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Sustainability of composting as an alternative waste management option for developing countries: A case study of the City of Tshwane
Abstract
Excessive MSW production is a growing management problem for cities in developing countries, such as South Africa. This study addresses these challenges with particular focus on the City of Tshwane. A major problem in Tshwane is that all the MSW generated in the city, including garden waste, is currently being landfilled. A waste stream analysis of Tshwane reveals the largest fraction of MSW is organic and biodegradable, and therefore suitable for compost production. The study proposes that Tshwane will have to address composting the biodegradable fraction of the MSW stream. This study attempts to understand the economics of composting practices in Tshwane, whether composting in Tshwane is financially viable. A comparative study, applying the dome aeration technology on a conventional static windrow, was conducted with the objective of investigating and proposing alternative improved composting technologies for green waste. Although the study focused on Tshwane, it can be argued that the findings could be implemented in any other South African municipality, and even implemented in other emerging countries.
... Statistically, this is likely to increase by 1.42 kg per person and 2.2 billion tons in 2025. Several studies have been conducted by scholars such as Mokebe (2018); Nkosi (2014); Snyman and Vorster (2011) and Worku (2014), focusing on waste management within the City of Tshwane, and have all indicated that over the years, there has been an increase in waste generation, which is associated with the rapid population growth and urbanisation. Waste generation is the subsequent product of manufacturing; any manufacturing process that involves input for product creation generates an output and the by-product (Waste). ...
... Waste management is not a simple task involving many stages from generation to separation, collection and transportation, recovery and disposal. Thus, an integrated approach should optimise a waste management system that minimises generated waste, collection, transfer, and treatment to prevent landfill disposal of untreated municipal solid waste (Snyman and Vorster, 2011). To achieve effective execution of these stages of waste management, one needs to understand the waste management hierarchy that serves as a guideline in waste management. ...
... This is due to the impression that there is capacity in the availability of unused space within existing landfills. They believe that they can satisfy the city's needs for at least the next ten years (Snyman and Vorster 2011). ...
... The study was conducted against the background of a host of factors that are well known to undermine overall efficiency in the management of solid waste in almost all metropolitan cities of the developing world. These background factors are lack of infrastructural capacity required for the efficient management and processing of solid waste [2, 3, 17, 18], poor awareness about the benefits of proper waste management [19], lack of socioeconomic incentives to stakeholders relevant to the waste management chain [20], failure to adequately utilize modern waste management and processing technology [21, 22], failure to vigorously enforce municipal bylaws [2, 3], and the absence of an integrated waste management system in Tshwane [23, 24]. The study aims to identify and quantify the key predictors of inefficiency in the management of solid waste in the city of Tshwane. ...
... Municipal bylaws that are relevant to waste management are not enforced with full vigour. Although more than 25% of small and medium-sized businesses as well as informal traders operating in the city of Tshwane generate waste in the course of conducting routine business [2, 3, 17], the pace at which such waste is properly collected and disposed of by municipal workers employed by the city of Tshwane is significantly lower than the pace at which waste is generated. This situation is exacerbated at times of civil action carried out by municipal workers responsible for routine waste collection and disposal. ...
... There is room for improvement of the current level of efficiency in the management of waste produced by the various sources of solid and liquid waste and pollution. In terms of the strategic plan adopted by the South African Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) to improve efficiency in the management of waste, the various sources of solid and liquid waste and pollution are a major stakeholder, and no progress can be made unless otherwise the various sources of solid and liquid waste and pollution are involved in the implementation of the plan drawn up by the DEAT [4, 17]. There is a significant accumulation of solid waste especially in townships such as Mamelodi and Marabastad, and at the various taxi ranks in and around the city of Pretoria. ...
Objective:
The objective was to investigate factors that affect the efficient management of solid waste produced by commercial businesses operating in the city of Pretoria, South Africa.
Methods:
Data was gathered from 1,034 businesses. Efficiency in solid waste management was assessed by using a structural time-based model designed for evaluating efficiency as a function of the length of time required to manage waste. Data analysis was performed using statistical procedures such as frequency tables, Pearson's chi-square tests of association, and binary logistic regression analysis. Odds ratios estimated from logistic regression analysis were used for identifying key factors that affect efficiency in the proper disposal of waste.
Results:
The study showed that 857 of the 1,034 businesses selected for the study (83%) were found to be efficient enough with regards to the proper collection and disposal of solid waste. Based on odds ratios estimated from binary logistic regression analysis, efficiency in the proper management of solid waste was significantly influenced by 4 predictor variables. These 4 influential predictor variables are lack of adherence to waste management regulations, wrong perception, failure to provide customers with enough trash cans, and operation of businesses by employed managers, in a decreasing order of importance.
... However, some words which had a high incidence around the year 2015 included "MSW" and "developing country" ( Figure 10). The studies on those keywords included: co-operatives as a development mechanism to support job creation and sustainable waste management in South Africa [76], sustainable solid waste management in developing countries, and studies of the institutional factors involved in the management of solid wastes in Johannesburg [17], status of MSWM policy implementation in developing countries [77], sustainability of composting as an alternative waste management option for developing countries [78], and the characterization, recovery, and recycling potential of solid waste amongst some of the local universities [79]. The results showed that co-operatives may play an important role in the formalization of the informal waste sector in the developing countries. ...
... Similarly, other researchers such as Mmereki et al. [77] have reported inadequacies in the implementation of policy related to MSWM and weak institutional support in Botswana. The study by Snyman and Vorster [78] indicated that most of the MSW generated in Pretoria is being landfilled, thus identifying the application of unsustainable waste management methods. By contrast, composting the organic fraction of MSW would save airspace and reduce the MSW by nearly 43%, thereby increasing the lifespan of existing landfills. ...
Municipal solid waste management has become one of the most important environmental management issues around the world. In this study, a bibliometric analysis of the literature related to municipal solid waste management from a global and South African perspective was performed using the software, VOSviewer. Relevant scientific literature was sourced from the Scopus database. Results showed that, globally, articles based on this topic started during the 1968–1969 period, whereas in South Africa such articles only appeared in 1996. The keyword analysis showed that most studies were related to waste-to-energy technologies, waste treatment, and other management aspects. Globally, emerging keywords representing new research areas were COVID 19-related waste streams, life-cycle assessments, and the role of municipal solid waste management in the circular economy. In contrast, South Africa’s prominent keywords were municipal solid waste, developing country, landfills, waste treatment, waste-to-energy technologies, pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and others. Based on these results, and possible solutions to reduce the amounts of MSW generation rates, recommendations are made to bring South African research on par with international trends.
... According to the South African National Department of Environmental Affairs (2017), the disposal and combustion of municipal solid waste is conducted by the use of landfills, the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into useable heat, electricity, or fuel, combustion, and transfer stations. Although the use of such mechanisms is consistent with the municipal bylaw in the City of Tshwane, the mechanisms have been poorly utilized mostly due to lack of infrastructural development and technical skills(Snyman & Vorster, 2011). Adelapo, Haris, Alo, Huddersman and Jenkins (2017) have reported that the failure of local municipalities to enforce municipal bylaws on waste collection and disposal is a key obstacle to cleanliness and environmental sanitation in almost all developing nations. ...
... Such products pollute water reservoirs in the city. The study bySnyman and Vorster (2011) has found that composting and the pre-treatment of municipal waste before landfilling are viable options for the City of Tshwane. A report published by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (2017) shows that composting and pre-treatment of municipal waste before landfilling significantly reduces the volume of solid waste and contributes for overall environmental sanitation. ...
... To assure a favorable financial perspective, it is essential to understand the demand for recoverable resources. Demand is affected by (1) population developments (BPS, 2013), (2) availability of resources , (3) quality of produced products (Snyman and Vorster, 2011), (4) efficiencies of systems (Gerbens-Leenes et al., 2010), (5) recovery costs compared to prices of competitive resources (Saveyn and Eder, 2014), and (6) existing or planned policies and frameworks (WHO, 2006a;Cordell et al., 2011). Kerstens et al. (2015) demonstrated the impact of varying selling price of recovered resources on the financial attractiveness of resource recovery from wastewater and solid waste. ...
... Hence, policy makers should consider (1) the origin of recovered resources (e.g. identify the need for source separation), (2) level of hygienization of sanitation by-products, and (3) the perception of envisaged users (Koné et al., 2007;Snyman and Vorster, 2011;Raschid-Sally, 2013). ...
... Many developing countries already use the mature digestate to improve soil fertility. Thus, Pakistan agriculture has the potential market for digestate application [64,65]. So far, there is no mechanism for digestate removal, but only if overflows out of the system. ...
Countries with a large agricultural sector have enormous potential for energy production using biogas technology. This paper analyses the situation in Pakistan as a representative example. Although many biogas plants were installed, only very slow growth in the biogas sector can be observed. Since the last three decades the country is facing a severe energy shortfall. To overcome this challenge, energy from organic waste is one of the best possible solution. This study reviews the key technical challenges associated with the operation and sustainability of biogas plants. The problems in basic infrastructure such as leakages due to gas pressure, inadequate removal of digestate, no mechanism for scum avoidance, and steel corrosion were identified, and solutions were proposed. Moreover, organizational structures for renewable energy, critical flaws in plant design, operational challenges, and updated technology aspects to attain maximum and sustainable growth in biogas sector are discussed, which could help the countries in the region to enhance their biogas production.
... Many developing countries already use the mature digestate to improve soil fertility. Thus, Pakistan agriculture has the potential market for digestate application [64,65]. So far, there is no mechanism for digestate removal, but only if overflows out of the system. ...
Countries with a large agricultural sector have enormous potential for energy production using biogas technology. This paper analyses the situation in Pakistan as a representative example. Although many biogas plants were installed, only very slow growth in the biogas sector can be observed. Since the last three decades the country is facing a severe energy shortfall. To overcome this challenge, energy from organic waste is one of the best possible solution. This study reviews the key technical challenges associated with the operation and sustainability of biogas plants. The problems in basic infrastructure
such as leakages due to gas pressure, inadequate removal of digestate, no mechanism for scum avoidance, and steel corrosion were identified, and solutions were proposed. Moreover, organizational structures for renewable energy, critical flaws in plant design, operational challenges, and updated technology aspects to attain maximum and sustainable growth in biogas sector are discussed, which could help the countries in the region to enhance their biogas production.
... Wastes with high pollution potential, which should have special disposal treatment, are erroneously sent to domestic waste landfills. According to studies by Snyman and Vorster (2011), in South Africa, for example, 50% of domestic waste, 28% of green waste, 14% of civil construction waste, and 8% of industrial waste are deposited in the Tshwane landfill. ...
Urban Solid Waste Management (USWM) is a worldwide challenge. The problems faced are even greater due to the disproportional increase of Urban Solid Waste (USW) generation in volume, especially in a context of increased urbanization, population growth and economic globalization in the BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa). In this context, the objective of this work is to analyze the status of MSW management in the BRICS countries, as well as to promote an exchange of experience and management strategies, pointing out possible ways to improve USWM systems that have to be adapted to each local reality. Focusing on this, a systematic literature revision was carried out through a bibliometric analysis. Results showed that the management system of these BRICS countries does not possess well-developed structures. The collection stage is quite often inefficient, the solid waste being stored in inappropriate ways and also disposed of in irregular locations. The participation of the informal sector is a trademark characteristic in USWM for BRICS countries, highlighting the need to integrate and formalize these activities for USW collection. Due to the high organic fraction, it is known that composting offers advantages as a way to promote a better use of organic waste and also as a means of reducing the amount of waste sent to sanitary landfills. Finally, with a better knowledge about solid waste generation and decentralization of the offered services, the decision makers will be able to successfully provide this essential public service.
... Segregating household biowaste from solid waste and utilizing biowaste (food waste, green waste, and other organic materials) will greatly help in reducing the amount of waste dumped in landfills or dump sites. According to Snyman and Vorster (2011), the disposal of biowaste is a major issue for landfills. When buried in a landfill, biowaste decomposes anaerobically, producing methane-an extremely potent and highly polluting greenhouse gas. ...
This book provides a unique contribution to the science of sustainable societies by challenging the traditional concept of rural-urban dichotomy. It combines environmental engineering and landscape sciences perspectives on urban region issues, making the book a unique work in urban study literatures. Today’s extended urban regions often maintain rural features within their boundaries and also have strong social, economic, and environmental linkages with the surrounding rural areas. These intra- and inter- linkages between urban and rural systems produce complex interdependences with global and local sustainability issues, including those of climate change, resource exploitation, ecosystem degradation and human wellbeing. Planning and other prospective actions for the sustainability of urban regions, therefore, cannot solely depend on “urban” approaches; rather, they need to integrate broader landscape perspectives that take extended social and ecological systems into consideration.
This volume shows how to untangle, diagnose, and transform urban regions through distinctive thematic contributions across a variety of academic disciplines ranging from environmental engineering and geography to landscape ecology and urban planning. Case studies, selected from across the world and investigating urban regions in East Asia, Europe, North America and South-East Asia, collectively illustrate shared and differentiated drivers of sustainability challenges and provide informative inputs to global and local sustainability initiatives.
... In this regard, the White Paper produced by the South African Department of Environmental Affairs (2015) encourages the general public to invest in local technologies that could be used for the efficient management of solid waste by local governments and municipalities. Some of the methods proposed by South African researchers include the commercialization of solid waste (Worku, 2013), forging strategic partnerships between the public and private sector (Seeletse, 2012), the effective implementation of municipal bylaws and legislative codes (Snyman & Vorster, 2011), the use of appropriate local technology (LEAP (PTY) Ltd, 2011), and techniques that are based on decomposition of waste accumulated in landfills used by municipalities (Worku, Snyman & Muchie, 2014). Public awareness campaigns and the provision of health education on personal hygiene and environmental sanitation have been used in developing cities such as Nigeria in accordance with guidelines set out by the United Nations Environmental Protection Agency (2015). ...
A survey was conducted in local municipalities in the Tshwane region of Gauteng Province in South Africa in order to assess and evaluate the efficiency with which municipal waste is collected, disposed of, processed and recycled by local municipalities in Tshwane based on data gathered from 1,035 businesses. Efficiency in waste management was assessed by using a structural time-based model designed for evaluating efficiency as a function of the length of time required to manage and process municipal waste. Adherence to municipal bylaws and procedures recommended for solid waste management by businesses by the City of Tshwane was graded based on ISO 14000 and ISO 14031 standards and guidelines. The study found that efficiency in waste management was adversely influenced by lack of adherence to municipal bylaws and regulations, wrong perception on the benefits of proper waste management, and failure to provide customers with waste disposal bins, in a decreasing order of importance. Keywords: Tshwane municipalities, waste management, efficiency, logit analysis. JEL Classification: Q53, C25
... So far the primary materials used for composts have been municipal and agricultural wastes. This practice is attributed to the environmental benefits associated with the use of such materials contributing to pollution reduction and nutrient recycling, besides maintaining soil fertility (Hargreaves et al., 2008;Snyman and Vorster, 2011;Tella et al., 2013). Consequently, the use of alternative sources for compost, such as naturally occurring or cultivated aromatic plants, has received relatively limited attention thus far (Chalkos et al., 2010;Dhima et al., 2009). ...
Improvement of soil characteristics through the use of renewable inputs is fundamental to environmentally friendly farming systems. In the present study, the potential of improving soil properties and, consequently, growth of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) seedlings through a direct incorporation of aromatic plant tissues into seedbeds is assessed. Dried spearmint (Mentha spicata L.) and sage (Salvia fruticosa Mill.) tissues are incorporated at different rates into the soil of experimental field plots. At 0, 20, 40, 60, and 90 days following incorporation, soil samples are removed from the plots and used as substrates in tomato seedbeds. Growth and physiological parameters of tomato seedlings (emergence, size of the most robust leaf, shoot length, dry weight, net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, photosynthetic yield) as well as soil attributes (pH, nitrogen and organic carbon content, organic matter decomposition rate, microbial populations, changes in essential oil content) are monitored. Spearmint incorporation into the soil improved emergence, physiology and growth of tomato seedlings. This was not the case with sage. Soil microbial populations and organic matter decomposition increased with increasing rate of incorporated aromatic plant tissues, especially in the case of spearmint which exhibited a more prominent increasing trend. Soil pH was not affected, remaining within the range for optimum tomato growth. Further, C:N ratio increased, yet it did not inhibit tomato growth. Lastly, the observed decrease with time of the essential oil content in soil was dependent on the aromatic plant incorporated, and is discussed in relation to the beneficial effects of spearmint on tomato growth. The herein undertaken study demonstrates that incorporating intact spearmint tissues into the soil is a promising tool for improving tomato seedling production. This practice circumvents the arduous composting process and, therefore, it can be more cost-and-time-effective compared to the currently applied techniques.
... We also have those who specifically dealt with recycling of waste. Such works are accredited to [1] [2] [6] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61]. These are mainly concerned with the recycling potential, sustainability of the recycling and public awareness and participation. ...
Recycling and reuse of solid waste has a number of benefits in the overall process of solid waste management. First, it reduces the amount of waste that has to be disposed off; be it in landfills or otherwise. In this way, it reduces constraints on other resources needed in the management of solid waste. Secondly, it is an economic activity through which new enterprises can be created and thus creating employment through collection and reselling recyclable materials, or working directly in the enterprises. In a solid waste characterisation study carried out in Dar es Salaam, it was found that despite the fact that 98% of solid waste generated per day can be recycled or composted, only 10% is recycled leaving 90% to be disposed in dumpsites. This paper we present the results and recommend formalisation of recycling activities in order to reduce solid waste management load to the authorities.
... Coffey [22] and Bleck [23] also elaborate on intermediate storage containers. Other authors focus on specific treatment options, for municipal solid waste recycling technologies [24], organic waste treatment technologies [25][26][27][28][29], hospital waste treatment [30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37], e-waste treatment [38,39], or landfill disposal [40][41][42]. Only a few publications, however, systematically check how the suggested technology improvements would conform to the criteria established for appropriate technologies. ...
Selecting actions for improvement of solid waste management in low and middle income countries and understanding how a specific decision choice will fit and impact on a local context is key to identifying sustainable solutions. Assessment of the choice (be it technical or managerial) and assessment of the local enabling or disabling conditions are both important steps in the decision making process. Various assessment tools and methods are currently available to support decision-making in solid waste management. Assessment can be used to identify weaknesses or strengths of existing systems in a structured way and hereby highlight factors of success and failure. Assessment methods can also evaluate and compare different possible choices as in project scenarios. This overview describes established and innovative assessment methods serving both these purposes. A range of assessment tools are often designed to assess a specific sustainability domain (technical, environmental and health, economic and financial, social and institutional, organizational aspects), others attempt to provide a more holistic picture by integrating different sustainability domains into the same tool. This paper reviews a number of methods describing and discussing each of them, and referring to their use in low and middle-income countries if published in scientific literature. The overview concludes that in low- and middle-income countries the use of comprehensive assessment methods is yet very limited. We hypothesize that most formal methods of assessment are still too complex and generally overburden the weak local capacities intended for their usage. The few applications identified, were conducted by academia for scientific purposes. Lack of resources to collect the vast data required for some assessment methods is a further restriction to their practical application. Future development is suggested to improve user friendliness of existing tools or to simplify certain approaches and develop more appropriate methods. A user-oriented focus in the development of assessment tools would enhance their application, provide sound data for informed decision making and foster a dialogue between technicians and policy makers in low- and middle-income countries.
Biowaste is the large volume of solid waste generated daily by households, and it presents environmental and health hazards if not reused. Composting is one of the best options for such reuse. This study documents biowaste generation and collection from households and reuse through composting in Barangay Holy Spirit, Quezon City, Philippines. This barangay (the smallest administrative unit) has made pioneering efforts in composting, having developed it from a simple process to a mechanized process. The barangay’s composting has been integrated with its vegetable and flower urban garden, which serves as a demonstration and training center on how to provide livelihood opportunities and environmental benefits. However, to enhance the compost’s marketability, issues relating to quality, such as the high organic carbon, high carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, and low levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, need to be addressed. The barangay intends to boost compost production and sales, thereby increasing income, which can further improve the solid-waste management and increase staff salaries. Barangay Holy Spirit is one of the most developed barangays in terms of solid-waste management, and it can serve as a model for other barangays.
The objective was to investigate factors that affect the efficient management of solid waste produced by commercial businesses operating in the City of Pretoria, South Africa. Data were gathered from 1,034 businesses. Efficiency in solid waste management was assessed using a structural time-based model designed for evaluating efficiency as a function of the length of time required to manage waste. Data analysis was performed using statistical procedures such as frequency tables, Pearson's chi-squared tests of association and binary logistic regression analysis. Odds ratios estimated from logistic regression analysis were used to identify key factors that affect efficiency in the proper disposal of waste. The study showed that 857 of the 1,034 businesses selected for the study (83%) were found to be efficient enough with regards to the proper collection and disposal of solid waste. Based on odds ratios estimated from binary logistic regression analysis, efficiency in the proper management of solid waste was significantly influenced by 4 predictor variables. These 4 influential predictor variables are: lack of adherence to waste management regulations, wrong perception, failure to provide customers with enough trash cans, and operation of businesses by employed managers, in decreasing order of importance.
Composting municipal solid waste (MSW) is becoming increasingly recognized as a viable and economical method for waste management in both Europe and the USA. Composting has advantages over landfilling and incineration because of lower operational costs, less environmental pollution, and beneficial use of the end product. There are, however, some uncertainties about potential health hazards resulting from excessive MSW compost application to agricultural lands. This article reviews currently available literature on chemical properties of MSW compost and the effects of compost application on soils. It is concluded that the positive effects resulting from compost application far outweigh the negative effects, but more research is needed on a wide range of MSW composts with more precise determination of the fate of MSW compost-applied trace elements in the environment.
The increasing awareness of the environment has contributed to concerns regarding our life styles and our indiscriminate disposal of wastes. During the last decade, we have been trying to address this complex problem, more aggressively. Discussed here briefly, are our efforts in the United States in addressing the issue of solid wastes and in particular, plastic wastes. These efforts have begun to show promising results. The municipal solid waste (MSW) produced annually, has begun to decrease, e.g. from 211.5 million tons in 1995 to 209.7 million tons in 1996. Recycling rates and composting rates are increasing. Disposal in landfills is decreasing (from 60.9 to 55.5% in 1996). Waste disposal by combustion is also increasing. This is primarily due to the increased efficiencies of the new incinerators and their ability for the removal of particulates and harmful gases. Plastics are a small but a significant component of the waste stream. It is encouraging to note that the amount of plastics being recycled has grown significantly. In 1997, about 317 million kg of high density polyethylene (HDPE) bottles and 294 million kg of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles were recycled. Recycling of durable goods, such as automotive parts, carpets, electronic and appliance housings and parts are being explored. Environmental compatibility and recyclability are being considered during the designing of new parts. Life cycle analyses and management are also being studied as tools for decision making.
In South Africa garden refuse is primarily disposed of in domestic landfills. Due to the large quantities generated, any form of treatment would be beneficial for volume reduction, waste stabilization and resource recovery. Dome Aeration Technology (DAT) is an advanced process for aerobic biological degradation of garden refuse and general waste [Paar, S., Brummack, J., Gemende, B., 1999a. Advantages of dome aeration in mechanical-biological waste treatment. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, Cagliari, 4-8 October 1999; Paar, S., Brummack, J., Gemende, B., 1999b. Mechanical-biological waste stabilization by the dome aeration method. Environment Protection Engineering 25 (3/99). Mollekopf, N., Brummack, J., Paar, S., Vorster, K., 2002. Use of the Dome Aeration Technology for biochemical stabilization of waste prior to landfilling. In: Proceedings of the Wastecon 2002, Waste Congress and Exhibition, Durban, South Africa.]. It is a non-reactor open windrow composting process, with the main advantage being that the input material needs no periodic turning. A rotting time of only 3-4 months indicates the high efficiency. Additionally, the low capital/operational costs, low energy inputs and limited plant requirements provide potential for use in aerobic refuse stabilization. The innovation in the DAT process is the passive aeration achieved by thermally driven advection through open windrows caused by temperature differences between the degrading material and the outside environment. This paper investigates the application of Dome Aeration Technology to pine bark composting as part of an integrated waste management strategy. A full-scale field experiment was performed at the Bisasar Road Landfill Site in Durban to assess the influence of climate, waste composition and operational conditions on the process. A test windrow was constructed and measurements of temperature and airflow through the material were taken. The process monitoring revealed that prevailing climatic conditions in a subtropical location do not affect the high efficiency of this technology. However, the composition of the input material can be detrimental for production of high quality compost because of a lack of nitrate.
A Zero Waste Model for the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality
- J Snyman
Volume reduction and composting: processes and equipment
- E Barnard