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... 6,7 However, the use of a conventional chemicalcatalyzed method consumes more energy and oen leads to many problems, including corrosion of equipment, risks in handling corrosive chemicals and degradation of the esters. 8,9 On the other hand, the use of enzymatic methods offers mild reaction conditions and is a recognized "greener" method of ester synthesis compared to the conventional method. Furthermore, the use of immobilized enzymes can withstand high temperature and avoid thermal degradation of the esters. ...
... The alcoholysis reaction was terminated by separating the enzyme from the mixture using Whatman no. 1 lter paper. 9 Gas chromatography (GC) analysis ...
... Previous work reported by Rahman et al. (2011) showed that the alcoholysis of engkabang fat esters was more than 90% complete aer 5 h. 9 However, as for productivity, the productivity of esters was negatively affected by an increase in reaction time; the rate of ester productivity decreases over time. Productivity refers to the amount of product that was produced in a given reaction time. ...
Article
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Esters were synthesized via the alcoholysis of red pitaya seed oil with oleyl alcohol catalyzed by immobilized lipase, Lipozyme RM IM. The effects of synthesis parameters, including temperature, time, substrate molar ratio and enzyme loading, on the yield and productivity of esters were assessed using a central composite response surface design. The optimum yield and productivity were predicted to be about 80.00% and 0.58 mmol h ⁻¹ , respectively, at a synthesis temperature of 50.5 °C, time of 4 h, substrate molar ratio of 3.4 : 1 and with 0.17 g of enzyme. Esters were synthesized under the optimum synthesis conditions; it was found that the average yield and productivity were 82.48 ± 4.57% and 0.62 ± 0.04 mmol h ⁻¹ , respectively, revealing good correspondence with the predicted values. The main esters were oleyl linoleate, oleyl oleate, oleyl palmitate and oleyl stearate. The synthesized esters exhibited no irritancy effects and their physicochemical properties showed their suitability for use as cosmeceutical ingredients.
... Tengkawang fat from Sahan and Nanga Yen had a similar density (0.9 g · cm -3 ) and not significantly different. Tengkawang fat density was 0.89 g · cm -3 [8]. The utilization of fat substitutes with the have same density for mixing certain fats will not change the hardness of products [9]. ...
... The further equation was on refractive index properties of Tengkawang fat that both from Sahan and Nanga Yen showed the same value refractive index (1.45) and not significantly different based on t-test. This value was almost equal to 1.46 of the refractive index of Tengkawang [8]. As a cocoa fat substitute, the refractive index of Tengkawang fat was equal to the refractive index of cocoa fat was ranged from 1.4 556 to 1.4 573 [10]. ...
... T-test results showed that Tengkawang fat from Sahan was highly significant different with Tengkawang fat from Nanga Yen in melting point (0.00). Tengkawang fat from Sahan melting point was close to 30 °C of cocoa fat melting point [8]. The higher the melting point of fat/oil then the bigger the constituent molecules in the fat [11]. ...
Conference Paper
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Tengkawang (Borneo Tallow Nut) processing to produce fat has been widely known in West Kalimantan, particularly in Sahan and Nanga Yen villages. Tengkawang fat production uses a traditional tool known as apit. Variation types of apit used in the processing of Tengkawang are concerned to give impact to the quality of yielded Tengkawang fat. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effect of Tengkawang fat processing with different types of apit on Tengkawang fat quality yielded. Results showed that there were differences in several parameter quality values of Tengkawang fat produced from two types of apit. Tengkawang fat from Nanga Yen had a higher melting point value, saponification and Free Fatty Acid (FFA) compared to Tengkawang fat from Sahan, which respectively values were 50 °C, 430.08 mg · kg−1 and 24.76 %. Iodine number indicated that Tengkawang fat from Sahan has a higher value (20.46 mg · kg−1) than those from Nanga Yen. The differences values on Tengkawang fat quality yielded are indicators for basic consideration to determine fat benefits into various derivative products.
... Another research was done by Rahman et al. (2011), who compared the suitability of Engkabang fat and Engkabang fat ester as an ingredient for cosmetic applications. Based on the properties and characteristics of the fat, their findings showed that Engkabang fat is suitable for cosmetic use, while Engkabang fat esters outperformed Engkabang fat in terms of moistening impact (Rahman et al., 2011). ...
... Another research was done by Rahman et al. (2011), who compared the suitability of Engkabang fat and Engkabang fat ester as an ingredient for cosmetic applications. Based on the properties and characteristics of the fat, their findings showed that Engkabang fat is suitable for cosmetic use, while Engkabang fat esters outperformed Engkabang fat in terms of moistening impact (Rahman et al., 2011). Furthermore, the hydration values of the formulations, including Engkabang fat and esters, were higher than the control (Gani et al., 2010). ...
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Shorea macrophylla is also named as ‘Engkabang’ (Iban), ‘Kawang’ (Brunei), and ‘Tengkawang’ (Indonesia). It belongs to the Dipterocarpaceae family and is categorised under the genus Shorea, which can be found in the tropical rainforests in Southeast Asia. It prefers wet habitats, such as in periodically flooded alluvium and riverbanks. The tree size of S. macrophylla is medium or large; however, some researchers in Kalimantan claim it is a small tree. The flowering and fruiting systems of most Dipterocarps, including S. macrophylla, are irregular, but there is a massive flowering event once every few years. Its genetic structure is characterised by moderate genetic diversity within species and populations, as well as high genetic differentiation within local populations. Shorea macrophylla, also known as the Light Red Meranti, is a suitable timber supply for light construction work. It produces illipe nuts that are widely used as cocoa butter replacer fat. Wildlife eats the ripe illipe nuts, which contain a high oil content with mostly beneficial unsaturated triglycerides. The fat extracted from the nut are suitable for cosmetic application as it provides a good moisturising effect. Future investigation into the illipe nuts’ composition and other potential uses should be carried out.
... The saponification value for BKF was comparable to that of mango seed fats (Muchiri et al., 2012;Jahurul et al., 2014b). However, in BKF, the saponification value was higher compared to that in other CB equivalents, such as illipe butter (190.7) and kokum butter (189) (Raju & Reni, 2001;Rahman et al., 2011). The saponification value observed was closer to that of commercial CB, ranging from 191 to 198 mg KOH g À1 fat (Manifie, 1999). ...
... The higher acid value of BKF could be attributed to the high level of linoleic acid which is very unstable. The acid value of BKF was comparable to that of CB alternatives, such as shea butter but was higher than that of commercial CB (Rahman et al., 2011). Although there was a higher acid value found in BKF, it can be reduced by refining either through chemical or physical processes to that of the desired CB. ...
... g I 2 /100 g) (Jahurul et al., 2019), illipe butter (23.0-38.0 g I 2 /100 g) (Minifie, 2012;Rahman, Basri, Rahman, Rahman, & Salleh, 2011), and sal butter (32.1-41.0 g I 2 /100 g) (Kumar et al., 2016). ...
... Furthermore, lipid nanoparticles can be produced with natural lipids and this possibility presents the advantage of using lipids with biological properties themselves. Particularly, in this work we used Illipe butter which can promote skin hydration, and Calendula oil which has cicatrizing and anti-inflammatory effects [22][23][24]. These natural lipids were used to encapsulate thymol in NLCs and the thymol-NLCs systems was investigated for its antiinflammatory activity. ...
Article
Wound healing involves the integration of biological and molecular events and, in case of chronic wounds, the use of drugs can be associated to side effects. Therefore, there is a search for alternatives therapeutics that encompass minimal toxicity. The use of natural compounds is an attractive approach for treating inflammatory disorders, wounds and burns. In this context, thymol has antimicrobial, antioxidant and antiseptic properties and is a promising compound in wound healing and inflammation management. However, essential oils and their constituents such as thymol present high volatility and can also easily decompose, thereby the encapsulation of these compounds into nanoparticles may be an efficient approach to modulate the release of the active ingredient, to increase the physical stability and to eventually reduce the toxicity. The aims of this work were to encapsulate thymol in nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) composed of natural lipids and assess its in vivo anti-inflammatory and antipsoriatic activity. The carrier containing thymol was produced by sonication method and showed 107.7 (±3.8) nm of size, zeta potential of -11.6 (±2.9) mV and entrapment efficiency of 89.1 (±4.2)%. Thymol-NLCs were incorporated into a gel and the final formulation presented rheological characteristics and pH suitable for topic application. In addition, the gel containing thymol-NLCs was tested in vivo on two different mouse models of skin inflammation, showing anti-inflammatory activity. Finally, this formulation was tested in an imiquimod-induced psoriasis mouse model and showed improved healing, compared to negative control. Therefore, thymol-NLCs is an interesting formulation for future treatment of inflammatory skin diseases.
... Aeromonas sobria LP004 secreting lipase was isolated from raw milk (8). Lipases have broad spectrum of biotechnological applications in food, flavour, biopolymers, detergent industries, environmental management, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and biodiesel production (9)(10)(11)(12)(13). Non haemolytic phospholipase C activity was seen on lecithin and pnitrophenylphosphorylcholine by Aeromonas hydrophila lipase (14). ...
Article
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The aim of this study was to isolate and select lipase producing bacteria from effluent waste of paint industry. Five lipase producing Gram negative bacterial isolates showed promising extracellular lipase activity. Molecular identification on the basis of 16S rDNA identified bacterial isolates as Aeromonas sp. Sh 2 (KT186103.1), Aeromonas sp. Sh 8 (KT229540.1), Aeromonas sp. Sh 12 (KT427918.1), Pseudomonas sp. Sh 13 (KT251204.1), Pseudomonas sp. Sh 17 (KT251205.1). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all the three Aeromonas spp. and two Pseudomonas spp. are highly divergent within each group. Effect of various physio-chemical parameters showed that pH 7.0 and temperature 37°C were favourable for lipase production in all five isolates. Glucose in combination with peptone enhanced the lipase activity from 1359 to 2347 Umg⁻¹ in Aeromonas sp. Sh 2. Combination of glucose with yeast extract improved the lipase activity of Aeromonas sp. Sh 8 from 1641 to 2674 Umg⁻¹, whereas glucose with casein hydrolysate increased the lipase activity of Aeromonas sp. Sh 12 from 1568 to 1983 Umg⁻¹. Pseudomonas sp. Sh 13 and Pseudomonas sp. Sh 17 did not show enhanced lipase activity in presence of different carbon or nitrogen sources. These bacterial isolates could be exploited to treat oil and paint based industrial effluents and contribute to reduce environmental hazards. © 2016, Association of Biotechnology and Pharmacy. All rights reserved.
... In general, when the reaction mixture contains low substrate concentrations, there is a decrease in donor agent disposal of acyl grouping for the reaction which implies low yield even at elevated temperatures [31,32], situation confirmed in this study, by run 5. ...
... Lipase catalyzes hydrolysis of triacylglycerol into glycerol and fatty acids in aqueous solution [7]. In organic solvents, the lipase can catalyze the esterification [8,9], alcoholysis [10], acidolysis or interesterification to produce esters or structured lipids [11]. Lipase-catalyzed reactions usually take place at atmospheric pressure, moderate pH and moderate temperature, which is considered an effective way to overcome the drawbacks of chemical processes. ...
Article
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Wax esters are long-chain esters that have been widely applied in premium lubricants, parting agents, antifoaming agents and cosmetics. In this study, the biocatalytic preparation of a specific wax ester, cetyl octanoate, is performed in n-hexane using two commercial immobilized lipases, i.e., Lipozyme(®) RMIM (Rhizomucor miehei) and Novozym(®) 435 (Candida antarctica). Response surface methodology (RSM) and 5-level-4-factor central composite rotatable design (CCRD) are employed to evaluate the effects of reaction time (1-5 h), reaction temperature (45-65 °C), substrate molar ratio (1-3:1), and enzyme amount (10%-50%) on the yield of cetyl octanoate. Using RSM to optimize the reaction, the maximum yields reached 94% and 98% using Lipozyme(®) RMIM and Novozym(®) 435, respectively. The optimum conditions for synthesis of cetyl octanoate by both lipases are established and compared. Novozym(®) 435 proves to be a more efficient biocatalyst than Lipozyme(®) RMIM.
... However, a certain amount of water is necessary, for hydration of the lipase and to serve as nucleophile for its activity ( Li et al., 2010). Enzymatic synthesis of sugar esters has been commonly carried out in organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) ( Kaewprapan et al., in press;Valepyn et al., 2011), tert-butanol ( Adnani et al., 2011), 2-methyl-2-butanol ( Favrelle et al., 2011), hexane ( Rahman et al., 2011) and ethanol ( Neta et al., 2011). Synthesis has been reported also in blended solvents ( Fu and Vasudevan, 2010;Valepyn et al., 2011). ...
Article
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Lipase-catalyzed synthesis of 6-O-glucosyldecanoate from d-glucose and decanoic acid was performed in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), a mixture of DMSO and tert-butanol and tert-butanol alone with a decreasing order of polarity. The highest conversion yield (> 65%) of decanoic acid was obtained in the blended solvent of intermediate polarity mainly because it could dissolve relatively large amounts of both the reactants. The reaction obeyed Michaelis-Menten type of kinetics. The affinity of the enzyme towards the limiting substrate (decanoic acid) was not affected by the polarity of the solvent, but increased significantly with temperature. The esterification reaction was endothermic with activation energy in the range of 60-67 kJ mol⁻¹. Based on the Gibbs energy values, in the solvent blend of DMSO and tert-butanol the position of the equilibrium was shifted more towards the products compared to the position in pure solvents. Monoester of glucose was the main product of the reaction.
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There is a surge in the skincare industry marketing the use of natural ingredients as efficacious agents. Although this has been popular in the Eastern hemisphere for a while, Western countries are starting to put more emphasis on naturally derived products. This paper chose to analyze the current research available on tallow, which is a solid fat derived from animals. Tallow has long been used as a neutral cooking fat, ingredient in soaps, biofuel product, and now ingredient in skincare products. The purpose of this scoping review was to look at the current research pertaining to the therapeutic benefits of tallow on the skin. Using the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines, a scoping review was conducted using two databases: EMBASE and PubMed as sources of evidence. The searches for studies were conducted using the following key terms: (tallow) AND (skin or dermatology or dermatitis or emulsion or cosmetics or eczema). Papers were excluded if they were not in English, if they did not mention the effects of tallow on the skin, and if they did not use tallow rendered from an animal. Date ranges and geographical locations for articles were not part of our inclusion or exclusion criteria. We focused on the following five research questions: Does the composition of tallow make it better suitable for use on skin? What is the benefit of using tallow on skin? Does tallow have therapeutic properties for skin conditions? What side effects does tallow have on the skin? Is tallow reef-safe? While there is much evidence supporting the use of tallow as an ingredient in animal feed, cooking, soaps, and biofuels, there are significant research gaps in how it can be used on human skin. Our search on PubMed and EMBASE resulted in a total of 147 studies being screened with 19 fitting our specific criteria. Of the 19 studies, there were comparative studies, basic science studies, and animal studies. After reviewing the studies to answer the objectives in this paper, we were able to find information that supported the first three objectives; however, more research is still needed. Specifically, more research is needed that is geared towards tallow as a cosmetic product in humans. The fourth objective, which was to answer the side effects of topical tallow, had the most discrepancies between the sources. The fifth objective also found supporting information; however, only two sources were found. Overall, there needs to be more research with controlled variables on the side effects of topical tallow. Different research designs that could be explored include case studies, randomized controlled trials, cross-sectional studies, and qualitative studies.
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Herein, we investigated the influence of emulsion process and DNA sequence on the morphology and surface property of the as-fabricated gel particles with and without payload. Nanogels can be prepared by using synthetic and kiwifruit-derived DNA above a certain concentration whilst nanocapsules can only be prepared by using a synthetic 19-mer DNA containing A nitrogen base. Kiwifruit-derived DNA was used to encapsulate two payloads, which were DOX and lipase, via oil-in-water and water-in-oil processes. The oil–water interface and payload-DNA interactions dictated their size, surface property, and payload encapsulation. The DOX-encapsulated nanogels exhibited comparable payload encapsulation regardless the emulsion process because DOX would not only intercalate in the DNA but also bind with the negatively charged DNA. The lipase-encapsulated nanogels prepared via oil-in-water process exhibited higher payload encapsulation and activity than those via water-in-oil process due to its hydrophobic nature and the creation of oil–water interface. Moreover, the advantage of enzyme encapsulation was revealed in the case at acidic solution pH. This study revealed the importance of the oil–water interface and payload-DNA interactions on the preparation of payload-encapsulated DNA nanogels.
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This study was set out to determine the total fat content, physicochemical properties, and crystal morphology of mango kernel fat (MKF) obtained from three popular mango varieties cultivated in Sabah, Malaysia. The total fat contents of the MKFs were 7.02, 9.50, and 8.41% for Air, Manila, and Harumanis. Gas chromatography with flame ionization detector analyses revealed three major fatty acids namely, palmitic (6.67 to 7.51%), stearic (42.32 to 48.95%), and oleic (32.91 to 38.14%) acids in studied MKFs as novel mango kernel constituents. The iodide, saponification, acid, peroxide, and slip melting point values of the MKFs were found to be 47.79–52.27 g I2/100 g, 181.4–194.5 mg KOH/g, 5.15–6.26 mg KOH/g, 1.05–1.32 meq O2/kg, and 31.0–35.2°C, respectively. The crystals of the three MKFs were spherulites and densely packed. With respect to the characteristics, MKFs potentially can be applied as cocoa butter equivalents and ideal for use in confectionery industry. Exploitation of fat from mango kernel is still attracting considerable interest in recent year since it is a source of valuable ingredients that suitable for wide applications in food processing, especially as cocoa butter equivalent (CBE). Different mango varieties and cultivation regions would give rise to variations in characteristics of MKFs. Most of the results indicated that MKFs had the potential to be applied as CBEs and useful in chocolate industry.
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Nigella sativa L. seed, also recognized as black cumin is a medicinal plant that possesses miraculous power of healing due to the abilities to cure various ailments. Owing to the oily properties of plant oil, the oil ester is more preferable exhibiting special features such as non-toxic, outstanding moisturizing action and most importantly the absence of oily texture. In this study, Nigella sativa oil-based ferulate ester was synthesized via transesterification of Nigella sativa oil (NSO) and ethyl ferulate (EF) in the presence of immobilized lipase, Lipozyme RM IM from Rhizomucor miehei. A five-level-four-factor central composite rotatable design (CCRD) from response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to study the influence of synthesis parameters: lipase dosage (50-80 mg), temperature (40-60°C), substrate ratio of NSO:EF (2.5:1-5.5:1 w/w) and time (3-7 hr) aiming for the maximum percentage yield of ester. The optimized synthesis conditions were lipase dosage of 67 mg, temperature of 56°C, substrate ratio (NSO:EF) of 4.4:1 w/w and time of 4 hr. The maximum production of ester obtained was 49.87% which is acceptable with the predicted value of 48.82%.
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Skin aging might happen due to extrinsic and intrinsic factors that usually can induce the increase of free radicals and generate oxidative stress, which lead to skin alterations. Thus, there is a search for antioxidant substances that can control these effects. Quercetin (QT) is a flavonoid with antioxidant potential however presents poor percutaneous permeation, low stability and phototoxicity. Therefore, the encapsulation in nanoparticles is an interesting strategy to overcome these challenges. Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) is a promising type of vehicle that can improve drug penetration on skin and enhance the entrapment efficiency as well as improve the drug stability. These nanoparticles can be produced using natural lipids with biological properties resulting in a carrier with biological activities. The aim of this study was to produce NLC to load QT enhancing its permeation and obtaining an effective and safe topical formulation. The NLC were characterized regarding their size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, thermal behavior, morphology and evaluation of the biological properties using in vitro methods to analyze the antioxidant activity, skin permeation, antiallergic potential, cytotoxicity and phototoxicity potential on monolayer (HaCaT cells and 3T3 NRU PT) and on reconstructed human skin model (H3D-PT). The average size of QT-NLC was 130 nm with low polydispersity index (PdI) (~0.260), and negative zeta potential (around of −13 mV). Through the thermal behavior analysis, the nanoparticle exhibited a low recrystallization index (13.03%), which is important to obtain high entrapment efficiency (97.42%) and avoid drug expulsion during the storage time. The nanoparticles showed a homogeneous morphology and were very stable regarding to size and PdI over to 120 days. On terms of biological properties QT-NLC presented antioxidant activity, enhanced penetration of quercetin in the skin and showed an antiallergic potential. Furthermore, in the reconstructed human skin model that consider viable epidermis bioavailability due to the presence of stratum corneum, it was observed that the topical formulation of QT-NLC presented no phototoxic potential. Therefore, the developed nanostructure is a vehicle with potential for topical administration of quercetin.
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Pengolahan Tengkawang menjadi lemak diperoleh melalui proses ekstrasi biji tengkawang, yang mengandalkan pada proses pres biji tersebut. Tradisi pengolahannya masih tradisional sehingga rendemen maupun kualitas hasil olahan minyaknya belum optimal. Dalam studi ini diperkenalkan prototipe alat pres biji Tengkawang bertenaga hidrolik dengan bahan anti karat standar khusus kualitas bahan pangan ( stainless stell for food grade ) yang berkapasitas tekan hingga 1 ton. Selanjutnya kualitas lemak diuji menggunakan standar SNI 3748-2009 pendekatan uji kualitas lemak Kakao. Hasil uji lemak Tengkawang produksi prototipe ini menunjukkan bahwa terjadi peningkatan rendemen optimum mencapai 42,68%. Sedangkan untuk kualitas lemak dilihat dari karakteristik uji menunjukkan nilai berat jenis lemak 0,90 g/cm 3 , indeks bias 1,45, titik leleh 31 0 C, bilangan iodium 16,46 mg/kg, bilangan penyabunan 449,21 mg/g dan asam lemak bebas 10,07%. Karakteristik lemak Tengkawang hasil produksi prototipe alat mesin pres hidrolik ini sebanding bahkan lebih baik dari standard kualitas lemak Kakao uji dan dapat langsung diaplikasikan untuk diversifikasi produk lemak Tengkawang lainnya.
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A reproducible and efficient protocol was developed for inducing indirect somatic embryogenesis using callus originated from different explants of Bunium persicum viz. both immature and mature zygotic embryos, fruit pedicel and cotyledons excised from in vitro germinated seedlings. Calli derived from different explants was inoculated on Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal medium of half and full strength supplemented with various concentrations of thiadiazuron, indole butyric acid and with activated charcoal. Callus derived from fruit pedicel gave best response for somatic embryogenesis on MS basal full strength + 0.1% activated charcoal. Half strength MS basal + 1.00 mg/l TDZ + 0.05 mg/l IBA giving as much as 84.33 per cent of somatic embryogenesis and 25.78 was the average number of somatic embryos per callus clump of 200 mg. Maximum of 70.61% somatic embryos showed germination when transferred to half strength MS basal medium. Histological observations revealed that somatic embryos displayed a standard development pattern, from globular to finally cotyledonary stage embryos intervened by heart shaped and torpedo shaped embryos. Molecular characterization of somatic embryo-derived plants was carried out by employing Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and Inter Simple sequence Repeat (ISSR) primers. DNA extracted from shoots of 15 Bunium persicum plantlets regenerated from somatic embryos and mother plant gave monomorphic banding pattern upon amplification, which indicates that somatic embryogenesis is a suitable technique of micropropagation. © 2016, Association of Biotechnology and Pharmacy. All rights reserved.
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Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferasemediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) is used widely for detecting the apoptotic status in biological cells of diverse origin. Reproducing the TUNEL procedure with specialized cells like cumulus oocyte complexes (COCs) poses technical challenge in view of mammalian oocytes which undergo very dynamic transitions in the course of oocyte maturation within a short time. The current work describes a standardized TUNEL protocol where the process of fixation and permeabilization were optimized using different concentrations of paraformaldehyde and Triton X-100 with sodium citrate, respectively. Effectiveness of the procedure was validated at different time intervals of oocyte culture using known oocyte stimulators. The procedure was further validated in the in vitro produced early embryos. Consistent and specific signal could be obtained using the procedure depicting the apoptotic status of cumulus cells and early embryos at different cell stages in buffalo. © 2016, Association of Biotechnology and Pharmacy. All rights reserved.
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A nanoemulsion‐based formulation containing leaf extracts of Clinacanthus nutans Lindau (C. nutans) was prepared for therapeutic use and optimized by artificial neural network (ANN). The model was applied to optimize the particle size of the transdermal nanoemulsion system containing an extract of C. nutans leaves for skin antiaging. Five universal learning algorithms—incremental back propagation, batch back propagation, quick propagation, genetic algorithm, and Levenberg‐Marquardt —were used in the ANN to achieve the optimum topologies. The optimum topologies were selected among the learning algorithms trained with lowest root mean square values. Genetic Algorithm‐5‐13‐1 was found to be the optimum topology for the final model to predict the optimum particle size. Under these conditions, the actual particle size of the optimum nanoemulsion compared well with the predicted values with the residual standard error of less than 1.5%. The final formulation was observed to be stable against phase separation under an accelerated stability study and during storage at room temperature and 45°C for 90 days. The dermal irritation assay demonstrated that the developed nanoemulsion was found to be compatible with human skin and could be classified as nonirritant. In vivo ultrasound attributes of the skin study showed that the collagen content increased significantly with the application of the C. nutans nanoemulsion among all 21 volunteers during the 21 days of the treatment period. Hence, ANN was found to be an effective tool for optimizing the nanoemulsion containing C. nutans leaves extract with efficacy to protect collagen from breakdown.
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Fatty acids from vegetable oils are useful building blocks for industrial materials. The purpose of this work was to prepare erucic acid with high purity from a vegetable oil. High purity erucic acid is used for the production of erucamide with applications in plastics manufacturing. A newly developed transgenic Crambe line produces seed oil with 68 % erucic acid compared to 53 % in the wild type oil. Further enrichment of erucic acid from Crambe (wild type and transgenic) oil was achieved by selective enzymatic hydrolysis. Using Candida rugosa lipase as catalyst, other fatty acids were preferentially hydrolysed from the triacylglycerols and erucic acid was enriched in the acylglycerol fraction. The highest content of erucic acid achieved in that fraction was 95 %. The combination of modern plant breeding and enzyme technology is a promising approach for preparation of fatty acids of high purity.
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We have developed an improved and effective method to immobilize Yarrowia lipolytica lipase Lip2 (YLIP2) on an epoxy poly-(glycidylmethacrylate-triallyisocyanurate-ethyleneglycoldimethacrylate) (PGMA-TAIC-EGDMA) support structure with or without amine or/and protein modifications. Our results show that there is an increase in the activity of the immobilized lipase on n-butylamine (BA) modified support (420U/g support) and the biocompatible gelatin modified support (600U/g support) when compared to the support without modification (240U/g support). To further study the influences of BA and gelatin modification on the activity of the immobilized lipase, gelatin and BA were concurrently used to decorate the support structure. Lipase immobilized on 2% BA/gelatin (1:1) modified support obtained the highest activity (1180U/g support), which was five-fold higher than that on a native support structure. These results suggest that the activity of a support-immobilized lipase depends on the support surface properties and a moderate support surface micro-environment was crucial for elevated activity. Collectively, these data show that a combined gelatin and BA modification regulates the support surface more suitable for immobilizing YLIP2. Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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Engkabang fats are known as an excellent cocoa butter equivalent. It is selected to be aimed as potential softening ingredient in waxy base of lipstick formulation that promotes moisturising protection for the lips. The formulation was prepared by mixing homogenously the base and colour intermediate at 70-80°C, moulded in casing, followed by cooling at-20°C.The optimum ratio of lipstick formulation containing engkabang fats and other waxes was (10:20) in percentage. The other ingredients used were oils (60%) and colour agent (10%). The physico-chemical properties of formulations were determined including texture analysis, pH, melting point, colour intensity, stability and moisture content. From the results, engkabang fats exhibited a good softening and moisturising properties. Engkabang fats lipstick formulations showed better application on the lips compared lipstick without engkabang fats.
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There are very chemical reactions with very slow rates which can be catalyzed by enzymes. These biocatalysts need to moderate conditions for their catalytic activity and are stable in low temperature (between 15-50A degrees C), average pH (5-10) and aqueous media. One of important things in enzymatic synthesis which has been recently noticed is the yield of reactions. Nowadays wide application of response surface methodology (RSM) was observed in organic chemistry. In one-variable-at-a-time technique only one parameter is changed and other parameters are kept at a constant level. It does not study the interactive effects among the variables, and does not illustrate the complete effects of the parameters on the process. Increasing the yield of product without increase in casts is carried out by modeling and optimization of reaction variables through statistical techniques such as RSM. In this paper, we reviewed some articles that used the RSM for optimization in the enzymatic synthesis.
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N-trans feruloyltyramine amide was successfully synthesized from 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic acid and tyramine hydrochloride in a one-step lipase catalysed reaction. The use of immobilized lipase, lipozyme TL IM as the catalyst in the reaction allowed simple isolation of the enzyme from the products and other components in the reaction mixture. N-feruloyltyramine amide was characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy, Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (1H NMR) and elemental analysis. Under optimized conditions 93.5% yield was obtained when the process was carried out for 48 h using a molar ratio of cinnamic acid:tyramine HCl, 6:1 at 40°C. In addition, a rapid simple and sensitive HPLC-UV method was developed for the determination of N-feruloyltyramine using an ®Rp-8 endcapped column. The optimum mobile phase used was acetonitrile:disodium hydrogen phosphate, 30:70(v/v.). N-feruloyltyramine amide was detected at a retention time of 12 min. The calibration curve was linear over the range of 5.27–12.30 × 10−4 M with correlation factor r = 0.9958. Consequently, the method was considered valid for quantitative analysis samples of N-trans-feruloyltyramine amide.
Article
N-(2-carboxylbenzoyl) chitosan (CBC), a reversibly soluble-insoluble polymer with pH change, was prepared by modifying chitosan backbone with phthalic anhydride and employed as carrier for lipase immobilization. The obtained CBC exhibited reversible solubility in aqueous solution; it was soluble at pH above 3.8 and precipitated at pH below 3.4. The porcine pancreatic lipase was covalently immobilized on CBC with glutaraldehyde as the crosslinking agent. Under the optimal immobilization condition, the retention activity of the immobilized lipase was found to be 69.8 %. The maximum activity of lipase immobilized on CBC was observed at 40 °C, pH 8.0, while the free lipase presented maximum activity at 37 °C, pH 7.5. The lipase immobilized on CBC exhibited improved thermal and storage stabilities and retained 58.7 % of its initial activity after 9 times of repeated use.
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This paper describes the safety evaluation of threo-9,10-dihydroxystearic acid (DHSA) as a cosmetics ingredient. The irritation potential of DHSA to the eye and skin was assessed using in vitro ocular and dermal irritection assays and confirmed by in vivo patch test. Its potential in inducing sensitization is confirmed by the in vivo human repeated insult patch test (HRIPT). In vitro studies showed no ocular or dermal irritation potential in using purified DHSA while in vivo studies showed that the purified DHSA did not induce any significant cutaneous skin irritation, cumulative skin irritation or sensitization at 1%, 3% and 5%, respectively.
Article
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Effect of additives (carrot, lime, paw paw and red dye) on the density, viscosity, moisture content and melting point of palm oil (PO) was investigated by dissolving 1g of each additive to 10mL of pre-analysed oil in a beaker. The mixture was heated and their their moisture content,melting point, viscosity and density were determined. The result of the analysis shows that all the additives significantly increased the density, moisture content and viscosity (except lime) of the oil. Addition of paw paw and red dye also increased the melting point of the oil while the addition of carrot and lime juice decreased the melting point of the oil.
Article
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Wax esters were transesterified from fatty acid methyl esters of rapeseed and a fatty alcohol (1-hexadecanol, 16:0). The amounts of both the substrates were fixed to 0.1 mmol and an immobilized enzyme, Lipozyme, was used as catalyst. The experiment was performed following a statistic central composite design with five variables. The enzyme/lipid ratio was varied between 0.3–0.9 of the substrate weight and the enzyme was equilibrated to different water activities varying from 0.11 to 0.44. A temperature range of 50–80°C was investigated and the reaction time lasted up to 40 min. A solvent, isooctane, constituted 0–30% of the substrate weight. The first experimental series was performed in small closed test tubes. In the second series the caps of the test tubes were off to evaporate the methanol produced during the reaction. The highest initial reaction rate was 9.6 gwax esters/genzyme · h. It appeared when: the enzyme/lipid ratio was low, 0.3, the temperature was high, 80°C; no isooctane was present; and the water activity was below 0.11. The initial reaction rate was independent of the caps on the test tubes. With the large amount of enzyme the yield of wax esters was above 70% after 10 min in both experimental series. In the reaction with caps, the reaction reached equilibrium at 83% after 20 min at 80°C. However, without caps the continuous evaporation of methanol increased the equilibrium constantly, and after 40 min at 80°C a yield of 90% was reached.
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The synthesis of wax ester using refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oil and oleyl alcohol catalyzed by lipozyme IM was carried out. Response surface methodology (RSM) based on a five-level, four-variable central composite rotatable design (CCRD) was used to evaluate the interactive effects of synthesis, of reaction time (2.5–10 h), temperature (30–70 °C), amount of enzyme (0.1–0.2 g) and substrate molar ratio (palm oil to oleyl alcohol, 1:1–1:5) on the percentage yield of wax esters. The optimum conditions derived via RSM were: reaction time 7.38 h, temperature 53.9 °C, amount of enzyme 0.149 g, and substrate molar ratio 1:3.41. The actual experimental yield was 84.6% under optimum condition, which compared well to the maximum predicted value of 85.4%.
Article
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This work described study protocols on the production of Palm-Based Standard Reference Materials for iodine value and slip melting point. Thirty-three laboratories collaborated in the inter-laboratory proficiency tests for characterization of iodine value, while thirty-two laboratories for characterization of slip melting point. The iodine value and slip melting point of palm oil, palm olein and palm stearin were determined in accordance to MPOB Test Methods p3.2:2004 and p4.2:2004, respectively. The consensus values and their uncertainties were based on the acceptability of statistical agreement of results obtained from collaborating laboratories. The consensus values and uncertainties for iodine values were 52.63 +/- 0.14 Wijs in palm oil, 56.77 +/- 0.12 Wijs in palm olein and 33.76 +/- 0.18 Wijs in palm stearin. For the slip melting points, the consensus values and uncertainties were 35.6 +/- 0.3 degrees C in palm oil, 22.7 +/- 0.4 degrees C in palm olein and 53.4 +/- 0.2 degrees C in palm stearin. Repeatability and reproducibility relative standard deviations were found to be good and acceptable, with values much lower than that of 10%. Stability of Palm-Based Standard Reference Materials remained stable at temperatures of -20 degrees C, 0 degrees C, 6 degrees C and 24 degrees C upon storage for one year.
Article
A Collaborative Evaluation of Seven Alternatives to the Draize Eye Irritation Test Using Pharmaceutical Intermediates. Sina, J. F., Galer, D. M., Sussman, R. G., Gautheron, P. D., Sargent, E. V., Leong, B., Shah, P. V., Curren, R. D., and Miller, K. (1995). Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 26, 20-31. Much of the data which have been generated on in vitro alternatives to the Draize eye irritation test have dealt with compounds within a specific chemical class or product category. However, in the pharmaceutical industry, it is often necessary to evaluate materials which are not related in structure or properties. It was thus decided to evaluate a diverse series of chemicals in seven in vitro methods for estimating ocular irritation. Thirty-seven test materials were chosen to represent a broad range of pH, solubility, and in vivo irritation potential. Assays were chosen to include as many different types of end points as practical. The group of assays was composed of TOPKAT (assessing structure-activity relationships), bovine corneal opacity-permeability (BCO-P; corneal opacity/toxicity), Eytex (protein coagulation), neutral red uptake (cytotoxicity), MTT in living dermal equivalent (cytotoxicity), Microtox (cytotoxicity in bacteria), and CAMVA (inflammation/toxicity). The results of the study indicated that, in general, the cytotoxicity end points did not correlate well with the in vivo data. The BCO-P, CAMVA, and Eytex assays had the best overall concordance (88.9, 75.8, and 75.0%, respectively) with this set of compounds. Estimation of irritation potential based on structure-activity (TOPKAT) was possible for only approximately 50% of the compounds; however, the assay showed 100% sensitivity (i.e., no false negatives), but low specificity (i.e., negatives correctly identified only 54.5% of the time). These data suggest that for screening of chemicals of diverse structure and properties, the more mechanism-based assays, as opposed to general cytotoxicity assays, hold more promise and should be further evaluated.
Article
Wax esters, one of the important ingredients in cosmetic industry, are long-chain esters that exhibit wetting behavior with non-greasy feeling. Wax esters derived from long chain fatty acids and long chain alcohols with chain lengths of 12 carbons or more. These compounds have many potential applications in cosmetics, pharmaceutical and food industries. The present work focuses on the scale-up synthesis of wax esters by alcoholysis of palm oil (PO) with oleyl alcohol (OA) using Lipozyme in a bioreactor. Response surface methodology (RSM) and a 5-level-5-factor central composite rotatable design were adopted to evaluate the effects of synthesis parameters, such as temperature (40-60°C), amount of enzyme (14-22% by weight of PO), amount of palm oil (80-240 mmol), amount of oleyl alcohol (240-720 mmol) and impeller speed (100-400 rpm) on the percentage yield of palm-based wax esters. Based on Design Expert Software (version 6.0.4), optimum alcoholysis conditions were: temperature, 50.4°C, amount of enzyme, 16.0% by weight of palm oil, amount of palm oil, 200.0 mmol, amount of oleyl alcohol, 600.0 mmol, palm oil/oleyl alcohol ratio, 3:1 and impeller speed, 242.1 rpm. The corresponding predicted value of percentage yield and productivity was 91.5% and 106.4 mmol/h respectively compared to the actual experimental value 92.3% yields and 110.8 mmol/h productivity.
Article
Octyl dihydroxystearate was synthesized enzymatically to overcome the problems associated with chemical processes such as high energy costs and degradation of ester. Immobilized enzyme, Lipozyme IM was employed as catalyst in the esterification reaction between dihydroxystearic acid (DHSA) and 1-octanol. The product obtained was characterized by chromatographic and spectroscopic methods (thin-layer chromatography, gas chromatography, fourier transform infrared, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy) as well as wet chemistry. The crude product has a melting point of 59.0°C, saponification value of 140.5 mgKOH/g, hydroxyl value of 223.9 mgKOH/g and acid value of 7.9 mgKOH/g. The yield was about 95% with respect to the amount of DHSA used. The product obtained was found to contain octyl dihydroxystearate, octyl palmitate and octyl stearate. This compound was found to be nonirritating.
Article
The synthesis of a green clean biosolvent, isopropyl esters, using high-oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) as raw material over an enzymatic catalyst, has been developed and optimized following a factorial design and response surface methodology. A full three-factorial design has proved effective in the study of the influence of the variables (temperature, enzyme concentration, and alcohol/oil molar ratio) on the process. The process was studied in the range of 68–82 °C, 1.8–8.4% wt. catalyst concentration, and initial alcohol/oil molar ratio 1:1–11:1. The molar ratio of alcohol/oil was been found to be the most significant factor on the transesterification process and its influence is negative. The response surface model obtained, representing the yield of ester, was found to describe adequately the experimental results. The best conditions for the process are a catalyst concentration of 7%, an operation temperature of 71 °C and with low alcohol/oil molar ratio (3:1); with these conditions the maximum conversion obtained was 84%. The preparation of the product is a green engineering process, clean, solvent-free, with a very selective catalyst that minimizes water and energy consumption and the downstream processing of the integrated process.
Article
Supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) has been studied as a medium for esterification of camel hump fat and tristearin in producing cocoa butter analog using Immobilized Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase (Lipozyme TL IM) as a biocatalyst. Process conditions (pressure, temperature, tristearin/camel hump fat ratio, water content, and incubation time) were optimized by conducting experiments at five different levels using the response surface method (RSM). A second-order polynomial response surface equation was developed indicating the effect of variables on cocoa butter analog yield. Contour maps generated using the response surface equation showed that all the experimental variables significantly affected the yield. The pressure, 10MPa; temperature, 40°C; SSS/CHF ratio, 1:1; water content, 10% (w/w); and incubation time, 3h were found to be the optimum conditions to achieve the maximum yield of cocoa butter analog.
Article
The use of ozonized vegetable oils as pour point depressant for neat biodiesel was evaluated. Ozonized vegetable oils (1–1.5% by weight) were effective in reducing the pour point of biodiesel prepared from sunflower oil, soybean oil and rapeseed oil to −24, −12 and −30°C, respectively. Cloud point however remained unaffected. In the case of palm oil biodiesel, significant reduction was observed in cloud point but not in pour point. Statistical analyses showed that neat biodiesel and biodiesel treated with ozonized vegetable oils showed no significant difference in other properties including density and viscosity. Although ozonized vegetable oils increase the flash point of biodiesel, the values are still within the limits set by the standards in the US and Europe. Lowest reduction in pour point was observed in cases where the biodiesel and the ozonized samples were prepared from the same vegetable oil. Hence, a correlation may exist between the nature of the biodiesel and ozonized oil. Microscopic analysis at low temperature revealed that ozonized vegetable oil impede agglomeration of biodiesel into network of solidified material giving crystals with sizes around 10μm.
Article
The study aimed at developing a process for making a wood coating wax based on the principles of green chemistry. The research was conducted within the Swedish interdisciplinary research programme Greenchem. Wax esters are attractive since they are non-hazardous, biodegradable and can be produced in an atom-efficient process from building blocks obtained from renewable resources. Four wax esters were prepared in a solvent-free process using an immobilised lipase as catalyst. When the water was removed during the process from what was initially an equimolar mixture of the starting materials carboxylic acid and alcohol by a stream of dry air passed through the reactor, there was a 95–99% conversion to the ester. The enzymatic process consumed 34% less energy and generated less waste than chemical esterification using a strong acid as catalyst. Two of the esters worked well in the industrial wood coating equipment employed and produced surfaces resistant to water and somewhat less to fat stains.
Article
An optimisation study of the large-scale enzymatic synthesis of a liquid wax ester from oleic acid and oleyl alcohol using Novozym 435 was carried out. Investigations were performed in batch mode with a stirred tank reactor (STR) with one multi-bladed impeller. Response surface methodology (RSM) based on a five-level, three-variable central composite rotatable design (CCRD) was used to evaluate the interactive effects of various parameters. The parameters are amount of enzyme (A) (90–120 g), impeller speed (B) (100–400 rpm) and temperature (C) (40–60 °C). The optimum conditions derived via RSM at a fixed reaction time of 1 h were successfully optimised as A = 104 g, B = 388.0 rpm and C = 49.7 °C. The actual experimental yield was 96.7% under the optimum conditions, which compared well with the maximum predicted value of 97.6%. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry
Article
BACKGROUND: Adipate esters are used as low‐temperature and low‐viscosity plasticizers for polyvinyl chloride and its copolymers. In this work, optimization of lipase‐catalyzed production of dilauryl adipate was carried out using response surface methodology (RSM) based on a four‐factor‐five‐level central composite rotatable design (CCRD). Immobilized lipase from Candida antarctica (Novozym 435) was used as catalyst in this reaction. Various reaction parameters affecting the synthesis of adipate ester, including alcohol/acid molar ratio, amount of enzyme, temperature and reaction time, were investigated. RESULTS: Statistical analysis showed that the amount of enzyme was less significant than the other three factors. The optimal conditions for the enzymatic reaction were obtained at 5.7:1 substrate molar ratio using 0.18 g of enzyme at 53.1 °C for 282.2 min. Under these conditions the esterification percentage was 96.0%. CONCLUSIONS: The results demonstrated that response surface methodology can be applied effectively to optimize the lipase‐catalyzed synthesis of adipate ester. The optimum conditions can obtained be used to scale up the process. Copyright © 2008 Society of Chemical Industry
Article
This paper studies the physico-chemical characteristics of the fats of three species of engkabang (illipe): Shorea macrophylla, Shorea mecistopteryx and Shorea singkawang, to assess their potential as cocoa butter replacer fats. A comparison of the solid fat content and fatty acid composition of these species with those of cocoa butter and a commercial sample of illipe (Shorea stenoptera), indicated that S macrophylla and S mecistopteryx could be used as cocoa butter replacer fats. S singkawang, however, had less potential in this area. The fat of S macrophylla species when further evaluated in dark chocolate formulations in blends with palm-mid fraction, made an effective cocoa butter equivalent fat.
Article
Methyl esters of saturated naturally occurring fat acids from C6 through C18 were prepared and purified by fractional distillation. Refractive indices were used as a measure of their purity. A micro surface tension apparatus was constructed to comply with a modified capillary rise method devised by Ferguson. The surface tensions of water and of benzene were determined at several temperatures. The results obtained compared quite favorably with the values listed in the International Critical Tables. The surface tensions of the methyl esters were determined at 40°C., 60°C., and 80°C. with an accuracy of ±0.15 dynes/cm. Similar to other homologous series the surface tensions of the fat acid methyl esters decrease with increasing temperature, apparently in a linear manner. As the molecular weight of the methyl ester series increases, the surface tension also increases. Close correlation is shown for the methyl esters between the calculated parachors based upon Gibling’s system of values and the experimental parachors.
Article
Common edible oils and fats (refined peanut oil, seasame oil, safflower oil, and butter oil, ghee) were exposed to direct sunlight, fluorescent light and Schaal Test. Data collected on refractive indices (N D 25 ) show an increase of the order of 0.001±0.0003 at the stage of development of perceptible rancid odor. The pattern of changes in refractive indices and peroxide values of these edible oils, autoxidized at 100±5 C, show that refractive indices indicate more precisely the termination of the induction periods than peroxide values.
Article
Fat extracted from kernels of Shorea spp. (Dipterocarpaceae) in the tropical rainforests of Borneo and Sumatra are traded under the name Borneo Illipe. The fat is used in chocolate formulations. The majority of kernels collected are fromShorea species in the sectionPachycarpae. Fat characteristics ofShorea species in this section show differences in fat quality in relation to its use as exotic sources in Cocoa Butter Equivalent (CBE) formulations. In order to comment on the future potential of the naturally occurring tree populations distribution maps of fiveShorea spp. involved in Borneo Illipe utilization are presented.
Article
The lipase (triacylglycerol acylhydrolase, E.C. 3.1.1.3) catalyzed synthesis of wax esters has been investigated via two different approaches. All studies were performed using an immobilized 1,3-specific lipase [Lipozyme from Novo Industries (Montréal, Québec, Canada)]. The first approach involves reacting stoichiometric amounts of a fatty acid and stearyl alcohol in the presence of lipase. The medium is solvent-free, which allows for high substrate concentrations (1.55 M) and use of 5% (w/w) Lipozyme. In this reaction, maximum wax ester synthesis was found to be dependent upon the efficient removal of the water produced by the reaction. Under optimal conditions, yields of 100% were routinely reached after only 2 hr. The medium was then exclusively composed of the wax and the enzyme, no purification was required. The second method involves alcoholysis of a triglyceride, in this case triolein, with stearyl alcohol to produce 1,2-diolein, 2-monoolein and the wax ester of oleic acid. Again, no organic solvent was used. The wax ester yield was found to be directly dependent upon the alcohol concentration that was used to modulate the outcome of the reaction towards either the wax or the partial glycerides. The process was applied to the synthesis of waxes from high erucic acid rapeseed oil.
Article
This review discusses the myriad of reaction systems employed in ester production catalyzed by lipases. Enzyme behavior in reaction systems is a consequence of certain structural patterns typical of lipases. Water has a profound effect on the lipase behavior either directly by affecting the hydration of the enzyme or indirectly by changing the nature of the reaction media and/or enzyme support materials. The significance of water is further emphasized with the understanding of its role in various reaction media and support materials. In addition to water, the media and support material are seldom inert and often interact with other factors affecting the reaction. Several methods of water removal and their effectiveness in lipase-catalyzed reactions are discussed. There is a recent surge of interest in modifying lipase systems with surfactants as studies demonstrate the potential of the enhanced performance of surfactant-modified lipases.
Article
The enthalpy and melting characteristics (onset melting temperature, endset melting temperature, peak melting temperature and enthalpy of melting) of 12 vegetable oils were experimentally determined within a temperature range of −60 and 25 °C by means of a differential scanning calorimeter. Data obtained showed that vegetable oils melt over a wide temperature range (19–44 °C). The enthalpy required to increase the temperature of the vegetable oil samples from −60 to 25 °C was between 241.1 and 325.7 kJ/kg. Results from fatty acid composition indicate that the amount of the monounsaturated or polyunsaturated is highly correlated (R2>0.91) with the onset melting temperature, peak melting temperature and enthalpy of melting for the 12 vegetable oil samples. Poor correlation (R2<0.27) was obtained between the melting characteristics and the amount of saturated or unsaturated fatty acid. A linear equation was therefore used to relate each of the melting characteristics of a vegetable oil sample to the amount of monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acid. The models developed are valuable for predicting material behavior and for modeling processing operations for vegetable oils.
Article
Palm esters were synthesized through enzymatic transesterification of various palm oil fractions with oleyl alcohol using Lipozyme RM IM as the catalyst. At the optimized alcoholysis reaction condition, after 5 h reaction time all palm oil fractions exhibited a high percentage yields of esters (>80%). Simultaneous differential scanning calorimeter-thermal gravity analysis showed a high thermal stability profile of palm esters. Other physicochemical properties of palm esters such as refractive index, density, surface tension, slip melting point, saponification value, iodine value and acid value were analyzed following standard test methods modified from the American Oil Chemists’ Society standards. The dermal irritation assay of palm oil esters shows the non-irritancy of the esters with a Human Irritancy Equivalent (HIE) score below 0.9. Furthermore, an increase in skin hydration of 40.7% after 90 min after application in an acute moisturizing test, has proven the suitably of palm oil esters to be used in the cosmetics formulation.
Article
Chemical processes of biodiesel production are energy-consuming and generate undesirable by-products such as soaps and polymeric pigments that retard separation of pure methyl or ethyl esters of fatty acids from glycerol and di- and monoacylglycerols. Enzymatic, lipase-catalyzed biodiesel synthesis has no such drawbacks. Comprehension of the latter process and an appreciable progress in production of robust preparations of lipases may soon result in the replacement of chemical catalysts with enzymes in biodiesel synthesis. Engineering of enzymatic biodiesel synthesis processes requires optimization of such factors as: molar ratio of substrates (triacylglycerols: alcohol), temperature, type of organic solvent (if any) and water activity. All of them are correlated with properties of lipase preparation. This paper reports on the interplay between the crucial parameters of the lipase-catalyzed reactions carried out in non-aqueous systems and the yield of biodiesel synthesis.
Article
The chemical composition of jojoba oil is unique in that it contains little or no glycerin and that most of its components fall in the chain-length range of C40C42. Linearity and close-range composition are probably the two outstanding properties that give jojoba oil its unique characteristics. Jojoba oil molecules contain two double bonds separated by an ester bond. These three active centers have been proven to be the source of a very large number of intermediates or final products. This paper describes the applications of natural jojoba oil and reviews in particular the reactions that lead to derivatives with potential industrial application: (1) production of semisoft waxes by geometrical isomerization; (2) production of hard waxes by hydrogenation; (3) additives for high-pressure high-temperature applications; (4) extractants for mercury cations; and (5) selective extractants for the nuclear industry. In addition, a general view of the potential uses of jojoba meal as animal feed is presented.
Article
Lipozyme (Rhizomucor miehei lipase) was used to catalyze the acylation of the amino acid l-lysine (L) with the free fatty acids, palmitic (PA) and oleic (OA) acids, to synthesize N-ε-palmitoyllysine and N-ε-oleoyllysine, respectively. Response surface methodology (RSM) based on a five-level, five-variable design was employed, firstly, for studying the interactive effects of various parameters on the reactions, and secondly, for their optimization. Simultaneously increasing temperature and solvent hydrophobicity, fatty substrate concentration or enzyme amount improved yields in both reactions, as did increasing solvent hydrophobicity and substrate concentration or enzyme amount, and substrate concentration and enzyme amount together. Increasing desiccant amount in very non-polar solvents, at very high levels of enzyme, and in very concentrated substrate solutions led to higher yields in the PA reaction but compromised the OA reaction. The optimum conditions predicted for the two reactions were: temperature, 69.3 °C (PA) and 56.6 °C (OA); solvent log P=3.46 (PA) and log P=3.50 (OA); fatty substrate concentration, 98.0 mM (PA) and 99.9 mM (OA); enzyme amount, 186 mg (PA and OA); molecular sieves, 160 mg (PA) and 80 mg (OA). Reactions under optimized conditions yielded 16.1% of N-ε-palmitoyllysine and 33.1% of N-ε-oleoyllysine.
Article
The chain length selectivity of three immobilized lipases, namely, Lipozyme TL IM from Thermomyces lanoginosus, Lipozyme RM IM from Rhizomucor miehei, and Novozym 435 from Candida antarctica, was determined in acidolysis performed in hexane using the homologous series of even carbon number, saturated fatty acids (SFAs) of 6-22 carbons. Triolein with individual SFAs or a mixture of equimolar quantities of SFAs was used as the substrate. The effects of operating variables including the mole ratio of fatty acid to triolein, temperature, enzyme dosage, and time on incorporation were also investigated. Incorporation abilities of the enzymes tested were found to be significantly different for most of FAs at the experimental conditions evaluated. Lipases acted weakly on SFAs of which the carbon chain length was shorter than eight carbon atoms and higher than 18 carbon atoms. Lipases showed a bell-shaped distribution in incorporation vs chain length plot with a maximum around C12-C16. Among the experimental parameters tested, the effect of the substrate mole ratio was greater than those of the others, and the highest incorporation was observed for C12 (36.98%), C14 (37.63%), and C16 (38.66%) at a 4:1 substrate mole ratio with Lipozyme TL IM. Lipases caused significantly different levels of acyl migration from sn-1,3 to sn-2 positions.
Article
Much of the data which have been generated on in vitro alternatives to the Draize eye irritation test have dealt with compounds within a specific chemical class or product category. However, in the pharmaceutical industry, it is often necessary to evaluate materials which are not related in structure or properties. It was thus decided to evaluate a diverse series of chemicals in seven in vitro methods for estimating ocular irritation. Thirty-seven test materials were chosen to represent a broad range of pH, solubility, and in vivo irritation potential. Assays were chosen to include as many different types of end points as practical. The group of assays was composed of TOPKAT (assessing structure-activity relationships), bovine corneal opacity-permeability (BCO-P; corneal opacity/toxicity), Eytex (protein coagulation), neutral red uptake (cytotoxicity), MTT in living dermal equivalent (cytotoxicity), Microtox (cytotoxicity in bacteria), and CAMVA (inflammation/toxicity). The results of the study indicated that, in general, the cytotoxicity end points did not correlate well with the in vivo data. The BCO-P, CAMVA, and Eytex assays had the best overall concordance (88.9, 75.8, and 75.0%, respectively) with this set of compounds. Estimation of irritation potential based on structure-activity (TOPKAT) was possible for only approximately 50% of the compounds; however, the assay showed 100% sensitivity (i.e., no false negatives), but low specificity (i.e., negatives correctly identified only 54.5% of the time). These data suggest that for screening of chemicals of diverse structure and properties, the more mechanism-based assays, as opposed to general cytotoxicity assays, hold more promise and should be further evaluated.
Article
Fatty acids obtained from seed oils of crambe (Crambe abyssinica) and camelina (Camelina sativa) via alkaline saponification or steam splitting were esterified using lipases as biocatalysts with oleyl alcohol and the alcohols derived from crambe and camelina oils via hydrogenolysis of their methyl esters. Long-chain wax esters were thus obtained in high yields when Novozym 435 (immobilized lipase B from Candida antarctica) and papaya (Carica papaya) latex lipase were used as biocatalysts and vacuum was applied to remove the water formed. The highest conversions to wax esters were obtained with Novozym 435 (> or =95%) after 4-6 h of reaction, whereas with papaya latex lipase such a high degree of conversion was attained after 24 h. Products obtained from stoichiometric amounts of substrates were almost exclusively (>95%) composed of wax esters having compositions approaching that of jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) oil, especially when crambe fatty acids in combination with camelina alcohols or camelina fatty acids in combination with crambe alcohols were used as substrates.
Commercial waxes, their composition and application in waxes
  • R J Hamilton
Hamilton, R.J., 1995. Commercial waxes, their composition and application in waxes. In: Hamilton, R.J. (Ed.), Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Functions. The Oily Press Ltd., pp. 257-310.
Research review paper: Production, purification, characterization, and applications of lipases
  • R Sharmaa
  • Y Chistib
  • U C Banerjeea
Sharmaa, R., Chistib, Y., Banerjeea, U.C., 2001. Research review paper: Production, purification, characterization, and applications of lipases. J. Biotech. Adv. 19, 627-662.
Official methods and recommended practices of the AOCS
  • D Firestone
Firestone, D., 1998. Official methods and recommended practices of the AOCS, fifth ed. American Oil Chemists' Society, United States.