support conditions (bare breast, everyday bra, and sports bra). Three-dimensional data from breast and trunk markers were tracked for 10 stride cycles. Relative breast displacement was calculated and derived for velocity. An interaction effect was observed between support, footwear, and speed conditions. The bare breast conditions presented differences from the other conditions in the majority of the kinematic variables, presenting higher breast displacement and velocity values. On the other hand, the sports bra conditions presented the lowest values for the kinematics variables. In the vertical component of breast displacement during running (10 km/h) we verified that the sports bra presented reductions of 56% and 43% in relation to the bare breast and everyday bra conditions, respectively. Despite this, no differences were found between footwear within each breast support condition. A sports bra is efficient to decrease breast movement. In addition, neither of the tested footwear was able to decrease these movements.
... As the motion occurs as a sequence of displacements, other attributes may be important to consider including variability. Three studies have investigated breast motion variability (Milligan et al., 2014;Scurr et al., 2009Scurr et al., , 2011. As breast motion is neither purely periodic nor aperiodic, but somewhere between, nonlinear analysis can measure how variability occurs. ...
... In deep water where breasts are supported by buoyancy and there is reduced heel strike, the running motion is described as being of 'poor movement quality' resulting in a pattern of 'more erratic' and 'less consistent' breast motion compared to treadmill running where the pattern is 'consistent' and 'regular' and synchronised with whole-body movement (McGhee et al., 2007). In addition, the reduced breast motion amplitude consistently found with support and perceptions of bra effectiveness and comfort are not always significantly positively correlated (Scurr et al., 2011Himmelsbach et al., 1992;Nolte et al., 2016), and have even been negatively correlated (Bridgman et al., 2010). In assessing the effects of breasts, which are a non-centrally controlled segment, on the whole body, previous studies have examined the role of breast support on thorax (Gibson et al., 2020;White et al., 2015;Milligan et al., 2015) and upper-extremity motions (White et al., 2015;Milligan et al., 2015) with running as an exercise. ...
Prior observations and qualitative descriptions of breast motion suggest that structure of motion variability may be important for understanding how breasts move and how support from bras alters breast and body motion. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the feasibility of utilising recurrence quantification analysis (RQA) to measure nonlinear properties of breast, thorax and upper-arm motion variability for different breast support levels and breast sizes. Support from bras causes breast motion which is less deterministic and therefore less predictable. Motion of larger breasts is less random and more complex, but these nonlinear aspects of motion, unlike amplitude, are not as dependent on size. These findings increase understanding of the structure of breast and body motion variability and how bras influence the motions. Such information may improve bra design with the goal of allowing more effective human performance of work and exercise.
... For example, females with a D-cup breast size can experience vertical breast displacements as high as 20 cm when running without breast support (McGhee et al., 2007;Scurr et al., 2011a). However, when external breast support was provided in the form of a sports bra, vertical breast displacements decreased (Scurr et al., 2011a,b;Risius et al., 2017), attenuating perceived breast pain and improving breast comfort (Scurr et al., 2011b;Milligan et al., 2015;Risius et al., 2017;McGhee and Steele, 2020b). ...
... Further, it suggests that insufficient or excessive variability is indicative of suboptimal performance of the biological system (Stergiou et al., 2006;Stergiou and Decker, 2011). Consistent with previous findings, it could be postulated that in the current study the treadmill running task resulted in greater breast motion (Scurr et al., 2010(Scurr et al., , 2011b, which altered trunk motion (Risius et al., 2017) and trunk motion variability in the LOW compared to HIGH support sports bra. Though at present, no data exists evaluating the influence of breast support on the non-linear measures of trunk motion variability used by Schutte and colleagues (Schutte et al., 2015De Brabandere et al., 2018), emerging data supports the postulation that variability of trunk motion is greater in lowcompared to high-support sports bras . ...
... For example, females with a D-cup breast size can experience vertical breast displacements as high as 20 cm when running without breast support (McGhee et al., 2007;Scurr et al., 2011a). However, when external breast support was provided in the form of a sports bra, vertical breast displacements decreased (Scurr et al., 2011a,b;Risius et al., 2017), attenuating perceived breast pain and improving breast comfort (Scurr et al., 2011b;Milligan et al., 2015;Risius et al., 2017;McGhee and Steele, 2020b). ...
... Further, it suggests that insufficient or excessive variability is indicative of suboptimal performance of the biological system (Stergiou et al., 2006;Stergiou and Decker, 2011). Consistent with previous findings, it could be postulated that in the current study the treadmill running task resulted in greater breast motion (Scurr et al., 2010(Scurr et al., , 2011b, which altered trunk motion (Risius et al., 2017) and trunk motion variability in the LOW compared to HIGH support sports bra. Though at present, no data exists evaluating the influence of breast support on the non-linear measures of trunk motion variability used by Schutte and colleagues (Schutte et al., 2015De Brabandere et al., 2018), emerging data supports the postulation that variability of trunk motion is greater in lowcompared to high-support sports bras . ...
IntroductionBreast pain is a major barrier to running for women. While breast support through the use of sports bras reduces breast-related discomfort, the effect of breast support on running performance is less understood. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effect of greater breast support on oxygen consumption and running economy during a treadmill running task.Methods
Fifteen female recreational runners performed a 10-min treadmill running task at their preferred running speed in each of two sports bra conditions: low support and high support. Participants ran on an instrumented treadmill (1,200 Hz, Bertec) while indirect calorimetry was performed using a metabolic measurement system (100 Hz, TrueOne, ParvoMedics). Average VO2 (absolute and relative) from the third to 10th minutes was used to evaluate oxygen consumption. Running economy was calculated as the distance traveled per liter of oxygen consumed. Paired samples t-tests were used to compare mean oxygen consumption and running economy values between breast support conditions. Correlation analysis was performed to evaluate the relationship between breast size and change in running performance.ResultsGreater breast support was associated with reductions in absolute (p < 0.001) and relative oxygen consumption (p < 0.001; LOW: 30.9 ± 7.1 ml/kg/min; HIGH: 28.7 ± 6.7 ml/kg/min). Greater breast support was associated with increases in running economy (p < 0.001; LOW: 88.6 ± 29.1 m/L O2; HIGH: 95.2 ± 31.1 m/L O2). No changes in temporospatial characteristics of running were observed including cadence (p = 0.149), step length (p = 0.300) or ground contact time (p = 0.151). Strong positive linear correlations were observed between the change in running performance metrics and breast size (Oxygen Consumption: p < 0.001, r = 0.770; Relative Oxygen Consumption: p < 0.001, r = 0769; Running Economy: p < 0.001, r = 0.807).Conclusions
Greater breast support was associated with reduced oxygen consumption and increased running economy. These findings demonstrate that greater breast support is not only associated with improved comfort but also improved running performance.
... Prior to selecting the test items, results from previous relevant studies on sport brassieres were reviewed. Measurement of breast movement reduction is often used as a critical index to represent breast support (Zhou et al. 2013, Scurr et al. 2011). This measure of breast movement reduction was compared relative to brassiere design features, such as cup design (Scurr et al. 2011), strap configuration (Zhou et al. 2013, Bowles and Steele, 2013, Coltman et al. 2015, Page and Steele 1999, Yu and Zhou, 2016, cup padding (Zhou et al. 2013, Page and Steele, 1999, Yu and Zhou, 2016, and cup underwire (Zhou et al. 2013, Page andSteele, 1999), etc. ...
... Measurement of breast movement reduction is often used as a critical index to represent breast support (Zhou et al. 2013, Scurr et al. 2011). This measure of breast movement reduction was compared relative to brassiere design features, such as cup design (Scurr et al. 2011), strap configuration (Zhou et al. 2013, Bowles and Steele, 2013, Coltman et al. 2015, Page and Steele 1999, Yu and Zhou, 2016, cup padding (Zhou et al. 2013, Page and Steele, 1999, Yu and Zhou, 2016, and cup underwire (Zhou et al. 2013, Page andSteele, 1999), etc. Among identified design features, this study selected two primary features, cup design and strap type, because they are the two basic design characteristics relative to other sub-details such as cup padding or cup with underwire. ...
In an effort to develop a U.S. Army tactical brassiere (ATB), a three-step study was designed and executed. Commercial off the shelf (COTS) sports brassieres were assessed to investigate the effects of different design features on fit, mobility (i.e., breast support, interference), and comfort (subjective rating) relative to the wearer’s anthropometric characteristics (Step 1). Based on the results from the first step of the study, an ATB sizing system was developed (Step 2). Then, the fit model was selected and the accommodation envelope was constructed to develop the brassiere pattern per size based on the ATB sizing system (Step 3). The current study summarizes the results of the first step of the study and includes the relationship between overall coverage, design features, anthropometric characteristics, and their pros and cons as they relate to Soldier mobility.A total of 19 test participants (TPs) volunteered. Data collection sessions were executed following COVID restriction guidelines. Seven configurations (six COTS brassieres and U.S. Army standard issue brassiere as a baseline) were assessed and compared to each other. The six COTS configurations were a combination of three brassiere cup designs (compression, encapsulation and hybrid (more than 1 configuration of cup design)) and two strap designs (straight and racer back). To capture the anthropometric characteristics, a total of 24 traditional dimensions were measured and seven derived dimensions were computed from traditional dimensions. Four additional dimensions were extracted from three-dimensional scan images captured by a Cyberware 3D whole-body scanner. For the mobility assessments, six tasks (Extend and Flex, The Rower, Windmill, Quadraplex, Mountain Climber, and High Jumper) were selected from an Army physical training guide. TPs’ subjective ratings (5-point Likert scale) for support, discomfort and interference on each mobility task were collected upon completion of each task for each test configuration. At the end of the mobility session, TPs provided overall ratings on the attributes of the test configuration. Once data collection on all seven configurations were completed, TPs ranked all test configurations, including their own personal preferred sport brassiere. A one-way repeated measures ANOVA along with Scheffé tests was performed on all applicable anthropometric dimensions. Correlation analyses between anthropometric dimensions and subjective ratings on mobility tasks were conducted to investigate the relationship between design features and mobility. Descriptive statistics, as well as graphical visualization, were produced to compare subjective ratings on mobility tasks between configurations. In all, different brassiere designs had an effect on all compared anthropometric measurements. Each configuration showed distinctive anthropometric characteristics, and those anthropometric differences were often correlated with TPs’ subjective ratings on discomfort and breast support. A detailed investigation for the metrics as well as the comparison of results are further discussed in this paper.
... As the motion occurs as a sequence of displacements, other attributes may be important to consider including variability. Three studies have investigated breast motion variability (Milligan et al., 2014;Scurr et al., 2009Scurr et al., , 2011. As breast motion is neither purely periodic nor aperiodic, but somewhere between, nonlinear analysis can measure how variability occurs. ...
... In deep water where breasts are supported by buoyancy and there is reduced heel strike, the running motion is described as being of 'poor movement quality' resulting in a pattern of 'more erratic' and 'less consistent' breast motion compared to treadmill running where the pattern is 'consistent' and 'regular' and synchronised with whole-body movement (McGhee et al., 2007). In addition, the reduced breast motion amplitude consistently found with support and perceptions of bra effectiveness and comfort are not always significantly positively correlated (Scurr et al., 2011Himmelsbach et al., 1992;Nolte et al., 2016), and have even been negatively correlated (Bridgman et al., 2010). In assessing the effects of breasts, which are a non-centrally controlled segment, on the whole body, previous studies have examined the role of breast support on thorax (Gibson et al., 2020;White et al., 2015;Milligan et al., 2015) and upper-extremity motions (White et al., 2015;Milligan et al., 2015) with running as an exercise. ...
Prior observations and qualitative descriptions of breast motion suggest that structure of motion variability may be important for understanding how breasts move and how support from bras alters breast and body motion. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the feasibility of utilising recurrence quantification analysis (RQA) to measure nonlinear properties of breast, thorax and upper-arm motion variability for different breast support levels and breast sizes. Support from bras causes breast motion which is less deterministic and therefore less predictable. Motion of larger breasts is less random and more complex, but these nonlinear aspects of motion, unlike amplitude, are not as dependent on size. These findings increase understanding of the structure of breast and body motion variability and how bras influence the motions. Such information may improve bra design with the goal of allowing more effective human performance of work and exercise.
... The larger breasts are, the more painful the sensations that women feel. As bras providing with sufficient support are capable of reducing the excessive breast motions and even the perceived pains (Scurr et al., 2011), numerous studies have been done to observe the characteristics of the breast motions among different exercises to improve bra support (McGhee et al., 2013;Scurr et al., 2011;Zhou et al., 2012). ...
... The larger breasts are, the more painful the sensations that women feel. As bras providing with sufficient support are capable of reducing the excessive breast motions and even the perceived pains (Scurr et al., 2011), numerous studies have been done to observe the characteristics of the breast motions among different exercises to improve bra support (McGhee et al., 2013;Scurr et al., 2011;Zhou et al., 2012). ...
The control of breast motions is a critical indicator to evaluate the comfort and function of sports bras. If the breast motions can be predicted based on the gait parameters detected by wearable sensors, it will more economical and convenient to evaluate the bras. Thirteen unmarried Chinese females with a breast cup of 75B were recruited in this study to investigate the regularity of breast motions and the relevance between breast motions and gaits during running exercises. The breast motion indicator is the distance alteration of breast regions. The gaits were described by the rotation angles of the hip, knee, ankle joints, and the foot height off the ground. Firstly, the Mann-Whitney U test and the Kruskal-Wallis H test were utilized to analyze the motion diversity among the eight breast regions. Then, the gray correlation analysis was applied to explore the relevance between breast motions and gaits. Finally, the back-propagation neural network, the genetic algorithm, and the particle swarm optimization algorithm were utilized to construct the prediction models for breast motions based on gait parameters. The results demonstrate that the same breast regions on the bilateral breasts and the different breast regions on the ipsilateral breasts present a significant motion diversity. There is a moderate correlation between breast motions and gait parameters, and the back-propagation neural network optimized by the particle swarm optimization algorithm performs better in breast motion prediction, which has a coefficient of determination of 84.58% and a mean absolute error of 0.2108.
... A well-fitting, appropriate sports bra has been demonstrated to reduce breast motion and related pain (Scurr et al., 2010;White et al., 2009). The majority of current knowledge of EIBP is based upon research conducted in female running populations (Haake and Scurr, 2011;Mason et al., 1999;Scurr et al., 2009Scurr et al., , 2011White et al., 2009). Risius et al. (2016) examined breast kinematics during different exercise modalities finding that breast movement in the vertical, mediolateral and anterioposterior direction differs according to exercise mode, suggesting that horse riding may elicit unique breast movement in the female rider. ...
... The order of breast support conditions were randomly allocated (other than no support which involved riding bare breasted), either an everyday bra considered 'low support' in previous studies ) (plain, non-padded, underwired T-shirt bra, made from 78% polyamide and 22% elastane; Marks & Spencer™, London, UK) or riding bra considered 'high support' (padded, underwired riding bra, made from 75% polyamide and 25% elastane, Berlei™, Nottingham, UK) chosen as the only bra specifically marketed for horse riding in the UK. Reflective markers (B&L Engineering Reflective Markers, Santa Ana, CA, USA; 9.5 mm sphere, base 17 mm hard plastic) were positioned on each nipple, over the bra when worn, and the suprasternal notch (Mason et al., 1999;Scurr et al., 2009Scurr et al., , 2011 (Figure 1). In addition, markers were placed on the acronium, lateral epicondyle of the distal humerus, radius styloid process, greater trochanter, lateral epicondyle of the distal femur and lateral malleolus on the left side of all participants (Kang et al., 2010). ...
Breast biomechanics, exercise-induced breast pain (EIBP) and performance effects in female athletes are established. Wearing sports bras during exercise reduces breast movement and EIBP. Despite the prevalence of female equestrians, little investigation of breast movement during horse riding exists, yet excessive breast movement, embarrassment and EIBP are reported. Breast movement relative to the torso is linked to EIBP, associated with magnitude and direction of forces generated. Equestrians may experience novel breast and upper-body movement patterns in response to large vertical excursions of the horse. This study aimed to establish relative vertical breast displacement (RVBD), EIBP and positional changes in three support conditions: ‘no support’, ‘low support’ and ‘high support’. Thirty-eight female equestrians rode a Racewood™ Equine Simulator in each breast support condition in medium walk, medium trot (sitting) and medium canter. Trials were filmed and analysed using Quintic® Biomechanics V29. Significant reductions in RVBD (P<0.001) and EIBP (P<0.001) were identified with increased breast support in all gaits. In medium trot (sitting) a significant reduction in range of movement (ROM) of shoulder-elbow-wrist (P<0.001) was seen from low to high support. ROM of torso-vertical angles were reduced from no support to low support (P<0.001) and further by high support (P<0.001). This reduction in ROM was significantly greater in large breasted riders (cup size DD-FF) (n=21) (P<0.001) compared to small breasted (cup size AA-D) (n=17). These results suggest that appropriate breast support positively impacts EIBP and riding position in female riders possibly enhancing performance. As RVBD and reported EIBP were not wholly comparative with results in female runners, further research is warranted to establish breast movement in equestrianism in three dimensions.
... There will be 20%-30% risk lower of having breast cancer, if women always join into exercise. 4 In the process of walking or running, the main factors affecting breast displacement are breast shape and weight, 5-7 exercise intensity, 8,9 and sports bra design. 10,11 In the previous studies, subjects about female breast displacement usually choose young women with larger breasts, no history of pregnancy or breast surgery. ...
... In the testing scenario, one base point and five interested points were selected to measure the breast dynamic moving. At present, the commonly used reference points are clavicle midpoint, 23 acromion, 13 and sternal notch point, 8,24 etc. Considering that the measurement is not only the relative displacement in the vertical direction but also the three-dimensional displacement, it is necessary to consider the rotation, forward inclination, and bending of the trunk. The base point is selected as the suprasternal point, which is located in the middle of the human clavicle as Figure 11 shown. ...
The stability of breast plays an important role in the comfort of women’s movement. Women with sagging breasts are faced with more displacement due to the weakened breast internal support. The purpose of this study is to measure the dynamic 3D displacement of sagging breasts. Because of the sagging breast particularity, it is difficult to obtain all the data accurately by the traditional photoelectric capturing system. In this paper, multiple 3-Axes accelerometer sensors are used to measure the acceleration value of the specific points. Besides, the sensors integrated with 3-axes gyroscope which can collect the gyro data at the same time. The obtained accelerometer and gyroscope data will be transferred to the body coordinate from the sensor measuring coordinate. MATLAB will be used to analyze the collected data, and 2D and 3D point Cloud will be carried out. The maximum amplitude and whole picture of trajectory will be calculated, and the dynamic moving results of breast will have a general comparison of different points. The whole picture of sagging breast moving status can help bra designers improve wearing comfortable sensation, and the study can offer a new method for reference.
... Whilst posture braces have been shown to affect sitting and standing posture in clinical populations, integrating key aspects of these designs into specialised bras may provide an insight into whether a posture bra could be a useful garment to aid postural improvements in women with larger breasts, thus acting as an alternative to invasive surgery or wearing an additional posture brace. Any posture bra designed to replace the wearer's existing bra should maintain bra function by supporting the breasts; reducing breast motion during everyday activity, such as walking [17], whilst also encouraging posture correction. Whether an everyday or specialist posture bra, appropriate fit remains an important consideration as a poorly fitting bra may pull the upper thoracic region forward and down, hindering upper extremity motion and alignment [18]. ...
... Nipple position data were filtered [38], then calculated relative to the torso local coordinate system (based on modified ISB recommendations [39] as the mid-point of the suprasternal notch and T1 markers, and the mid-point of the xiphoid process and T10 markers) [40]. Breast kinematics were reported as percentage reduction in resultant breast motion compared to no bra walking [17]. Gait cycles were identified using alternate inferio-superior minima positions of the suprasternal notch [41]; data were averaged for the middle 10 gait cycles. ...
Background
Poor standing posture has been reported in women with larger breasts, increasing the risk of back pain. Whilst breast reduction surgery can improve posture, conservative measures such as special bras may offer short or long-term relief of symptoms without surgical intervention.
Research question
This study aimed to utilise a multi-study intervention to investigate the short and long-term kinematic effects of wearing a posture bra.
Methods
Study one utilised biomechanics and physiotherapy expertise to modify the design of a prototype bra to improve posture and breast kinematics; resulting in a second-generation posture bra. To test this bra, 24 females were randomly assigned to control and intervention groups. The control group wore their everyday bra; the intervention group wore the generation 2 posture bra in place of their everyday bra for three months. Pre and post intervention, posture (spine curvature, scapula position, whole body alignment) and breast kinematics were assessed during sitting, standing and walking. Short-term effects of the posture bra were compared to an everyday bra and no bra (study two), whilst the long-term effects were compared using the no bra condition (study three).
Results
Biomechanical intervention improved posture and breast kinematics in a prototype posture bra resulting in a second-generation prototype. Pre-intervention, the generation 2 posture bra significantly improved scapula retraction by 6° during both sitting and standing, but also increased deviation of whole body alignment compared to everyday bra and no bra conditions. During walking the posture bra reduced breast motion by 17 % compared to the everyday bra. Following the three-month wearer intervention, scapula depression significantly improved in the intervention group.
Significance
A biomechanically informed posture bra was able to effectively support the breasts and improve scapula position without compromising spinal curvature, reducing the risk of musculoskeletal pain associated with poor posture.
... Our strategic choice of studying non-weight-bearing cycle exercise performance presents a limitation, as most people typically engage in weight-bearing activities like walking, hiking, jogging, and/or running. Transitioning from non-weight-bearing to weightbearing exercise introduces a multifaceted challenge, where the metabolic cost of exercise increases (29) alongside increased breast motion and the potential for breast discomfort or pain (30)(31)(32). This places greater demands on sports bras, particularly in LBV females (33). ...
Introduction
Despite the importance of sports bras for comfort during exercise in people with breasts, concerns persist regarding their potential effects on athletic performance. Discrepancies in previous studies necessitate a closer examination of the interaction between sports bras, breast volume, exertional symptoms, and exercise performance.
Methods
Twenty-three recreationally-active, normal bodyweight females completed three 10-km time-trials on a cycle ergometer on three separate occasions in a randomized order, while wearing a professionally fitted high-support sports bra, a professionally fitted low-support sports bralette, or a personal, self-selected sports bra. Performance was quantified as the time to complete the 10-km distance. Cardiorespiratory and symptom responses were measured throughout.
Results
Participants were grouped by their estimated breast volumes (small: mean ± SD 284 ± 38 ml, median bra size: 32C; large: 560 ± 97 ml, 34DD; p = 0.002, g = 3.84). The average time-trial duration was 23.1 ± 3.1 min and comparable across breast volume groups and sports bra conditions (between-group: p = 0.794, η p ² < 0.01; between-bras: p = 0.273, η p ² < 0.01). Notably, larger-breasted participants experienced stronger symptoms of chest tightness ( p = 0.042, η p ² = 0.18), which were associated with their ratings of perceived exertion and breathlessness (intensity and unpleasantness). Irrespective of breast volume, the high-support sports bra also evoked stronger symptoms of chest tightness ( p = 0.039, η p ² = 0.15).
Discussion
Stronger symptoms of chest tightness associated with larger breast volumes or high-support sports bras do not impede performance during self-paced non-weight-bearing exercise in recreationally-active females.
... For example, compression bras limit breast movement by compressing and flattening the breasts onto the torso 20 , whereas encapsulation sports bras have moulded cups that support each breast separately 20,21 . Compression and encapsulation bras have demonstrated 51% and 59% reductions in breast displacement in running, respectively, relative to no bra 22 . On the other hand, no significant difference in torso kinematics was reported with increased breast support during running 4 , while torso movement variability has been shown to increase 3 . ...
To reduce breast motion with a bra, we need to understand what drives the motion of the breasts, and what variables change as support increases. Quantifying breast-torso coordination and movement complexity across the gait cycle may offer deeper insights than previously reported discrete time lag. We aimed to compare breast-torso coordination and mutual influence across breast support conditions during running. Twelve female participants ran on a treadmill at 10 km h⁻¹ with an encapsulation and compression sports bra, and in no bra. Nipple and torso position was recorded. Vector coding, granger causality and transfer entropy were calculated within gait cycles. In both bra conditions, a greater percentage of gait cycles was spent with the breast and torso in-phase (> 90%) compared to no bra running (~ 66%, p < 0.001), with most time spent in-phase in the encapsulation versus compression bra (p = 0.006). There was a main effect of breast support condition on Granger causality (p < 0.001), both from breast to torso and torso to breast. Transfer of information was highest from torso to breast, compared to breast to torso in all conditions. Overall, these results provide novel insight into the mutual and complex interaction between the breast and the torso while running in different bra conditions. The approaches presented allow for a greater understanding of bra support conditions than existing discrete measures, which may relate to comfort and performance. Therefore, measures of coupling, predictability and transfer of complexity should be employed in future work examining these features.
... A research stated that breast discomfort, pain and other injuries to breast tissue may be caused during bra-unsupported activities (Lu et al., 2016). Inappropriate sports bra with low support may cause breast pain and ptosis (Scurr et al., 2011). Thus, sports bras play a crucial role for women, offering essential support and ensuring optimal comfort during a wide range of activities, especially those that involve high-intensity movements. ...
Traditional studies evaluating breast motion and bra performance have involved human subjects, but maintaining consistent results is challenging due to biomechanical limitations. Therefore, this study proposes an objective and reliable method to ensure consistent testing conditions for evaluating breast motion. This method involves designing a manikin with soft breast prostheses and incorporating with a commercial 6-degree-of-freedom robotic arm. Soft silicone rubber was used for fabrication of artificial breasts. Moreover, the robotic arm can replicate the movement of torso, and the soft breast prostheses can mimic that of female breast. The results show the breast prostheses of manikin close to the human breast in dynamic performance that was validated by the motion capture experiment. This new approach can be used for evaluating the sports bra to compare their supporting level.
... (Brisbine et al, 2019;Mason et al, 1999;McGhee et al, 2013 (Ayres et al, 2013;Krenzer et al, 2005;Lin et al, 2015;Starr et al,2005). また, 脂肪組織は約 30-35℃で半固体から液体状態に変化することから (Nielsen, 1946) (Boschma et al, 1994;Christina et al, 2001;Haake et al, , 2012Lorentzen and Lawson, 11 1987;Mason et al, 1999;McGhee and Steele, 2010b;McGhee et al, 2013;Milligan et al, 2014aMilligan et al, , 2014bMilligan et al, , 2015aMilligan et al, , 2015bNorris et al, 2020;Risius et al, 2017;Scurr et al, 2009Scurr et al, , 2011aScurr et al, , 2011bStarr et al, 2005;White et al, 2009White et al, , 2011Whittingham, 2016;Wood et al, 2012;Zhou et al, 2009Zhou et al, , 2011Zhou et al, , 2012. Anthropometric breast measurement a study of 385 Turkish female students. ...
The female breast is known to be affected by mastalgia and discomfort due to its lack of anatomical support, irregular movement, and high forces during daily life and exercise. Excessive breast motion has been associated with exercise-induced breast pain, which can negatively affect performance, or even prevent some women from participating in physical activity. This study systematically reviewed major studies on women’s exercise and breast-related injuries, breast motion during exercise, and the function of sports bras in order to 1) understand factors affecting female breasts during exercise, and the effectiveness of sports bras in prevention of breast injury, and 2) identify issues related to the wearing of sports bras during exercise.
In recent years, many studies have focused on sports bras and breast motion during exercise. These studies mainly employed biomechanical methods with treadmill running, and their results and conclusions differed. Similarly, multiple studies found different sports bra usage rates. On the other hand, many studies have agreed that breast motion during exercise should be reduced and that sports bras are effective for achieving this, but that many women choose the wrong bra size. These results point to a lack of knowledge of this issue among women. An intervention study of female students showed that better sports bra knowledge improved their ability to choose a bra providing support that was more appropriate for the intended level of physical activity and breast size. These findings indicate the need for educational approaches to better breast protection and injury prevention.
... These strain magnitudes and strain rates are evidenced through high breast displacements and velocities. During running, a D-cup breast can experience up to 20 cm of vertical breast displacement and vertical velocities between 80 and 100 cm/s (8,13,14). To reduce these tissue strains and strain rates in the passive female breast, external breast support in the form of a sports bra is commonly used. ...
Introduction:
Greater breast support has been associated with improved running performance as measured by oxygen cost and running economy. Several candidate mechanisms have been proposed to underlie breast support-related improvements in running performance including increased knee joint stiffness. Greater knee joint stiffness has been associated with improved running performance (speed and metabolic cost), though the influence of breast support on knee joint stiffness has not been previously investigated. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of increasing breast support on knee joint stiffness and its constituent components during treadmill running.
Methods:
Thirteen recreational runners performed a 3-min running bout at their preferred running velocity in each of three breast support conditions: bare chested (CON), low support (LOW) and high support (HIGH) sports bras. Three-dimensional kinematics and ground reaction forces were collected simultaneously using a 10-camera motion capture system (240 Hz, Qualisys Inc.) and instrumented treadmill (1,200 Hz, Bertec Inc.). Visual3D (C-Motion Inc.) was used to calculate knee joint excursions, moments, powers and work while custom software (MATLAB) was used to calculate knee joint stiffness and breast displacements during the stance phase of running in each experimental condition. A series of 1 × 3 repeated measures analysis of covariance with post-hoc t-tests was used to evaluate the effect of breast support on knee joint biomechanics during treadmill running.
Results:
Increasing levels of breast support were associated with greater knee joint stiffness (p = 0.002) as a result of smaller knee flexion excursions (p < 0.001). Increases in knee extension power (p = 0.010) were observed with increasing levels of breast support while no differences were observed in knee extension moments (p = 0.202) or work (p = 0.104).
Conclusion:
Greater breast support is associated with increased knee joint stiffness resulting from smaller joint excursions. These findings may provide insight into the biomechanical mechanisms underlying previously reported improvements in running performance including reduced oxygen consumption and greater running economy.
... Anatomically, the breasts are internally supported by only Cooper's ligaments and breast skin [6], which easily leads to large movements of the breasts. Previous studies claim that large vertical deformations (4.2-9.9 cm) of the breasts are produced during running on a level treadmill in a constrained laboratory environment [7][8][9][10][11][12]. In fact, breast deformation may vary significantly with different body movements. ...
The measurement and prediction of breast skin deformation are key research directions in health-related research areas, such as cosmetic and reconstructive surgery and sports biomechanics. However, few studies have provided a systematic analysis on the deformations of aging breasts. Thus, this study has developed a model order reduction approach to predict the real-time strain of the breast skin of seniors during movement. Twenty-two women who are on average 62 years old participated in motion capture experiments, in which eight body variables were first extracted by using the gray relational method. Then, backpropagation artificial neural networks were built to predict the strain of the breast skin. After optimization, the R-value for the neural network model reached 0.99, which is within acceptable accuracy. The computer-aided system of this study is validated as a robust simulation approach for conducting biomechanical analyses and predicting breast deformation.
... However, it was noted that the combination of both sports bra features was a practical approach to reducing discomfort in breast support for women with larger breasts. 16 Furthermore, Verscheure et al. [22][23][24] claimed that compression sports bras are more comforting for females with smaller breasts while encapsulation sports bras are more effective for larger breasts (bra size C and above). ...
The interpretation of pressure between a sports bra and the skin is highly significant to females, marketers, and designers because it helps reduce discomfort. So far, many studies on sports bras pressure have focused mainly on static activities such as standing or sitting and dynamic activities such as jumping, walking and running, skipping, and jogging that cause vertical movement of the body. Therefore, this study focuses on upper body torsion rather than vertical or horizontal motion. The objective is to identify and compare factors that restrict females with large breasts from playing golf using two types of sports bras, an Encapsulation and Compression sports bras. The Novel Pliance-X ® pressure system assessed the contact pressures from the shoulder straps, underbust, and backband. The results demonstrated that the underband of both sports bras generated less pressure than other features, while the backband of sports bras produced more pressure. It was concluded that the encapsulation sports bra with a racerback design has acceptable results for females with larger breasts when playing golf.
... Breast volumes can range from 150 to 2000 ml (McGhee & Steele, 2011) and assuming a breast mass density of 945 kg/m 3 (Sanchez et al. 2016), breast mass can range from 0.14kg to 1.89kg, and move from 2 to 15 cm during running, which has been linked with both pain and discomfort (Scurr et al., 2011). Additional experimental research has found muscular activity increases during running (Milligan et al., 2014) with reduced breast support, confirming that breast mass and movement, impacts upon torso musculoskeletal loading. ...
This study aimed to investigate the effect of breast mass and motion on lumbar flexor / extensor moments during running. Kinematic and kinetic data were collected for a female participant running at 2.6 m/s. An MRI scan was used to calculate breast mass and centre of mass location. An OpenSim model was customised with two point-mass segments added to the torso to represent the breasts. Three model variations were constructed (combined breast and torso mass; separate breast and torso mass without breast motion; separate breast and torso mass with breast motion). Findings show that neglecting breast motion causes peak lumbar extensor moments to be underestimated by ~3.4%, compared with a combined breast and torso mass model. These results highlight the importance of including breast motion in female specific MSK models, during activities such as running.
... Without the use of sports bras and sufficient breast support, females can experience increased levels of embarrassment, decreased willingness to exercise, and increased levels of breast discomfort or pain (Risius et al., 2017). By wearing sports bras and sufficient support, females can control for vertical, anteroposterior, and mediolateral breast displacement (Scurr et al., 2009(Scurr et al., , 2011. Additionally, breast support has been found to create significant changes in running biomechanics including peak pelvis rotation, pelvis range of motion, vertical trunk oscillation, peak trunk rotation, and trunk range of motion as well as peak torso range of motion across all planes of motion (Milligan et al., 2015;Risius et al., 2017). ...
Objective:
The female breast is a passive tissue with little intrinsic support. Therefore, women rely on external breast support (sports bras) to control breast motion during athletic tasks. Research has demonstrated that lower levels of breast support are associated with altered trunk and pelvis movement patterns during running, a common athletic task. However, no previous study has identified the effect of sports bra support on movement patterns during other athletic tasks including landing. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of breast support on trunk and knee joint biomechanics in female collegiate athletes during a double-leg landing task.
Methods:
Fourteen female collegiate athletes completed five double-leg landing trials in each of three different sports bra conditions: no support, low support, and high support. A 10-camera motion capture system (250 Hz, Qualisys, Goteburg, Sweden) and two force platforms (1,250 Hz, AMTI, Watertown, MA, USA) were used to collect three-dimensional kinematics and ground reaction forces simultaneously. Visual 3D was used to calculate trunk segment and knee joint angles and moments. Custom software (MATLAB 2021a) was used to determine discrete values of dependent variables including vertical breast displacement, knee joint and trunk segment angles at initial contact and 100 ms post-initial contact, and peak knee joint moments. A repeated measures analysis of covariance with post-hoc paired samples t-tests were used to evaluate the effect of breast support on landing biomechanics.
Results:
Increasing levels of breast support were associated with reductions in peak knee flexion (Right: p = 0.008; Left: p = 0.029) and peak knee valgus angles (Right: p = 0.011; Left: p = 0.003) as well as reductions in peak knee valgus moments (Right: p = 0.033; Left: p = 0.013). There were no changes in peak knee extension moments (Right: p = 0.216; Left: p = 0.261). Increasing levels of breast support were associated with greater trunk flexion angles at initial contact (p = 0.024) and greater peak trunk flexion angles (p = 0.002).
Conclusions:
Lower levels of breast support are associated with knee joint and trunk biomechanical profiles suggested to increase ACL injury risk.
... The preference for wearing a sports bra is likely a function of the physically demanding and strenuous occupational tasks that soldiers undertake when wearing body armour systems (Maupin, Schram, and Orr 2019). These activities are likely to result in both a high amount and high frequency of breast movement (McGhee et al. 2013;Scurr, White, and Hedger 2011), which will require a high level of breast support to reduce any associated breast discomfort. ...
This study investigated whether female soldiers experience bra integration or breast discomfort/injuries related to body armour use and whether these issues were associated with breast size. Ninety-seven Australian Defence Force female soldiers completed a questionnaire and had their breast volume assessed (range: 91–919 ml/breast) using three-dimensional scanning. Twenty-two percent (n = 21) of participants reported integration issues between their bra and body armour, 63% (n = 61) reported breast discomfort while wearing body armour and 27% (n = 26) reported experiencing a breast injury related to wearing body armour. Although bra-body armour integration was not dependent upon breast size, female soldiers with medium-large breasts reported significantly more breast discomfort and injuries when using body armour compared to participants with small breasts. These findings highlight the importance of developing body armour systems that cater to the range of breast sizes of female soldiers in order to improve bra-body armour integration and reduce breast discomfort and injury.
Practitioner Summary: This exploratory research provides evidence of bra integration issues, breast discomfort and breast injury experienced by female soldiers when wearing body armour. Given the growing representation of women in military organisations, strategies to alleviate these issues for female users of body armour, particularly those with larger breast sizes, are required.
... Voor meisjes en dames zijn dit belangrijke aspecten om deel te nemen aan sport. 2,3 Naast dat sporten gezond is voor je lijf en het je mentaal weerbaarder maakt, biedt het levendige verenigingsleven meisjes en dames ook sociale contacten en brede mogelijkheden voor persoonlijke ontplooiing. Bij de eigen sportvereniging kun je in een relatief veilige omgeving je eigen talent en potentieel verkennen en ambities realiseren als speelster, trainster en/of kaderlid. ...
"A woman's touch" is an issue of the VISIE (#83), a Dutch professional journal for table tennis trainers. This specific issue is completely focused on girls and women in the sport of table tennis. It is about the current trends, recruitment and retainment and trainership.
... Usefulness "Handy" 36 "Good for bigger breasts" "Very helpful as own bras were not fitted properly" "Think they are good and do help" Sizing/Fit "Sized too small" 44 "Bra received did not fitwas too tight" "Uncomfortably tight" "Sizing wasn't accurate but bra stretched" Recommendations "Needs easier clasps" 20 "Could not be tumble dried" "Bra fitting should be longer" "Utilise new bras for fitting" Despite a small number of recruits reporting that exercise-induced breast pain affected them during BT, the comments articulated in the survey indicated that military task performance was negatively affected. Research has confirmed that exercise-induced breast pain can be reduced by an appropriately fitted sports bra in athletic and recreationally active females (Mason, Page, and Fallon 1999;Scurr, White, and Hedger 2011;White, Scurr, and Smith 2009). This study provides further rationale for the provision of professionally fitted sports bras at the beginning of BT to reduce bra discomfort, and the severity and frequency of breast pain on task performance of female recruits. ...
Increasing retention of female recruits throughout Basic Training (BT) is a key priority for the British Army. The aims of this study were two-fold; (i) quantify breast health issues and sports bra usage within female British Army recruits, and (ii) assess the influence of professionally fitted sports bras on breast health and bra fit issues across 13 weeks of BT. A survey was completed by 246 female recruits that identified the incidence of breast health issues during BT. Subsequently, 33 female recruits were provided with professionally fitted sports bras during Week-1 of BT. Recruits completed a survey in Week-1 (Pre) and Week-13 (Post). There was a high incidence of bra issues during BT, which did not reduce following the implementation of professionally fitted sports bras. The authors recommend further research into the specific functional requirements of breast support relative to the demands of BT and the needs of the female recruit.
Practitioner Summary: The British Army have a duty of care to ensure female recruits are equipped sufficiently for the demands of training. Despite the implementation of a sports bra fitting and issue service bra fit issues remained high. Further research into the specific functional requirements of breast support during training is recommended.
Abbreviations: BT: Basic Training; ATR(W): Army Training Regiment Winchester; ATC(P): Army Training Centre Pirbright; BMI: Body Mass Index; NRS: Numeric Rating Scale; FET: Fisher's Exact Test
... The assessment of bra support is complex requiring specialist equipment, expertise and dedicated space. The measurement of bra support is relatively common within breast biomechanics research, however the complexity of this assessment affects the feasibility of such an intervention in a clinical setting [14,57,58]. ...
Background
and Purpose: Breast pain is a common condition presented at breast care clinics and bras are often recommended to reduce symptoms, although criteria and pathways for obtaining appropriate bras are limited. This multi-study, randomised controlled trial (RCT) aimed to establish criteria and performance variables to prescribe bras for breast pain patients, to implement this bra prescription, and evaluate whether, compared to standard care alone, the bra prescription improves breast pain and quality of life (QoL).
Materials and methods
Eighteen breast pain patients from a UK hospital were assigned to standard care or bra prescription groups and completed the study. Bra prescription patients were prescribed a bra to wear every day for eight weeks. Patient Global Impression of Change (PGIC), breast pain intensity, QoL, and adherence were assessed.
Results
Between-groups there were no differences in baseline breast pain or QoL and no differences in PGIC or breast pain following the intervention. Within-groups, improvements in QoL within bra prescription patients were identified.
Conclusion
This study developed a framework for bra prescription for breast pain patients and the intervention demonstrated improvements in QoL.
... According to Scurr et al, in breast kinematic measurements made on a treadmill, the amplitude of breast movement is multidirectional and in direct proportion to weight and not related to volume. 11 An additional study by Norris et al, demonstrated that a combination of implant location (subglandular) and reduced mass (utilizing a lightweight breast implant) minimized nipple kinematics dynamic activity. This reduced loading on breast structures, may help to decrease ptosis and increase the longevity of procedure outcomes. ...
Background
The B-Lite® lightweight breast implant (LWBI), weighs ~ 30% less than traditional silicone implants, while maintaining an equivalent size, form and function. The LWBI thus places less stress on breast tissues, preserves tissue stability and integrity over time, reducing weight-related complications and reoperation rates.
Objectives
To assess the long-term (over 5 year) safety and performance of the LWBI in primary and revision augmentation procedures.
Methods
Retrospective single-center, single surgeon analysis of prospectively collected data, was performed on 827 consecutive primary and revision augmentation patients operated between December 2013 and January 2019. 1653 implants (250-835 cc, mostly round, textured, extra high-profile) were implanted using standard surgical techniques. Direct physician-to-patient follow-up ranged from 6 to 67 months. Chart data on reoperations and overall complications as well as patient and surgeon satisfaction, were analyzed.
Results
The 5 year Per Patient Kaplan–Meier reoperation free rate was very high (97.1%). Only 2 out of 5 total cases of capsular contracture grade III required reoperation (KM rate 0.2%, CI- 0.1-1.0). No cases of rupture or BIA-ALCL were recorded. 94.9% of patients rated the aesthetic outcome, and 95.5% of patients rated the natural look and feel of their breasts, at 4-5 (Satisfied-Very Satisfied). Similarly, the surgeon rated 4-5 on 95.4% of the patients’ aesthetic outcomes.
Conclusions
The extremely favorable safety profile, high patient and surgeon satisfaction, and inherent benefits of reduced weight, in the largest known study of B-Lite® implant surgeries, should make the LWBI a strongly considered strategic alternative to traditional implants.
... They concluded that both biaxial tensile and compression properties of bra materials should be considered in sports bra designs. Research studies have also focused on the evaluation of breast motion with different levels of bra support (high, medium, or low level of support) or bra type (everyday bra, or compression or encapsulation sports bra) [5] [10]. However, the bra styles are usually limited in these studies which fail to address the large differences in bra features and their influence on controlling breast motion with different levels of activity. ...
Bras give support to the breasts and prevent damage to their different components during daily activities. Previous studies have however merely focused on specific types of bras and/or shoulder straps but failed to provide specific guidelines on bra features and materials that can be used to improve the support different functions of bras. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the breast control performance of various types and designs of bra under the conditions of walking and running. Two younger women and 1 older woman (all with a bra size of 36C/80C) have participated in a wear trial to don a total of 12 different commercial bras with different design features, and a changeable bra in which 12 different variables are examined, including the materials, strap width and type of underwire. The 3D movement of the breasts in the various bra conditions during walking at a speed of 4 km/h and running at 6 km/h is recorded and then compared with the braless condition by using an 11-camera motion capture system. The percentage of change in the nipple displacement in the vertical direction relative to the clavicle displacement is used to quantify and compare the breast control performance of the bras. A significant difference (p<0.01) in the ability of the bras to control movement is observed between the group of younger subjects and the mature subject (left breast: 11.49% vs. 35.42%, and right breast: 18% vs. 32.47%, respectively). The control performance of the bras is significantly different (p<0.01) during running and walking (left breast: 26.39% vs. 12.54%, and right breast: 30.04% vs. 15.61%, respectively). The correlation analysis showed that a small bra cup volume (length across the bra cup), taller gore, elongation of the bra strap and bra band, and rigid bra cup fabric allow good control of vertical breast displacement.
... Thus, bras that limit vertical breast displacement by approximately 60% relative to when a woman is not wearing a bra are enough to be considered high-support sports bras. 21 When a sports bra fits properly it can protect the athlete's breast tissue from damage and excess movement, which may prevent sagging and pain. The bra that is included in apparel such as a tank top or dress is NOT properly fitted, and a wellfitted sports bra should be worn in addition to the clothing. ...
... Despite breast cancer being recognized as an important and serious public health issue, studies indicate that women have inadequate knowledge of breast cancer risk factors and symptoms of breast cancer (4,5). In addition, the female breast is easily deformed by external forces such as gravity, due to its highly malleable structure (6,7) and has been reported to move up to 4 cm during walking, to 15 cm when running without breast support (8). This breast movement can cause discomfort and embarrassment (9), exercise-related breast pain (10,11), and may lead to breast sag (ptosis) due to potential damage of the breast structure (6). ...
Many females experience breast-related issues that are considered to negatively impact health and well-being. These include breast cancer, issues related to incorrect bra fit, and issues related to breast movement including an increased incidence of breast pain, breast sag, and embarrassment, which can be a barrier to physical activity participation. Knowledge and awareness of these breast issues among females is low. Furthermore, these breast concerns are more prevalent in adolescent girls compared to adult females, with 87% of girls reporting ≥ one breast concern. This study evaluated the short- and longer-term impact of a 50 min breast education intervention on adolescent girls' (11 to 14 years) breast knowledge, attitudes to breasts and engagement with positive breast habits. A mixed methods, controlled, longitudinal, cohort design was employed, using two control schools (n: 412; receiving no intervention) and two intervention schools (n: 375; receiving the intervention) from privileged and less privileged areas. Adolescent girls in four schools completed a validated breast survey pre- and immediately post-intervention as well as 3 and 6 months post-intervention. Additionally, in one intervention school, six focus groups were conducted immediately and 4 months after the intervention. The intervention was equally effective in the two intervention schools. Following the intervention, participants in the intervention schools significantly improved their breast knowledge, their attitudes to breasts and their engagement with positive breast habits, compared to participants in the control schools, p < 0.01 (with large effect sizes). These improvements were sustained 6 months post-intervention. Participants described the session as “informative,” it made them “feel less embarrassed” about their breasts; they also reported wanting to do more exercise and to change their bra purchasing and bra wearing habits. These novel, positive findings provide insight into the benefits of teaching adolescent girls about breasts from a young age and can be used to inform effective breast education in schools. It is recommended that education on multiple breast topics should be introduced in schools, preferably being first introduced in primary schools, with a modular structure and progressive information.
World RugbyTM supports dedicated women's welfare, injury surveillance and medical/technical interventions, yet breast health has received limited attention. This article aims to provide insights into breast health issues in rugby, including breast impacts and injuries. We discuss how breast anatomy and position may be problematic in rugby. Breast volume relates to body size, which may be increasing in women's rugby, suggesting increased breast surface area and mass, potentially increasing injury risk. Breast health issues in rugby have been reported previously, with 58% of contact footballers (including rugby) experiencing breast injuries. There are damaging effects related to these breast health issues, with breast impacts often causing pain and swelling. Breast impacts may lead to haematomas, cysts and fat necrosis which can calcify over time making them difficult to distinguish from breast carcinoma, causing further investigation and anxiety. In sport, poor bra fit and insufficient support are associated with pain, skin strain and performance decrements. This article reports the potential implications of these breast health issues on performance in rugby. Recent breast‐related projects supported by rugby communities may address recommendations identified in the literature for robust breast injury classifications, updated injury surveillance systems and prospective data collection on breast injury prevalence, severity and impact in rugby. These data should inform breast injury care pathways and intervention research, including evidence‐based bra design. Understanding the implications of breast impacts on tissue properties, health and wellbeing is vital. Finally, data should inform rugby‐specific breast education, raising awareness of this aspect of athlete health.
This study aimed to use a musculoskeletal model to predict changes in spinal moments following simulated breast surgery. A female full body musculoskeletal model with a fully articulated thoracolumbar spine and independent moveable breast segments was customised for this study. Key findings suggest that the simulated removal of breast tissue (750 g to 1501 g) can reduce the magnitude of lumbar spine extensor moments by >0.05 Nm/kg during walking and jogging. A customised female whole-body musculoskeletal model is capable of providing a first approximation of changes in spinal loading following simulated breast surgery.
Most of the research on the thermal comfort of sports bras has focused on fabric differences, whereas the effect of ventilation has yet to be investigated. This study aimed to investigate the effects of ventilation design on the thermal comfort performance and breast displacement. Based on the physiological nature of breast movement and airflow in exercising women, four sports bras with different necklines and ventilation holes were designed. The thermal comfort performance and the reduction of breast displacement of these four bras were compared. Nine healthy women exercised in random order with four sports bras, and then performed a 20-min short duration high-intensity exercise and rest to recover under thermoneutral conditions. Skin temperature and humidity, body core temperature, the reduction of breast displacement and thermal psychological subjective sensations were investigated during the whole experiment. The results indicated that deepening and widening the neckline could effectively increase the airflow pumped in from the neckline, while the ventilation holes could effectively direct the airflow from the neckline to the middle and bottom area of the breasts, significantly reducing the skin temperature, skin humidity and body core temperature ( P < 0.05). In addition, widening the neckline would significantly reduce the reduction of breast displacement, whereas deepening would not. A slightly but not significant increase of the psychological subjective sensation during exercise was observed. These results provide novel information that appropriate application of ventilation design in sports bras could effectively improve the thermal comfort performance without reducing the function of support to benefit exercising women.
Purpose
This study aims to investigate if engineered compression variations using moisture-responsive knitted fabric design can improve breast support in seamless knitted sports bras.
Design/methodology/approach
An experimental approach was used to integrate a novel moisture-responsive fabric panel into a seamless knitted bra, and the resulting compression variability in dry versus wet conditions were compared with those of a control bra. Air permeability and elongation testing of between breasts fabric panels was conducted in dry and wet conditions, followed by three-dimensional body scanning of eight human participants wearing the two bras in similar conditions. Questionnaires were used to evaluate perceived comfort and breast support of both bras in both conditions.
Findings
Air permeability test results showed that the novel panel had the highest variance between dry and wet conditions, confirming its moisture-responsive design, and increased its elongation coefficient in both wale and course directions in wet condition. There were significant main effects of bra type and body location on breast compression measurements. Breast circumferences in the novel bra were significantly larger than in the control bra condition. The significant two-way interaction between bra type and moisture condition showed that the control bra lost compressive power in wet condition, whereas the novel bra became more compressive when wet. Changes in compression were confirmed by participants’ perception of tighter straps and drier breast comfort.
Originality/value
These findings add to the limited scientific knowledge of moisture adaptive bra design using engineered knitted fabrics via advanced manufacturing technologies, with possible applications beyond sports bras, such as bras for breast surgery recovering patients.
In the research of breast morphology, numerous breast features are measured, whereas only a few parameters are adopted for classification. Therefore, how to extract the key variables from the multi-dimensional features in a rational way is an issue that is focused upon. This study aimed to reduce the complexity of the dimensionality reduction for further improving the objectivity and interpretability of the selected breast features. Since the random forest (RF) algorithm can quantify the feature importance during training, the method was adopted to determine the optimal breast features for classification and recognition in this paper. Firstly, the anthropometric data of 360 females from northwestern China aged from 19 to 27 years were measured by non-contact three-dimensional body scanning technology and the contact manual measurement method. Then, the k-means clustering was applied to categorize breast shapes, and the RF algorithm was utilized to quantify and rank the importance of 25 breast features. Finally, to verify the availability of the RF algorithm on breast feature selection, the t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding method was adopted to visualize the distribution of breast shape clusters into two dimensions. Meanwhile, four neural networks were determined to recognize the breast morphology. The results demonstrate that fewer breast features can effectively increase the accuracy of breast shape classification and recognition. The best performance of breast shape classification and recognition is obtained when the number of breast features is 13. In this case, the average Hamming loss of four neural networks is the smallest (0.1136). Interestingly, the bust circumference and the horizontal curve of breasts across the bust points are found to be the most important of the 25 breast features in this paper. The importance of the breast curve features is higher than that of the breast cross-sectional features, while the breast positioning features have the lowest importance. Meanwhile, the RF algorithm is verified to be more effective than traditional dimensionality reduction methods, such as principal component analysis, hierarchical clustering, and recursive feature elimination. The approach developed in this paper can be generalized to the dimensionality reduction of other body morphology.
Traditional breast displacement studies included human subjects and maintaining result consistency is restricted by biomechanical limitations. This study proposes an objective approach that investigates the effects of various bra features on breast support during movement by conducting a wear trial with the VICON motion capture system. The vertical breast displacement in five different bra conditions is assessed and compared. Results indicate that the effectiveness of bras depends on the cup material used and design. The foam cups which are low in density and fabricated from soft polyurethane induces less overall breast displacement during movement. Bras of full-cup style also offer better breast movement control with significant vertical breast displacement reduction as compared with the half-cup style. These findings enhance current breast displacement analysis and understanding of bra features associated with changes in the biomechanics of breasts, thereby providing objective methods for bra evaluation and a design basis for breast protection.
The aim of this study was to determine whether exercise-induced vertical breast motion and discomfort in women with large breasts decrease when an underwired bra is used compared with when an underwire-free bra is worn. Vertical breast displacement was assessed in nine women (C cup size) who exercised on a treadmill in two bra conditions: underwired bra and underwire-free bra. Perceived breast motion and discomfort were reported by each participant using the visual analogue scale after each bra condition trial. Vertical breast displacement and perceived breast motion and discomfort were compared between the two bra conditions. Vertical breast displacement (p < 0.05) and perceived breast motion (p = 0.007) and discomfort (p = 0.025) were significantly lower in the underwired bra condition than in the underwire-free bra condition. The bra design feature of containing an underwire was effective in decreasing exercise-induced vertical breast motion and discomfort among the women with large breasts. The current research is the first study to explore the effects of including a bra underwire on the change in breast motion and discomfort.
In order to investigate the effect of exercise modality and bra type on vertical breast displacement, seven participants with similar ages and body types were selected to take part in this study. Three-dimensional motion capture system (NDI Optotrak Certus) was used to collect the data of vertical breast displacement when participants were walking at the speed of 5 km/h, jogging at the speed of 7.5 km/h, running at the speed of 10 km/h on a treadmill, and rope skipping at the frequency of twice per second. It was found that there was no significant difference in vertical breast displacement between rope skipping, jogging and running. And the vertical breast displacement when wearing sports bra is significantly less than everyday bra in four exercise modalities. The results of this study might be useful for designing special sports bra for rope skipping modality.
Anthropometric measurements such as breast volume are directly associated with the product development for bras. However, a non-contact method that accurately detects the upper boundary of breasts has not been reported. By taking advantage of the time delay in the vertical displacement between the breasts and the chest wall during physical activity, we 4D-scanned 26 female participants using Temporal 3dMD system and proposed a method to visualise the amount of variability for this relative displacement, so as to reveal the upper boundary of breasts on static 3D body scans. This is also one of the first studies that investigate the vertical displacement and the shape deformation of breasts during running using 4D scanning technology. Ultimately, the method and results can increase the understanding of breast kinematics, and benefit the product design of bras, especially for sports bras, and other products for women that require a close fit to the torso.
Background/Aim
This study aimed to quantify breast skin strain and strain rate and the effect of support garments at reducing strain and to determine characteristics that correlate with strain during static and dynamic activity.
Methods
39 women (UK size 32C to 36G) had electromagnetic sensors applied to their breast skin. Sensor coordinates were recorded while standing, walking, running, in no, low and high breast support conditions, plus bare-breasted in the estimated neutral position to calculate strain. Relative breast coordinates and 35 inter-sensor distances identified peak breast skin strain (%) and strain rate (%·s ⁻¹ ), which were then correlated with nipple kinematics, breast pain and participant characteristics.
Results
Mean peak breast skin strain was generally <60% during standing, walking and running; however, some individuals exhibited 93% strain in bare-breasted running. Compared with low support, high support did not further reduce strain during standing and walking. Peak breast skin strain/strain rate location was longitudinal, in lateral and medial breast regions and displayed strong correlations with breast volume, body mass index and bust circumference.
Conclusion
Static and dynamic activity did not result in excessive breast skin strain, suggesting low risk of skin damage. However, during running, some individuals experienced excessive skin strains (up to 93%) and strain rates (up to 1258%·s ⁻¹ ). Breast skin strain/strain rate location suggests lift is required in the lateral and medial bra cup to reduce strain, particularly in larger breast volumes due to increased skin strain risk.
Sports bras have become aesthetic and sexy products in our daily life. Many Hong Kong women like to play sports from medium to heavy intensity levels such as running, jogging, cycling, and dancing.
More systematic breast biomechanics research and better translation of the research outcomes are necessary to inform sports bra designs and develop effective evidence-based strategies to alleviate exercise-induced breast pain for women who want to participate in physical activity in comfort.
During physical exercise, compression inside sports bras changes depending on material properties, leading to insufficient breast support. The purpose of this study was to explore how 3D body scanning can be used to capture females’ breast area measurements change, when wearing compression sports bras before and after a running activity. A commercial seamless sports bra style in size medium and medium level compression, was tested before and after eleven subjects ran in place for five minutes. Seventeen slice measurements taken with [TC]² NX-16 3D body scanner at 0.25 inchesintervals between underbust and armpit levels were collected and compared. Results showed a significant decrease of overall compression of 0.08 inches between before and after run conditions, and the distribution of the reduction was larger below maximum breast circumference level, confirming upwards shift of breast tissue. This study provides knowledge to be used for improving the design of sports bras as compression garments.
Although half the world's population will develop breasts, there is limited research documenting breast structure or motion. Understanding breast structure and motion, however, is imperative for numerous applications, such as breast reconstruction, breast modeling to better diagnose and treat breast pathologies, and designing effective sports bras. To be impactful, future breast biomechanics research needs to fill gaps in our knowledge, particularly related to breast composition and density, and to improve methods to accurately measure the complexities of three-dimensional breast motion. These methods should then be used to investigate breast biomechanics while individuals, who represent the full spectrum of women in the population, participate in a broad range of activities of daily living and recreation.
A Latin Square Experimental Design was used to compare a prototype sports bra previously developed for large-busted women, with two other sports bras through a controlled laboratory wear study. Vertical breast displacement data were gathered by videotaping the first three running strides of six large busted active females recruited from local fitness centers. Multiple regression results found that the garment treatment significantly related to the breast displacement experienced by subjects during each test session (F (2,213) = 16.393; p< .0001). Approximately 13% of the variability in breast displacement was predicted by garment, indicated by the Squared Multiple Correlation Coefficient. ANOVA results found significant subject, garment, and subject-by-garment effects. Subjects wearing garments A and B had a lower level of vertical breast displacement of .031" as compared to subjects wearing garment C with .045" of displacement.
This study aimed to quantify the breast support wearing and purchasing habits of young women and to assess factors that affect their sports bra usage during physical activity.
Study results were obtained from a self-administered mail survey, which was posted to participants after gaining their verbal consent via random telephone recruitment.
413 women aged 20 to 35 years were recruited from New South Wales, Australia.
From the returned (65%) surveys only 41% of respondents currently wore an encapsulating sports bra during physical activity, primarily due to a lack of awareness of the importance of good breast support during physical activity. Bra size was a predictor of sports bra usage, whereby participants with large breasts were more than twice as likely to wear a sports bra as their smaller-breasted counterparts.
It was concluded that, although encapsulating sports bras have been shown to effectively reduce breast motion and associated exercise-induced breast discomfort, these bras were not the breast support option most commonly chosen by young women during physical activity. It is recommended that all women, irrespective of breast size, be educated on the importance of wearing a well-fitted and supportive bra during physical activity to decrease excessive strain on breast tissue structures and related breast discomfort.
Throwers, jumpers, and combined events athletes require speed, strength, power, and a wide variety of technical skills to be successful in their events. Only a handful of studies have assessed the nutritional needs of such athletes. Because of this, recommendations for nutritional requirements to support and enhance training and competition performances for these athletes are made using research findings from sports and exercise protocols similar to their training and competitive events. The goals of the preparation cycle of nutrition periodization for these athletes include attaining desirable body weight, a high ratio of lean body mass to body height, and improving muscular power. Nutritional recommendations for training and competition periods include: (1) meeting energy needs; (2) timing consumption of adequate fluid and electrolyte intakes before, during, and after exercise to promote adequate hydration; (3) timing consumption of carbohydrate intake to provide adequate fuel for energy demands and to spare protein for muscle repair, growth, and maintenance; (4) timing consumption of adequate protein intake to meet protein synthesis and turnover needs; and (5) consuming effective nutritional and dietary supplements. Translating these nutrient and dietary recommendations into guidelines these athletes can apply during training and competition is important for enhancing performance.
Changes in ground reaction forces that result from different breast support conditions may have implications for sports performance and transmission of forces through the skeleton. The aim of this investigation was to compare kinetic variables and breast motion in a no-bra, everyday-bra and two sports-bra conditions. Following ethical approval, eight female participants with D-cup breasts had retro-reflective markers placed on the left and right nipples, anterior superior iliac spines and clavicles. Five calibrated ProReflex infra-red cameras (100 Hz; Qualisys) measured 3-D displacement of markers and synchronised kinetic data were collected using a force platform (500 Hz, Kistler 9281CA). A repeated measures one-way ANOVA revealed a significantly higher medial impact force in the no-bra condition (0.15 times body weight) compared with the compression sports-bra condition (0.12 times body weight) (F = 3.64 (3,21), p = 0.03). Findings suggest that inadequate breast support affects a female's running kinetics, which may have negative physiological consequences on sports performance.
To investigate the effects of respiratory state and measurement method on bra size calculation.
The bra sizes of 16 large-breasted women were measured during two respiratory states, end voluntary inspiration and relaxed voluntary expiration, and using two sizing methods, which were compared against subject-reported bra sizes.
Both respiratory state and measurement method significantly affected bra size estimations, whereby measuring chest circumference during inspiration increased both band and decreased cup size. However, whereas bra size calculated using the standard method differed significantly from subject-reported bra size, cup size calculated using the breast hemi-circumference method did not differ significantly from subject-reported cup size.
As respiratory state significantly affects bra sizes, it should be standardised during bra size measurements. A more valid and reliable bra sizing method should be developed, possibly using the breast hemi-circumference method for cup size estimations and raw under-bust chest circumference values for band size.
To establish whether exercise-induced vertical breast displacement and discomfort in women with large breasts were reduced during deep water running compared to treadmill running.
Sixteen women (mean age = 32 years, range 19-43 years; mean mass = 74.1 kg, range 61-114 kg; mean height = 1.7 m, range 1.61-1.74 m), who were professionally sized to wear a C+ bra cup, were recruited as representative of women with large breasts. After extensive familiarisation, vertical breast motion of the participants was quantified as they ran at a self-selected stride rate on a treadmill and in 2.4 m deep water. Immediately after running, the subjects rated their breast discomfort and breast pain (visual analogue scale) and their perceived exertion (Borg scale). Breast discomfort, breast pain, perceived exertion, vertical breast displacement and vertical breast velocity were compared between the two experimental conditions.
Exercise-induced breast discomfort was significantly less and perceived exertion was significantly greater during deep water running relative to treadmill running. Although there was no significant between-condition difference in vertical breast displacement, mean peak vertical breast velocity was significantly (p<0.05) less during deep water (upward mean (SD): 29.7 (14.0) cm x s(-1); downward: 31.1 (17.0) cm x s(-1)) compared to treadmill running (upward mean (SD): 81.4 (21.7) cm x s(-1); downward: 100.0 (25.0) cm x s(-1)).
Deep water running was perceived as a more strenuous but comfortable exercise mode for women with large breasts. Increased comfort was attributed to reduced vertical breast velocity rather than reduced vertical breast displacement.
Because bra design may influence the breast discomfort experienced by female athletes, we studied whether there is a difference in support provided by selected bras, the normal acceptable range of breast movement for comfort, and the effects of binding the breasts over a bra in jogging. There was a significant difference in the linear displacement of the eight sports bras, but not between the size groups. The mass of the breast in conjunction with the velocity of movement may be related to discomfort while jogging, and binding over a bra prevents from 44% to 45% of the movement.
Exercise usually results in a large displacement of the breasts, often leading to breast pain. Although breast pain is a common concern of exercising females, little research has been conducted in the area of breast pain. It has been suggested that a cause of breast pain is excessive breast motion. As the female breast does not contain strong intrinsic structural support, this breast motion is difficult to reduce. It is suggested that the primary anatomical support for the breast is the Cooper’s ligaments; however, their true functional properties are unknown. Because of the lack of internal breast support it has been suggested that the skin covering the breast may also act as a support structure for the breast, but this has not been quantified. In an attempt to reduce breast motion, external breast supports (brassieres) have been developed. This article discusses components of current sports brassieres with implications for future research required to improve brassiere design and performance.
Eight sports bras were compared and evaluated to determine the amount of biomechanical support they provide for small-, medium-, and large-breasted women (N=59) while jogging. Findings showed that the Exercise Sports Top and the Lady Duke bras allowed the least amount of breast movement. (Author/CB)
This study aimed to assess the trajectory of breast displacement in 3 dimensions during walking and running gait, as this may improve bra design and has yet to be reported. Fifteen D-cup participants had reflective markers attached to their nipples and trunk to monitor absolute and relative breast displacement during treadmill walking (5 kph) and running (10 kph). During the gait cycle, the breast followed a figure-of-eight pattern with four movement phases. Despite a time lag in resultant breast displacement compared with the trunk, similar values of breast displacement were identified across each of the four phases. Fifty-six percent of overall breast movement was vertical, suggesting that 3-D assessment and the elimination of trunk movement in 6 degrees of freedom are essential to accurately report breast displacement during the gait cycle.
Exercise usually results in a large displacement of the breasts, often leading to breast pain. Although breast pain is a common concern of exercising females, little research has been conducted in the area of breast pain. It has been suggested that a cause of breast pain is excessive breast motion. As the female breast does not contain strong intrinsic structural support, this breast motion is difficult to reduce. It is suggested that the primary anatomical support for the breast is the Cooper's ligaments; however, their true functional properties are unknown. Because of the lack of internal breast support it has been suggested that the skin covering the breast may also act as a support structure for the breast, but this has not been quantified. In an attempt to reduce breast motion, external breast supports (brassieres) have been developed. This article discusses components of current sports brassieres with implications for future research required to improve brassiere design and performance.
Breast pain is common during exercise, occurring in up to 56% of subjects in some surveys. This pain is mainly associated with the movement of breast tissue. In an attempt to analyse this movement and the resulting pain, the movement of the female breast tissue was quantified in four conditions of breast support ("sports bra", "fashion bra", "crop top" and bare breasted) during four different activities (running, jogging, aerobics march and walking). These activities represented general patterns of exercise for adult females in Australian society. All three subjects were healthy, active, young women of varying breast size (12B, 14B & 14C) that were typical of young women. Two of the subjects had noted breast pain whilst exercising. The results showed that wearing external support for the breast tissue reduced absolute vertical movement and maximum downward deceleration force on the breast. Support also reduced perceived pain. When compared to other forms of breast support a "sports bra" (brassiere designed for breast support whilst exercising) provided superior support for the breast in relation to the amplitude of movement, deceleration forces on the breast, and perceived pain. The data indicates that adult females should wear appropriate breast support to reduce perceived breast discomfort or pain. Of the three garments examined in this study, the fitted sports bra provided superior support and pain reduction.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of walking speed on the amount and structure of the stride-to-stride fluctuations of the gait cycle. Based on previous findings for both walking [Hausdorff JM, Purdon PL, Peng CK, Ladin Z, Wei JY, Goldberger AL. Fractal dynamics of human gait: stability of long-range correlations in stride interval fluctuations. J Appl Physiol 1996;80:1448-57], and running [Jordan K, Challis JH, Newell KM. Long range correlations in the stride interval of running. Gait Posture 2006;24:120-5] it was hypothesized that the fractal nature of human locomotion is a reflection of the attractor dynamics of human locomotion. Female participants walked for 12min trials at 80%, 90%, 100%, 110% and 120% of their preferred walking speed. Eight gait cycle variables were investigated: stride interval and length, step interval and length, and from the vertical ground reaction force profile the impulse, first and second peak forces, and the trough force. Detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA) revealed the presence of long range correlations in all gait cycle variables investigated. Speed related U-shaped functions occurred in five of the eight variables, with the minima of these curves falling between 100% and 110% of the preferred walking speed. These findings are consistent with those previously shown in running studies and support the hypothesis that reduced strength of long range correlations at preferred locomotion speeds is reflective of enhanced stability and adaptability at these speeds.
The determination of gait events such as heel strike and toe-off provide the basis for defining stance and swing phases of gait cycles. Two algorithms for determining event times for treadmill and overground walking based solely on kinematic data are presented. Kinematic data from treadmill walking trials lasting 20-45s were collected from three subject populations (healthy young, n=7; multiple sclerosis, n=7; stroke, n=4). Overground walking trials consisted of approximately eight successful passes over two force plates for a healthy subject population (n=5). Time of heel strike and toe-off were determined using the two new computational techniques and compared to events detected using vertical ground reaction force (GRF) as a gold standard. The two algorithms determined 94% of the treadmill events from healthy subjects within one frame (0.0167s) of the GRF events. In the impaired populations, 89% of treadmill events were within two frames (0.0334s) of the GRF events. For overground trials, 98% of events were within two frames. Automatic event detection from the two kinematic-based algorithms will aid researchers by accurately determining gait events during the analysis of treadmill and overground walking.
Beating the bounce. The Age Peak breast accelerations when running in different sport bras A new view of statistics
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The biomechanics of breast bounce
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Adaptation of vertical ground reaction forces due to changes in breast support in running Biomechanical analysis of a protocol type sports bra
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Adaptation of vertical ground reaction forces due to changes in breast support in running
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