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Review article
METHODS OF FIELD STUDIES IN BOTANY
Gordana TOMOVIĆ, Verica MITROVIĆ, and Branka STEVANOVIĆ
Institute of Botany and Botanical Garden "Jevremovac", Faculty of Biology, 11000
Belgrade, Yugoslavia
Tomović G., V. Mitrović, and B. Stevanović (2001): Methods of
field studies in botany. – Genetika, Vol. 34 No. 2-3, 85-95.
Different methods of collecting, preparation and preservation of
plant collections are very important for botanical field studies. Processed
and labeled plants are stored in herbaria in which they are conserved and
then used for taxonomic, floristic and phytogeographical studies, and then
as the evidence and display material. Besides, various analyses of plant
communities and their habitats are used in botanical studies of the flora of
our surroundings. Field and literature data, as well as, personal communi-
cations and oral presentations are very important sources of scientific in-
formation used in flora mapping of a certain region.
Key words: botany, field study
INTRODUCTION
Botanical studies of a local region not only are of a didactic value, but
they are also the source of information for pupils on diversity of nature and a ne-
cessity for protection of the region they live in. Going outdoors, visiting nearby
and farther surroundings (on their way from home to school, on playgrounds,
sightseeing sites, etc.), pupils, together with their teachers, can observe the princi-
pal properties, record and collect plants or analyze and describe plant communities
and vegetation of the given region.
_______________________________
Corresponding author: Gordana Tomović, Institute of Botany and Botanical Garden
"Jevremovac", Faculty of Biology, Takovska 43, 11000 Belgrade, Yugoslavia
86 GENETIKA, Vol. 34, No. 2-3, 85-95, 2002.
The collection of all plants of a particular region or a period comprises the
flora, while overall acquaintance with it is encompassed by various floristic stud-
ies. On the other hand, the vegetation is the collective plant cover over of a certain
region. The studies on vegetation are very complicated and encompass investiga-
tions of interrelations of numerous plant species that make one plant community or
phytocoenosis (phytocenolic studies), as well as, analyses of relations, arrange-
ments and properties of all plant communities related to the given region (vegeta-
tional studies).
In order to gain proper knowledge on the flora and the vegetation of a
certain region it is necessary to carry different both, field and laboratory, studies.
Field studies encompass, first of all, listing/registering and collecting of the plant
material, as well as, identification and description of plant communities that are
made of that plant material. The collected material is prepared in laboratories for
preservation and a further utilization for stereoscopic and microscopic analyses.
The field investigations can also include different microclimatic meas-
urements (solar radiation, solar light, air and soil temperatures, air humidity,
evaporation, etc.) that provide data on a habitat conditions under which living
creatures live.
I. COLLECTION, PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION OF FLORISTIC
COLLECTIONS
The following parameters are determined when floristic studies on a cer-
tain region are carried out: 1. a presence of particular plant species; 2. an affiliation
with certain taxonomic categories; 3. a distribution over a given region; 4. a role
and a place of individual plant species within a certain plant community; 5. mor-
pho-anatomical plant traits; 6. economical significance; 7. endangerment and z
necessity for protection of both, plant species and their habitat.
I.1. Basic principles of working on collecting, preparing and preserving of
collections
1. collecting is done in several different habitats; 2. a sufficient number of
plant species that are observe should be collected (except in a case when a species
is scarce or endangered in its habitat); 3. representative, mature, intact and unda-
maged specimens are collected; 4. the specimens are determined (if possible) on
the spot (of collecting); 5. collected specimens are fixed (for a wet collection) or
their preservation starts with drying (for a herbarium collection); 6. basic data on
the collection spot (habitat) are recorded in the filed labels attached to the collected
material.
I.2. Field and laboratory tools and material for collecting, preparing and preserving
of herbarial plants
Field tools and material: - 1. paper for drying and mounting of plants; 2.
cardboard pieces; 3. herbarium covers; 4. herbarium plant press-net; 5. a wooden
G.TOMOVIĆ et al.: METHODS OF FIELD STUDIES IN BOTANY 87
handle iron spade; 6. a spatula, a large and strong knife; 7. a chisel and a hammer
(with one sharp side); 8. an iron hook or an iron anchor to pull out water plants; 9.
a garden pocket knife; 10. a garden saw; 11. garden clippers; 12. a pocket magni-
fier; 13. tweezers; 14. topographic maps (sections); 15. a compass and an altimeter;
16. a notebook - a field log; 17. labels; 18. PVC bags; 19. gallipots and large-di-
ameter test-tubes with plugs.
Laboratory tools and material: - 1. herbarium paper for storing plants in
the herbarium; 2. herbarium labels; 3. herbarium (specimen storage) boxes; 4. en-
velopes; 5. glass or PVC tinning jars for a wet collection; 6. flasks for chemicals
use for disinfection and desinsection of the herbarium; 7. magnifier (hand and a
table one); 8. a stereoscopic microscope; 9. tools for plant dissection and prepara-
tion; 10. herbarium cabinets (compactor units) and shelves; 11. literature for the
plant identification.
I.3. Planning of expeditions and itineraries
The following should be foreseen by the expedition plan: 1. the aim and
tasks to be implemented; 2. the duration of the expedition, i.e. the departure and
return dates; 3. the direction of trekking, with places of rest; 4. the number of par-
ticipants (per groups); 5. necessary field equipment; 6. personal equipment of ex-
cursion participants.
Prior to the beginning of detailed studies on the flora, habitats and com-
munities of a particular region it is necessary to gain information of general char-
acteristics of the region - relief, geological substratum, soil, vegetation conditions,
adjacency of population settlements and diverse anthropological effects, etc. Fur-
thermore, it is necessary to check available literature data, as well as, geographical
maps related to the given region. All stated data, as well as, all field observances
are registered into the field log.
I.4. Collection of terrestrial, marsh and water plants
The collection of terrestrial plants. Herbaceous plants are collected as the
entire individuals whereby they must not be torn (pulled into pieces), but have to
be carefully dug up, if possible with intact underground parts. Branches with
leaves, flowers and fruits are cut in trees and shrubs. In order to perform a precise
identification it is important to collect several specimens of plants in all develop-
mental stages (prior and during flowering, as well as, during fructifying).
The collection of marsh and water plants. The large water plants with well
developed underwater parts, such as water lily is, are collected with 1-2 leaves,
flowers, fruits and a portion of rhizome with roots. Smaller and more delicate
plants with thin leaves are pulled out of water in a way that plasticized paper (or
foil) is placed under the plant and all its parts are arranged on the paper in their
natural position. Then, the plant together with the paper is pulled out of water and
placed between the herbarium cover or on the plant press-net.
88 GENETIKA, Vol. 34, No. 2-3, 85-95, 2002.
A field label with all necessary data on the habitat has to be attached to
each collected plant, because the plant with no label has no scientific value.
I.5. Procedure of plant drying
The following rules are the principle ones in the process of plant drying:
1. plants have to be dried fast in order to be preserved from deterioration; 2. it is
necessary to use herbarium paper as mach as possible and to replace it with dry
paper as often as possible; 3. dry plants should be kept away from wet ones; 4.
plants on the plant press-net should be often surveyed so that their drying is pro-
perly controlled; 5. labels should not be mixed up when paper sheets are replaced;
6. plants that have been collected during conditions of dew or rain, should previ-
ously be dried by cotton balls or a piece of blotting paper and then placed on the
plant press-net.
I.6. Processing, storage and preservation
A herbarium is a collection of selected, documented and dried plants.
The herbarium sheet is a paper sheet of a pale color, 63 x 47 cm in size, folded by
the width; hence the envelope of 47 x 31.5 cm is formed presenting a herbarium
half-sheet. There is a firmer paper sheet within the herbarium half-sheet to which a
plant is mounted. A herbarium specimen (exemplar) comprises several
individual plants, collected in a certain location well presenting a given plant spe-
cies. The herbarium specimen encompasses at least one herbarium sheet; if a plant
is of a larger size, the specimen can include several sheets that will encompass
certain plant parts (above ground and under ground parts). Herbarium specimens
are placed into envelopes and then in the herbarium (specimen storage) boxes and
cabinets.
Labeling. The dried and processed herbarium specimen is always ac-
companied by a herbarium label that differs from a field one by a greater number
of pieces of information related to a given plant. The size of a typical herbarium
label (usually of a white photocopier paper) approximately amounts to 15 x 10 cm.
The definite herbarium label contains the following: 1. Herbarium - the
official name, abbreviation or herbarium designation; 2. Scientific plant name
(Latin name and the name given by the author); 3. Location (broader and narrower
determination); 4. Habitat, i.e. plant community (oak forest, rocks, flooded
meadow, etc.); 5. Altitude; 6. Medium; 7. The date of collecting; 8. The name of
the collector (labeled with Leg. - to collect in Latin); 9. The name of the person
who identified the plant (labeled with Det. - to determine in Latin); 10. Number
under which the plant is registered a) collection number - by a collector b) inven-
tory number - under which is registered in the herbarium catalogue.
The herbarium collection is arranged by either the phylogenetic system
(by classifying specimens into taxonomic categories from the evolutionary elder
towards younger groups) or by the alphabetic order. The herbarium can be ar-
ranged according to its specific purposes: herbaria of medicinal, toxic, industrial,
G.TOMOVIĆ et al.: METHODS OF FIELD STUDIES IN BOTANY 89
horticultural, indoor, spice plants, etc. At the same time, it is necessary to record all
data presented in the herbarium sheet in herbarium catalogues (card index) which
always accompany such collections. Data can be transferred from the catalogues to
the electronic data bases to provide fast and easy finding, searching and sorting of
all data relevant for plant species that are stored in a certain herbarium.
Storage and preservation of herbaria. Herbaria are stored in specimen
storage boxes on shelves or in cabinets/compactor units. A common label is stuck
on each box with classified material. The ambient conditions in the storage rooms -
air temperature of almost always 18oC and relatively low air humidity - should
prevent deterioration of the plant material. Preservation of the herbarium means
also protection against parasites, first of all, insects that inhabit herbaria and fed on
dry plants. Airtight cabinets, isolated premises, as well as, periodical treatments
with certain chemical means (TUS bands or naphthalene) are the best and the least
damaging ways of protection against pests.
II BASIC PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF PLANT IDENTIFICATION
The plant identification means recognition of a systematic group to which
collected individuals belong based on their traits that are compared with defined
diagnoses in "keys" for the plant identification.
The fundamental principle for the plant identification is good knowledge
on morphological traits of certain plant organs. The entire plant or its certain or-
gans (especially leaves) can be observed by a magnifier or a stereoscopic micro-
scope in order to make a more adequate identification. Besides, knowledge on
anatomical plant traits that can be observed only on microscopic preparations or
mucilaginous (macerated) plant tissue is sometimes necessary for the detailed
identification of the systematic or ecological affiliation of plants.
II.1. The application of keys and iconography
"Keys" are the books/manuals with introductions for the systematic
identifications of plant species. Working by keys is based on the principle that one
of two offered properties (a principle of dichotomy) is chosen and opts for and then
forwarded to a subsequent level of a dichotomy optioning. The principle of dichot-
omy is applied until the final goal is achieved, i.e. until the correct Latin name of
the plant is determined. Higher plants in Serbia are mostly identified by the Flora
of SR Serbia edited by the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Art.
Moreover, iconographies, books with drawings (black and white or
color) of plants of the certain region, arranged according to their systematic affilia-
tion, can also be used. Higher plants in Serbia are mostly identified by the Iconog-
raphy of Plants of Southern, Eastern and Central Regions of Europe by Javorka and
Csapody edited by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.
90 GENETIKA, Vol. 34, No. 2-3, 85-95, 2002.
II.2. Making plant microscopic preparations
Preparations of certain plant organs can be temporary or permanent. The
preparations of cross-sections of roots, stems/trunks, leaves, fruits or seeds are used
for plant identification.
The temporary preparations made by a razor blade are the simplest way
to obtain prompt, general information on the anatomical properties of certain plant
organs. For each new section it is necessary to have a sharp razor blade and addi-
tional tools consisting of surgical needle, tweezers, watch glass and dyes - flasks
with fluoroglycine, muriatic acid or a reagent after Tucakov (BLAŽENČIĆ, 1979).
Manually cut out preparations (if it is dealt with a leaf it is placed in the incised
part of elder parenchyma) are shortly immersed into dyes and then transferred to a
mount in a drop of glycerin, and then they are protected with a covering hull and
observed by the microscope. In such a way, soft, cellulose cells remaining
uncolored are easily distinguished from woody, lignified and red colored cell
elements (e.g. mechanical and conductive elements). Chloroplasts, i.e. tissues that
contain chloroplast, are easily observed on temporary preparations because they
are of an intensive green color.
Permanent preparations are made by conventional methods for light
microscopy including: 1. fixing of the material in the field (in 50% ethanol solution
with the addition of several drops of formalin); 2. transferring into adequate fixa-
tives (according to the age of the plant material and the preparation purpose); 3.
preparation of the material for molding (in paraffin or bioplast); 4. cutting by a
hand microtome; 5. differential dying of the preparation; 6. observance of finished
preparations on microtomes by a video camera with a computer data processor.
III. METHODS OF STUDIES ON PLANT COMMUNITIES
III.1. Methods of test areas (minimum range of distribution)
The identification of a plant community type is achieved by the applica-
tion of the method of phytocenolic screening on so-called "test" areas. The choice
of these areas is done on the basis of the total survey of vegetation of a broader
region and selection of the areas in which the observed vegetation is the most ex-
cellently and the most typically developed. It means that this area is characterized
by relatively consistent ecological conditions; hence the association of plant spe-
cies characteristic for that vegetation is present there. Simply said, test areas are
usually a central part of a certain plant community.
The selected test areas have to be sufficiently large to encompass as a
greater number of plants species of the analyzed community as possible. The initial
test area of only 0.25m2 is used to register all present plant species. Then the area
is increased to 0.50 m2, 1 m2, 2 m2, 4 m2, 8 m2, 16 m2, 32 m2, 64 m2 etc., as long as
new plant species occur. In such a way, experience on selection a proper test area
for observance of a certain plant community is gradually gained. The test areas in
forest communities amount to several hundreds m2, while they are always less than
G.TOMOVIĆ et al.: METHODS OF FIELD STUDIES IN BOTANY 91
100 m2 in meadow communities, as forests are of a relatively uniform plant com-
position on great areas, while the plant content in meadow communities is modi-
fied with even minimum variations of climatic, geomorphological or pedological
conditions.
Plant communities are characterized by a diverse spatial distribution.
When recording (in test areas), plants are grouped according to their affiliation to a
certain stratum (large trees stratum, small trees stratum, large shrubs stratum, small
shrubs stratum, large herbaceous plants stratum, small herbaceous plants stratum).
Phytocenolic screenings, containing the following elements, are made on
the basis of data on plants and their habitats: 1. the number of phytocenolic
screenings; 2. location (narrower and broader surroundings); 3. very general com-
munity properties; 4. date of screening; 5. size of screened area (in m2); 6. first and
family name of a researcher who performed screening.
III.2. Data on habitat
1. Altitude (is measured by the altimeter); 2. Exposition (determined by a
compass); 3. Slope (expressed in degrees and determined by an inclinometer); 4.
General geomorphological conditions (characteristics of relief); 5. Geological base
(beside rough field estimation, a detailed laboratory analysis of samples is also
performed); 6. Soil (general data on the type, bed depth, hue and texture, etc.); 7.
General conditions of water relationship (presence or absence of water areas, under
ground waters, springs, etc.); 8. Type and traits of adjacent plant communities (that
can affect the habitat and the studied plant community in it); 9. Presence and influ-
ences of animals; 10. Anthropological effects (settlements, different anthropologi-
cal activities).
III.3. Analytical processing of plant communities - phytocenolic screening
A floristic composition and spatial structure (set of successive strata) of
the plant community, as well as, ecological conditions under which the community
is developed are determined by the analytical processing. The distribution and im-
portance of each plant species in the formation of a plant community is evaluated
on the basis of their abundance, coverage and sociability after the method of
Braun-Blanquet. The following parameters are used in such an analysis:
The combined evaluation of abundance and coverage by the 1-6 scale
where 5 - the species covers 75-100% of the test area; 4 - the species covers 50-
75% of the test area; 3 - the species covers 25-50% of the test area; 2 - the species
covers 10-25% of the test area; 1 - the species covers 1-10% of the test area; + - the
species is scarce with an insignificant coverage.
The evaluation of sociability by the 1-5 scale, where 1 - a plant grows
separately, while the estimates 2 to 5 indicate individual plant species that form
ever greater associations within a plant community.
92 GENETIKA, Vol. 34, No. 2-3, 85-95, 2002.
III.4. Synthetic processing of plant communities - phytocenolic table
Phytocenolic tables are formed on the basis of several phytocenolic
screenings (not less than 10). These tables represent a complex survey of the plant
community based on data of all phytocenolic screenings made in different loca-
tions of the studied region. The definite status of certain plant species in the for-
mation of the plant community is obtained by the comparison of the presence (the
degree of participation) of certain plant species over all phytocenolic screenings.
The degree of presence (participation) is determined by the following estimates: V
- the species can be found in 80-100% of screenings; IV - the species can be found
in 60-80% of screenings; III - the species can be found in 40-60% of screenings; II
- the species can be found in 20-40% of screenings; I - the species can be found in
1-20% of screenings.
In such a way the following can be set aside: 1. reference species; 2. dif-
ferential species and 3. accompanying species.
Reference species are always related to a certain community is scientifi-
cally named after them. These species best reflect ecological conditions of the
studied habitat.
Differential species occur in the observed plant community, but only in
certain locations and indicate to ecological and floristic specificities of such habi-
tats. Accompanying species are scarcely or randomly found species in the
studied plant communities.
IV ECOLOGICAL MAPPING OF THE FLORA
Ecological mapping of the flora represents recording data on the distribu-
tion of plant species of a certain region in the geographical map if possible in the
scale of 1:25,000; 1:50,000 or 1:100,000 as they provide the most precise determi-
nation of their locations. The sources of data on the plant distribution do not de-
termined the given species only geographically, but also provide information on
ecological properties of its habitat.
The following data are sources for the determination of the certain plant
species distribution and making maps of ranges of their distributions:
1) Field investigations that encompass systematic visits to the studied re-
gion in the precisely determined periods (monthly or more often) during the entire
growing season including collection, preparation, identification and labeling of
the plant material.
2) Herbarium collections that can be private ones or can belong to a
certain institutions, arranged according to a phylogenetic system or alphabetical
order. The herbarium specimens are obvious evidence of the existence of certain
plant species in a particular region.
3) Literature data published in Floras of certain regions, floristic and
phytocenolic scientific papers, field logs, etc. In some cases, (taxonomically com-
G.TOMOVIĆ et al.: METHODS OF FIELD STUDIES IN BOTANY 93
plex genera and species, extinct plants, data of amateur botanists, etc.), these data
require a field audit.
4) Personal communications have to include the following information:
1. Name of plant (scientific/Latin name and the name given by the author); 2. Lo-
cations (broader and narrower determination); 3. Habitat; 4. Altitude; 5. Geological
base; 6. Date of determination; 7. Person who determined and identified the plant.
The personal communications on plant distribution are not always reliable since
there is no herbarium material for them.
All data used for mapping (from herbarium labels, published papers or
oral presentations and personal communications) are cited in a form of a written
comment bellow a map of a range of distribution. For instance:
Example of a herbarium / field label:
Cachrys aplina Bieb. Tara, Orno-Ostryetum pinetosum nigrae, 850 m,
limestone, (Tomić, Z. June 25, 1968, Herb. No. 2564, BEO!)
Citation of a published paper:
Ranunculus acer L., Suva Planina, bottom, Quercetum frainetto-cerris,
400 m, limestone, (Diklić, N. 1970: 294)
Citation of a personal communication:
Anemone nemorosa L., Fruška gora, Čerević, Fagetum montanum, 800
m, silicate, June 14, 1997, Stojšić, V., U.S.!
The following methods can be used to record data in the map of distribu-
tion: 1) The dot method where each established findings or locations of the
given species is marked by a dot (or any other symbol) in an appropriate geo-
graphical map. Hence, a system of dots of different densities will appear on the
map in dependence on the map scaling and the number of known locations. The
preciseness of data recording is obtained by the use of the geographical maps with
a universal transverse mercator grid (UTM MAPS) or by the satellite locating of
the finding by the GPS instrument that records longitudes and latitudes of certain
locations expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds.
2) The contour method by which all limits of distributions are linked by
one line (all adjacent locations) hence an image of the shape, ranges and size of
distributions of the given species are obtained.
3) The combined method by which the line and dots are used simultane-
ously to mark locations and to express the shape and size of distribution.
94 GENETIKA, Vol. 34, No. 2-3, 85-95, 2002.
CONCLUSION
All stated methods of field investigations are the basis for obtaining in-
formation on the flora of the local environment. If they are used for frequent and
permanent monitoring, the obtained data on the status and modifications of the
vegetation of the given region will be ever more precise.
These methods are especially important when they are applied in investi-
gations of endangered plant species, because they provide the evaluation of the
level of endangerment, as well as, the employment of adequate measures of pro-
tection.
Received October 1st, 2002.
Accepted December 16th, 2002.
REFERENCES
BLAŽENČIĆ, J. (1979). Praktikum iz anatomije biljaka sa osnovama mikroskopske tehnike. Naučna
knjiga, Beograd.
JANKOVIĆ, M. (1971). Metodika nastave biologije I. Zavod za izdavanje udžbenika Socijalističke
Republike Srbije, Beograd.
JANKOVIĆ, M. i Đorđević, V. (1981). Primenjena ekologija za IV razred usmerenog obrazovanja
prirodno-tehničke struke, biotehničkog smera. Naučna knjiga,
G.TOMOVIĆ et al.: METHODS OF FIELD STUDIES IN BOTANY 95
METODE TERENSKIH ISTRAŽIVANJA U BOTANICI
Gordana TOMOVIĆ, Verica MITROVIĆ i Branka STEVANOVIĆ
Institut za botaniku i botanička bašta "Jevremovac", Biološki fakultet, Takovska
43, 11000 Beograd,. Jugoslavija
Izvod
Za terenska istraživanja u botanici, veoma su važne različite metode
sakupljanja, preparovanja i održavanja zbirki biljaka. Obrađene i obeležene biljke
deponuju se u herbarijume u kojima se konzerviraju i potom služe za taksonomska,
floristička i fitogeografska istraživanja, a zatim i kao dokazni ili izložbeni materi-
jal. Pored toga u proučavanju biljnog sveta u našoj okolini, u botanici se koriste i
raznovrsne analize biljnih zajednica i njihovih staništa. Terenski podaci, literatura
kao i usmena saopštenja su važni izvori naučnih informacija za kartiranje flore
nekog područja.
Primljeno 1 X 2002.
Odobreno 16. XII 2002.
