No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Ontwikkelingsmodellen en persoonlijkheidspathologie
Abstract
Ontwikkeling kan vanuit verschillende invalshoeken bestudeerd worden. Gergen (1977) onderscheidt in dit verband drie perspectieven:
een dat de nadruk legt op stabiliteit van bepaalde eigenschappen van een persoon (bijv. intelligentie), een tweede dat de
nadruk legt op de onvoorspelbaarheid van ontwikkelingsuitkomsten, en een derde dat het accent legt op het opsporen van geordende
verandering. In dit hoofdstuk wordt dit laatste perspectief gehanteerd om de ontwikkeling van persoonlijkheidspathologie te
benaderen. De afgelopen twee decennia is een macroparadigma naar voren gekomen waarmee een dergelijke invalshoek centraal
wordt gesteld en bovendien het verband tussen normale en verstoorde ontwikkeling steeds benadrukt wordt. Dit paradigma wordt
aangeduid met de term ontwikkelingspsychopathologie (‘developmental psychopathology’; zie bijvoorbeeld Sameroff, Lewis & Miller,
2000). Het is een interdisciplinaire invalshoek: ontwikkelingspsychologie, klinische (neuro)psychologie en psychiatrie werken
samen. In paragraaf 3.2 bepreken wij de basisprincipes van deze benadering en geven de implicaties aan voor de bestudering
van persoonlijkheidsstoornissen. In paragraaf 3.3 worden enkele algemene aspecten van persoonlijkheidsontwikkeling aan de
orde gesteld. In paragraaf 3.4 besteden wij aandacht aan de klinische, persoonsgerichte benadering van persoonlijkheidsstoornissen
en aan de variabele gerichte en dimensionale benadering (‘Big Five’). Longitudinaal empirisch onderzoek naar de ontwikkeling
van specifieke persoonlijkheidsstoornissen is zeer schaars. In paragraaf 3.5 bespreken wij een dergelijke studie. Ten slotte
komen wij in paragraaf 3.6 terug op de in paragraaf 3.2 besproken basisprincipes van de ontwikkelingspsychopathologie. In
deze laatste paragraaf maken wij de balans op.
Van Aken, M. A. G. (2006). Children’s personality. Development and consequences, Kind en Adolescent, 27 (4), 204-215.
The article focuses on individual differences between children, as indicated by the concepts of temperament and personality. It is discussed that the personality of children is clearly visible from an early age, and shows moderate stability. It is also shown how personality, together with environmental factors, determine the child’s functioning through person-environment correlations as well as person-environment interactions. Several possible connections between personality and psychopathology in children are illustrated. To conclude, the implications of all the above for interventions with children are discussed.
Dit artikel geeft een overzicht van de ontwikkelingen op het gebied van de diagnostiek van persoonlijkheidspathologie bij
adolescenten, waarbij gepoogd wordt een brug te slaan tussen recente wetenschappelijke inzichten in de ontwikkeling van persoonlijkheid
en van persoonlijkheidspathologie en de klinische praktijk. Persoonlijkheidspathologie wordt in een ontwikkelingspsychologisch
perspectief geplaatst en de auteurs beschouwen tevens een aantal belangrijke theoretische modellen voor de diagnostiek van
persoonlijkheidspathologie. Ten slotte worden er aanbevelingen gedaan voor verder onderzoek om de diagnostiek van persoonlijkheidspathologie
te verbeteren.
In a longitudinal study, Q-sort patterns of German preschool children were analyzed for personality prototypes and related to developmental outcomes up to age 12. Q-factor analyses confirmed 3 prototypic patterns that showed a high continuity and cross-judge consistency; were similar to those found for North American, Dutch, and Icelandic children; and can be interpreted as resilient, overcontrolled, and undercontrolled. Relations reported by R. W. Robins, O. P. John, A. Caspi, T. E. Moffitt, & M. Stouthamer-Loeber (1996) between these 3 patterns and the Big Five were fully replicated. Growth curve analyses showed that the 3 patterns predicted important developmental outcomes in both the social and the cognitive domains. Evidence was found for both traits and types: A continuous dimension of resiliency bifurcates in its lower part into two relatively discrete personality types, overcontrollers and undercontrollers.
The paper traces the relationship between attachment processes and the development of the capacity to envision mental states in self and others. We suggest that the ability to mentalize, to represent behavior in terms of mental states, or to have "a theory of mind" is a key determinant of self-organization which is acquired in the context of the child's early social relationships. Evidence for an association between the quality of attachment relationship and reflective function in the parent and the child is reviewed and interpreted in the context of current models of theory of mind development. A model of the development of self-organization is proposed which has at its core the caregiver's ability to communicate understanding of the child's intentional stance. The implications of the model for pathological self-development are explored, with specific reference to the consequences of maltreatment.
In a longitudinal study, Q-sort patterns of German preschool children were analyzed for personality prototypes and related to developmental outcomes up to age 12. Q-factor analyses confirmed 3 prototypic patterns that showed a high continuity and cross-judge consistency; were similar to those found for North American, Dutch, and Icelandic children; and can be interpreted as resilient, overcontrolled, and undercontrolled. Relations reported by R. W. Robins, O. P. John, A. Caspi, T. E. Moffitt, & M. Stouthamer-Loeber (1996) between these 3 patterns and the Big Five were fully replicated. Growth curve analyses showed that the 3 patterns predicted important developmental outcomes in both the social and the cognitive domains. Evidence was found for both traits and types: A continuous dimension of resiliency bifurcates in its lower part into two relatively discrete personality types, overcontrollers and undercontrollers.
The present study used meta-analytic techniques to test whether trait consistency maximizes and stabilizes at a specific period in the life course. From 152 longitudinal studies, 3,217 test-retest correlation coefficients were compiled. Meta-analytic estimates of mean population test-retest correlation coefficients showed that trait consistency increased from .31 in childhood to .54 during the college years, to .64 at age 30, and then reached a plateau around .74 between ages 50 and 70 when time interval was held constant at 6.7 years. Analysis of moderators of consistency showed that the longitudinal time interval had a negative relation to trait consistency and that temperament dimensions were less consistent than adult personality traits.
Child psychologists and psychiatrists are interested in assessing children's personalities. This interest is fueled by the practical desire to identify differences between children that have predictive utility, and by recognition that future advances in developmental theory, especially in relation to gene-environment interplay, can only be as good as the measures on which they rely. The aim of this article is to facilitate these practical and theoretical advances. First, we delineate a taxonomy of measurable individual differences in temperament and personality in childhood, and point the reader to proven and/or promising measuring instruments. Second, we describe the processes through which early temperament differences may become elaborated into adult personality structure and lifelong adaptation, and identify gaps in the empirical research that need to be filled. Third, we explore the various connections between temperament/ personality traits and psychopathology, and direct attention to promising questions and strategies.
The question of whether the person or the situation is largely responsible for behavior has plagued psychology intermittently for the last half century. Studies of the heritability, stability, and consensual validity of traits have clearly demonstrated the existence of traits. However, there is continuing controversy about the role of traits and situations in the enterprise of personality psychology. The goal of this article is to describe how insights yielded from adopting a developmental approach can foster the successful integration of the person and the situation across the life span. Five key lessons are described: (a) age matters--studying different age groups can lead to biases for and against traits and situations; (b), if age matters, time matters more--longitudinal and within-participant designs demonstrate that traits and situations are reciprocally related; (c) examine multiple types of change--focusing on one type, such as mean-level change, can lead to inappropriate conclusions about the merits of persons or situations; (d) be sensitive to levels of analysis--the relative breadth of persons and situations may determine the relative influence of the two; (e) pay attention to process--process models lead inextricably to transactional explanations.
In this review, we evaluate four topics in the study of personality development where discernible progress has been made since 1995 (the last time the area of personality development was reviewed in this series). We (a) evaluate research about the structure of personality in childhood and in adulthood, with special attention to possible developmental changes in the lower-order components of broad traits; (b) summarize new directions in behavioral genetic studies of personality; (c) synthesize evidence from longitudinal studies to pinpoint where and when in the life course personality change is most likely to occur; and (d) document which personality traits influence social relationships, status attainment, and health, and the mechanisms by which these personality effects come about. In each of these four areas, we note gaps and identify priorities for further research.
Recent work on normal personality development in children and adolescents points to several conclusions that are relevant for understanding personality pathology. First, child temperament and adult personality traits share many features in common. Second, youths' individual differences can be described in terms of the Big Five personality traits observed in adults; an integrative taxonomy of individual differences in childhood and adolescence is articulated in this article. Third, personality is already moderately stable by the preschool years, but considerable personality change occurs well into the adult years. Taken together, these findings suggest that childhood personality functioning can and should be integrated into developmental research and applied work on personality disorders.
To contribute to the case for a dimensional conceptualization of psychopathology in general and maladaptive personality or personality disorders in particular, the present paper reviews the evidence for a dimensional representation of childhood temperament and personality. The review of temperament and variable-centered as well as person-centered approaches to childhood personality leads us to propose five broadband dimensions that capture individual differences in children and adolescents: extraversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness/intellect. Our analysis of the CBCL (Achenbach, 1991) and the DIPSI (currently under development at Ghent University), two dimensional models for childhood psychopathology, suggests two common broadband factors, internalizing and externalizing. The relations between the dimensional representation of childhood temperament/personality and psychopathology are documented with data from general population and clinical samples of children and adolescents. The article concludes with a proposal on how the higher-order dimensions emerging from studies of adaptive and maladaptive individual differences in childhood could be integrated in a common dimensional model.
Maltreatment places children at risk for psychiatric morbidity, especially conduct problems. However, not all maltreated children develop conduct problems. We tested whether the effect of physical maltreatment on risk for conduct problems was strongest among those who were at high genetic risk for these problems using data from the E-risk Study, a representative cohort of 1,116 5-year-old British twin pairs and their families. Children's conduct problems were ascertained via parent and teacher interviews. Physical maltreatment was ascertained via parent report. Children's genetic risk for conduct problems was estimated as a function of their co-twin's conduct disorder status and the pair's zygosity. The effect of maltreatment on risk for conduct problems was strongest among those at high genetic risk. The experience of maltreatment was associated with an increase of 2% in the probability of a conduct disorder diagnosis among children at low genetic risk for conduct disorder but an increase of 24% among children at high genetic risk. Prediction of behavioral pathology can attain greater accuracy if both pathogenic environments and genetic risk are ascertained. Certain genotypes may promote resistance to trauma. Physically maltreated children whose first-degree relatives engage in antisocial behavior warrant priority for therapeutic intervention.
Personality and psychopathology long have been viewed as related domains, but the precise nature of their relations remains unclear. Through most of the 20th century, they were studied as separate fields; within psychopathology, clinical syndromes were separated from personality disorders in 1980. This division led to the revelation of substantial overlap among disorders both within and across axes and to the joint study of normal and abnormal personality. The author reviews these literatures and proposes an integrative framework to explain personality-psychopathology relations: Three broad, innate temperament dimensions—negative affectivity, positive affectivity, and disinhibition—differentiate through both biologically and environmentally based developmental processes into a hierarchical personality trait structure and, at their extremes, are risk factors (diatheses) for psychopathology, especially given adverse life experiences (stress).
The present study used meta-analytic techniques (number of samples = 92) to determine the patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course. Results showed that people increase in measures of social dominance (a facet of extraversion), conscientiousness, and emotional stability, especially in young adulthood (age 20 to 40). In contrast, people increase on measures of social vitality (a 2nd facet of extraversion) and openness in adolescence but then decrease in both of these domains in old age. Agreeableness changed only in old age. Of the 6 trait categories, 4 demonstrated significant change in middle and old age. Gender and attrition had minimal effects on change, whereas longer studies and studies based on younger cohorts showed greater change.
Developmental psychopathology involves the study and prediction of maladaptive behaviors and processes across time. This new edition of the Handbook furthers the goal of integrating developmental processes into the search for adequate categorical systems for understanding child mental health problems and the trajectories that lead to adult psychopathology. The editors respond to contemporary challenges to place individual behavior in a biological and social context. By including a range of approaches, this volume encompasses the complexity of the growing developmental literature. At the same time, it includes the most recent efforts to produce concise child diagnostic categories.
In a thoroughgoing revision of the first edition of this classic text and reference, published by Plenum in 1990, the editors have assembled a distinguished roster of contributors to address such topics as issues and theories; context and mental health; biology and mental illness; disorders of early childhood; disruptive behavior disorders; emotional disorders; control disorders; pervasive developmental disorders; and trauma disorders. Clinicians, researchers, and students in such diverse fields as developmental and clinical psychology, child and adolescent psychiatry, social work, and educational and counseling psychology will benefit from the concepts, investigations, and challenges presented in this state-of-the-art compendium.
The perceived relational support from four key providers (father, mother, special sibling, and best friend) on five provisions (quality of information, respect for autonomy, emotional support, convergence of goals, and acceptance) was examined for 2,262 adolescents (aged 12-18 years). In a variable-centered approach, factor analyses yielded five dimensions of support: three specific to providers (parent, friend, and sibling support) and two specific to provisions (convergence of goals and respect for autonomy). Only parental support was found to change (decrease) across age. In a person-centered approach, five types of adolescents with different configurations of perceived support were identified. The first three types differed in overall level of support (high, average, and low) for all of the five dimensions; the fourth type represented extremely low support from parents with above-average support from best friends; the fifth type consisted of adolescents with no best friend. These configurations were significantly related to different patterns of adolescent adjustment in various domains (psychological well-being, delinquency, substance use, and peer-group functioning).
Background:
This study provides, to our knowledge, the first empirical test of whether behavioral differences among children in the first 3 years of life are linked to specific adult psychiatric disorders: anxiety and mood disorders, antisocial personality disorder, recidivistic and violent crime, alcoholism, and suicidal behavior.Methods:
In a longitudinal-epidemiological study, 3-year-old children were classified into groups based on examiner observations of their behavior. At age 21 years, they were reassessed for psychopathologic functioning using standardized interviews based on DSM-ÏÏJ-R criteria.Results:
Although effect sizes were small, undercontrolled (includes children who are impulsive, restless, and distractible) and inhibited (includes children who are shy, fearful, and easily upset) children differed significantly from comparison children in young adulthood. Undercontrolled 3-year-olds were more likely at 21 years to meet diagnostic criteria for antisocial personality disorder and to be involved in crime. Inhibited 3-year-olds were more likely at 21 years to meet diagnostic criteria for depression. Both groups were more likely to attempt suicide, and boys in both groups had alcohol-related problems. Controls for family social class did not change the findings.Conclusions:
Some forms of adult psychopathologic abnormality are meaningfully linked, albeit weakly, to behavioral differences observed among children in the third year of life.
This article highlights the defining principles, progress and future directions in developmental psychopathology in relation to this special section. Six fundamental principles of developmental psychopathology are identified and the pervasive impact of this integrative framework on research, theory, and practice in behavioral health fields over the past three decades is described. This special section reflects the increasing influence of developmental systems theory, the growing focus on change, intensifying interest in translational research, and the increasingly complex and differentiated nature of research on pathways toward and away from psychopathology. A new era in developmental psychopathology is dawning, with exciting frontiers in brain development and plasticity, gene-environment interaction, resilience and recovery, multilevel dynamics, interdisciplinary research and training, and methodologies for assessing and analyzing change over time within and across individual systems and their contexts.
In this chapter, we provide a perspective on child maltreatment that is derived from a developmental psychopathology framework. After addressing epidemiological and definitional aspects of child maltreatment, we describe an organizational perspective on development and its application to conceptualizing the impact of maltreatment experiences on the developmental process. In so doing, we present an ecological-transactional model to guide our review of the maltreatment literature. Specifically, we discuss how forces from each level of the ecology (i.e., macrosystem, exosystem, and microsystem), as well as characteristics of the individual, influence the development of adaptive and maladaptive developmental outcomes in maltreated children. By highlighting the risk and protective factors associated with each level of an ecological-transactional model, multiple pathways toward diverse developmental outcomes among maltreated children begin to emerge. The ecological-transactional model of child maltreatment provides an integrative framework that will assist intervention and prevention efforts, as well as suggest necessary directions for social policies on behalf of children and families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The perceived relational support from four key providers (father, mother, special sibling, and best friend) on five provisions (quality of information, respect for autonomy, emotional support, convergence of goals, and acceptance) was examined for 2,262 adolescents (aged 12 – 18 years). In a variable-centered approach, factor analyses yielded five dimensions of support: three specific to providers (parent, friend, and sibling support) and two specific to provisions (convergence of goals and respect for autonomy). Only parental support was found to change (decrease) across age. In a person-centered approach, five types of adolescents with different configurations of perceived support were identified. The first three types differed in overall level of support (high, average, and low) for all of the five dimensions; the fourth type represented extremely low support from parents with above-average support from best friends; the fifth type consisted of adolescents with no best friend. These configurations were significantly related to different patterns of adolescent adjustment in various domains (psychological well-being, delinquency, substance use, and peer-group functioning).
Interest in the interface between normality and psychopathology was renewed with the publication of DSM-III more than 20 years ago. The use of a separate axis to classify disorders of personality brought increased attention to these conditions. At the same time, the definition of personality disorder as inflexible and maladaptive traits stimulated interest in the relationship between normal and disordered personality structure and functioning. The evidence suggests that the traits delineating personality disorder are continuous with normal variation and that the structural relationships among these traits resemble the structures described by normative trait theories. Recognition that personality disorder represents the extremes of trait dimensions emphasizes the importance of differentiating normal, abnormal, and disordered personality. It is argued that while abnormal personality may be considered extreme variation, personality disorder is more than statistical variation. A definition of personality disorder is suggested based on accounts of the adaptive functions of personality. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
In a 9 year longitudinal study over childhood, the Big Five personality traits were assessed at ages 4–6 by teacher Q-sorts, at age 10 by parental Q-sorts, and at age 12 by parental and friend ratings on bipolar adjective scales. The Big Five Q-sort indices were based on definitions proposed by John, Caspi, Robins, Moffitt, and Stouthamer-Loeber (1994) for adolescent boys. They were related to judgments and behavioural observations of inhibition and aggressiveness, and to antecedents and consequences of school achievement such as IQ and cognitive self-esteem. Neuroticism and low extraversion correlated with social inhibition, low agreeableness and low conscientiousness with aggressiveness, and conscientiousness and/or culture/intellect/openness with antecedents and outcomes of school achievement. These correlations were consistently found throughout childhood. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This study provides, to our knowledge, the first empirical test of whether behavioral differences among children in the first 3 years of life are linked to specific adult psychiatric disorders: anxiety and mood disorders, antisocial personality disorder, recidivistic and violent crime, alcoholism, and suicidal behavior.
In a longitudinal-epidemiological study, 3-year-old children were classified into groups based on examiner observations of their behavior. At age 21 years, they were reassessed for psychopathologic functioning using standardized interviews based on DSM-III-R criteria.
Although effect sizes were small, undercontrolled (includes children who are impulsive, restless and distractible) and inhibited (includes children who are shy, fearful, and easily upset) children differed significantly from comparison children in young adulthood. Under-controlled 3-year-olds were more likely at 21 years to meet diagnostic criteria for antisocial personality disorder and to be involved in crime. Inhibited 3-year-olds were more likely at 21 years to meet diagnostic criteria for depression. Both groups were more likely to attempt suicide, and boys in both groups had alcohol-related problems. Controls for family social class did not change the findings.
Some forms of adult psychopathologic abnormality are meaningfully linked, albeit weakly, to behavioral differences observed among children in the third year of life.
In Part I of this three-part article, consideration of the core features of BPD psychopathology, of comorbidity with Axis I disorders, and of underlying personality trait structure suggested that the borderline diagnosis might be productively studied from the perspective of dimensions of trait expression, in addition to that of the category itself. In Part II, we review the biology, genetics, and clinical course of borderline personality disorder (BPD), continuing to attend to the utility of a focus on fundamental dimensions of psychopathology. Biological approaches to the study of personality can identify individual differences with both genetic and environmental influences. The aspects of personality disorder that are likely to have biologic correlates are those involving regulation of affects, impulse/action patterns, cognitive organization and anxiety/inhibition. For BPD, key psychobiological domains include impulsive aggression, associated with reduced serotonergic activity in the brain, and affective instability, associated with increased responsivity of cholinergic systems. There may be a strong genetic component for the development of BPD, but it seems clear, at least, that there are strong genetic influences on traits that underlie it, such as neuroticism, impulsivity, anxiousness, affective lability, and insecure attachment. The course of BPD suggests a heterogeneous disorder. Predictors of poor prognosis include history of childhood sexual abuse, early age at first psychiatric contact, chronicity of symptoms, affective instability, aggression, substance abuse, and increased comorbidity. For research purposes, at least, biological, genetic, and prognostic studies all continue to suggest the need to supplement categorical diagnoses of BPD with assessments of key underlying personality trait dimensions and with historical and clinical observations apart from those needed to make the borderline diagnosis itself.
We observed 1,000 3-year-old children who exhibited five temperament types: Undercontrolled, Inhibited, Confident, Reserved, and Well-adjusted. Twenty-three years later, we reexamined 96% of the children as adults, using multiple methods of comprehensive personality assessment, including both self- and informant-reports. These longitudinal data provide the longest and strongest evidence to date that children's early-emerging behavioral styles can foretell their characteristic behaviors, thoughts, and feelings as adults, pointing to the foundations of the human personality in the early years of life.
The current meta-analysis reviews research examining the relationships between each of the five-factor model personality dimensions and each of the 10 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) personality disorder diagnostic categories. Effect sizes representing the relationships between these two constructs were compiled from 15 independent samples. Results were analyzed both within each individual personality disorder category and across personality disorders, indicating how personality disorders are different and similar, respectively, with regard to underlying personality traits. In terms of how personality disorders differ, the results showed that each disorder displays a five-factor model profile that is meaningful and predictable given its unique diagnostic criteria. With regard to their similarities, the findings revealed that the most prominent and consistent personality dimensions underlying a large number of the personality disorders are positive associations with Neuroticism and negative associations with Agreeableness. Extraversion appears to be a more discriminating dimension, as indicated by prominent but directionally variable associations with the personality disorders. The implications of these meta-analytic findings for clinical application and the advancement of future research are discussed.
The recognition of the many limitations of the categorical model of personality disorder classification has led to the development of quite a number of alternative proposals for a dimensional classification. The purpose of this article is to suggest that future research work toward the integration of these alternative proposals within a common hierarchical structure. An illustration of a potential integration is provided using the constructs assessed within existing dimensional models. Suggestions for future research that will help lead toward a common, integrative dimensional model of personality disorder are provided.
The Children in the Community (CIC) Study is an ongoing investigation of the course of psychiatric disorders including personality disorders (PDs) in an epidemiological sample of about 800 youths. In addition to tracking developmental trajectories over 20 years from adolescence into adulthood, the CIC Study has used prospective data to investigate early risks for Axis II disorders and symptoms (including both environmental factors and early characteristics), implications of comorbidity with Axis I disorders, and associated negative prognostic risk of adolescent PDs into adulthood. The substantial independent impact of PD on subsequent Axis I disorders, suicide attempts, violent and criminal behavior, interpersonal conflict, and other problematic adult outcomes confirms the importance of attention to these problems when they manifest in early adolescence. The implications of study findings for potential changes in the DSM are discussed.
This review discusses conceptual issues in relating temperament to psychopathology, including the disputed relation of temperament to personality in children. A potential integrative framework is discussed that links trait and biological markers of temperament (reactive, incentive-response tendencies) with regulatory processes. This framework is utilized to highlight potential temperamental pathways to specific forms of psychopathology, noting that in some instances their relations may reflect a spectrum model (with psychopathology closely related as an extreme of a temperament-based trait), but in many instances it likely reflects a vulnerability-transaction set of processes. Conduct disorder involves at least two temperamental paths, one emanating from low fear response and one from either high incentive approach or high anger reactivity. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder also involves at least two temperament pathways, one involving extremely low effortful control and the other likely involving strong approach. Anxiety disorders appear to result from the confluence of high negative emotionality and low effortful control. Hypotheses for future research are presented and limitations discussed.
In a 19-year longitudinal study, childhood personality characteristics (assessed by teachers at ages 4 to 6) were significantly related to both initial levels and changes in parental judgments of shyness and aggressiveness. Long-term stability was demonstrated by the fact that overcontrollers had consistently higher scores in shyness and undercontrollers in aggressiveness. However, undercontrollers' shyness and overcontrollers' aggressiveness changed over time from a low to a high level. Also, both types assumed adult social roles, such as leaving the parental home, establishing a first romantic relationship, and getting a part-time job, at a later time than the resilient participants. A mediation analysis indicated that under- and overcontrollers' increasing aggressiveness between age 17 and 23 was due to their longer latency of getting a part-time job. Together, results demonstrate the importance of considering person-environment transactions in explaining both change and stability in personality between childhood and adulthood.
Ontwikkelingsopgaven en opvoedingsopgaven Preventie van psychosociale problemen bij kinderen en jeugdigen
- P P Goudena
Stability, change and chance in understanding human development Life-span developmental psychology: Dialectical perspectives on experimental research
- K J Gergen
Handleiding voor de CBCL/4-18
- F C Verhulst
- J Van Der Ende
- H Koot
Preventie van psychosociale problemen bij kinderen en jeugdigen
- P P Goudena
Life-span developmental psychology: Dialectical perspectives on experimental research
- K J Gergen