Content uploaded by Ruth Rentschler
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Ruth Rentschler
Content may be subject to copyright.
THE ROLE OF CREATIVITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Dr Ian Fillis, University of Stirling, Scotland
Professor Ruth Rentschler, Deakin University, Australia
Contact author:
Dr Ian Fillis
Senior Lecturer
Department of Marketing
University of Stirling
Stirling FK9 4LA
Scotland, UK
Tel: 01786 467392
Fax: 01786 464745
e-mail: i.r.fillis@stir.ac.uk
1
THE ROLE OF CREATIVITY IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Abstract:
This paper evaluates the contribution of creativity to entrepreneurship theory and
practice in terms of building an holistic and transdisciplinary understanding of its
impact. Acknowledgement is made of the subjectivist theory of entrepreneurship
which embraces randomness, uncertainty and ambiguity but these factors should then
be embedded in wider business and social contexts. The analysis is synthesised into a
number of themes, from consideration of its definition, its link with personality and
cognitive style, creativity as a process and the use of biography in uncovering data on
creative entrepreneurial behaviour. Other relevant areas of discussion include
creativity’s link with motivation, actualisation and innovation, as well as the
interrogation of entrepreneurial artists as owner/managers. These factors are
embedded in a critical evaluation of how creativity contributes to successful
entrepreneurship practice. Modelling, measuring and testing entrepreneurial creativity
are also considered and the paper includes detailed consideration of several models of
creativity in entrepreneurship. Recommendations for future theory and practice are
also made.
Introduction:
A change in the economy has been identified recently, moving from knowledge based
activities to creativity, innovation, entrepreneurship and imagination (van den Broeck
et al. 2008; Oke et al. 2009). Increasing globalisation and technology effects have
resulted in more business opportunities but the marketplace has also become more
crowded and competition has increased (McMullan and Shepherd 2006). Creativity
enables the entrepreneur to act on these opportunities in ways which can result in
competitive advantage for the organisation. It can provide the basis for innovation and
business growth, as well as impacting positively on society generally (Bilton 2007).
Entrepreneurship occurs in all types and sizes of organisations, from the domestic
microenterprise to the global corporation. Entrepreneurship can be defined as the
process of creating value for business and social communities by bringing together
unique combinations of public and private resources to exploit economic, social or
2
cultural opportunities in an environment of change. Creativity has been viewed as the
construction of ideas or products which are new and potentially useful (Amabile
1988), although in an entrepreneurial sense there should also be a subsequent link to
innovation and profitability in monetary and social terms. These ideas can be
internally or externally located, although the entrepreneur will tend to search and
identify potential solutions shaped in part by internal competencies. Creativity allows
the organisation to take advantage of opportunities which develop as the result of
changing environmental conditions (Shalley et al. 2004).
Entrepreneurship has three central underlying dimensions: innovation, risk-taking and
proactiveness. Innovation is the manner in which the entrepreneur searches for new
opportunities, or the way in which ideas are brought to a profitable conclusion. The
test of innovation lies in its success in the marketplace of ideas, rather than in its
novelty alone. Risk-taking refers to the manner in which innovation is embedded in
the organisation, society or community. It also relates to the willingness of people to
commit significant resources to opportunities that are calculated to succeed. Pro-
activeness is concerned with making things happen by perseverance, adaptability and
by breaking with the established ways of doing things. Creativity involves a
perceptual response to the environment which may induce a high or low frequency of
creative endeavour. The term ‘creative intensity’ is used by Morris et al. (2003) to
illustrate the combined effects of the degree and frequency of creative behaviour at
the individual, organisational or societal levels. Individual creativity within an
organisation contributes to overall competitive advantage and organisational
innovation, while teams or groups of creative individuals increase this advantage
3
further (Hirst et al. 2009). The contribution of creativity to today’s changing
economies makes it central to business, scientific and social endeavour.
Blackburn and Kovalainen (2009) call for more critical perspectives in researching
small firms and entrepreneurship and this paper adopts such an approach when
considering how creativity impacts on entrepreneurship. They remark that research
should be embedded in core disciplines such as economics, psychology and sociology
and this paper will show that creativity research in entrepreneurship needs to be
influenced by these and other diverse disciplines. Blackburn and Kovalainen identify
a number of mature, enduring and novel research topics in entrepreneurship but there
is no specific mention of creativity or innovation. This suggests that, although
creativity does impact across a number of areas of entrepreneurship, there is still
much more potential to fulfil. There is no universally accepted definition of creativity,
although there are a number of overlaps in its interpretation. A preliminary analysis
identifies creativity as showing imagination and originality of thought in moving
beyond everyday thinking. It can be characterised by stretching or even breaking the
rules of convention, with even the smallest departure from the norm being deemed
creative. Young (1985) defines creativity as the actualising of our potential, involving
the integration of our logical side with our intuitive side. It can involve an advance in
thought but may also retain links with the past. Ford and Harris (1992) believe it to be
a modifiable and deliberate process which exists to some degree in everybody. Fillis
and Rentschler (2006) view creativity as being able to do imaginative and non-routine
things while also building on tradition to achieve profitable outcomes. Hunter et al
(2007) view creativity as emerging from an interaction between the individual and the
situation, facilitated by an appropriate environment or climate.
4
Creativity has a diverse research base which can be highly complex (Mumford and
Gustafson 1988). Creativity research has implications for teaching and learning, and
has been informed by disciplines such as psychometrics, cognitive psychology,
historiometrics, biology and contextual studies (Petrowski 2000). So important is the
impact of creativity on our lives, that a call has been made for the establishment of a
Creativity University, focusing on the teaching and nurturing of the art and skills of
creativity (Duderstadt 2000). However, despite its perceived importance to society, a
number of factors have contributed to the neglect of creativity as a research topic
including the notion that it is a mystical phenomenon involving a spiritual process
which does not sit comfortably with academic scrutiny. The early twentieth century
schools of psychology such as structuralism, functionalism and behaviourism chose to
ignore creativity (Blumenthal 1980), while popularist creativity ‘experts’ promoted
creative thinking without substantiation through testing the validity of their thoughts.
However, there are now publications devoted to creativity research such as the
Journal of Creative Behavior and the Creativity Research Journal which have helped
to introduce an air of respectability to its study.
Increasing importance is now placed on creativity by governments and their advisors
(Robinson 2001). One way of understanding creativity is to think of its particular
attributes within a process, product, place or person (Rhodes 1961), as a form of
expertise (Rich and Weisberg 2004) or as an ability (Vincent et al. 2002). Evidence
of creativity spans many centuries, if not millennia, and so it is important to also
identify any longitudinal historical factors which have shaped it. Creativity has been
linked to genius and in science, business and art, a number of individuals have
5
attained heroic status through their creative philosophies, discoveries, practices and
products (Puccio 1991; Eysenck 2008). In addition to being a personality
characteristic, creativity has been grounded sociologically, thereby acknowledging its
human rather than scientific input. A number of attempts have been made at
modelling, measuring and testing creativity, although it is recognised that no single
interpretation has been able to capture its essence. Creativity is also viewed as a
central element in problem solving and there are a number of ways in which creative
thinking can facilitate decision making. In an investigation of artist versus market
orientation, it has also been shown that creativity for creativity’s own sake can result
in profitable outcomes (Fillis 2006).
The year 1950 has been viewed as a landmark in creativity research, when J.P.
Guilford first presented his Creativity address to the American Psychological
Association. Until then, very few articles on creativity had been published, but after
the address output grew considerably. Since the 1960s research has focused on areas
such as creativity as an intellectual ability, the training of creativity thinking; the
creative individual, the relationship with intelligence, creative people as divergent
problem solvers and scientific understanding of creativity (Roweton 1989). Creativity
is influenced by thinking styles, motivation and culture (Sternberg and O’Hara 1999).
Each individual is born with domain specific abilities; for example, some people are
more talented in art or music than others. Some commentators believe that creativity
can be taught, while others feel that it can only be facilitated. In some Masters
programmes, students are exposed to relevant creativity theory but they are then
allowed to experiment in order to derive their own creative solutions to a particular
problem. Creativity is best achieved when flexible, exploratory, non-predetermined
paths of discovery are possible (Amabile 1983). Fillis and Rentschler (2006) show
6
that creative solutions need not be complex, especially in the business field where
relatively basic responses are capable of resulting in success for the organisation.
The Connection between Creativity and Entrepreneurship:
Links have been made between creativity and entrepreneurship for some time
(Whiting 1988; Lee et al. 2004). Stein (1974) claimed that creative ability and
entrepreneurial ability are separate constructs but this is now disputed (Gilad 1984).
Early creativity research concentrated on scientific interpretations, the impact of
technology and artistic creation and any connection with entrepreneurship was
confined to the application of the end product of a creative act. Whiting identified
independence, the drive to achieve, curiosity, self-confidence and deep immersion in a
task as the five main characteristics of the relatively more creative individual while
self-confidence, perseverance, high energy levels, calculated risk taking and the need
to achieve are seen as the top five characteristics of the relatively more
entrepreneurial individual. Other relevant factors include using one’s initiative and
being flexible. So, although there may be differences between the meanings of being
creative and being entrepreneurial, there are certainly a number of overlaps. These
characteristics also compare favourably with those identified by Fillis (2007a)
discussed later in the paper as he notes a stability in creative entrepreneurial factors
over time. Entrepreneurship is viewed as a major contributor to economic growth and
employment creation while understanding how creativity impacts on the process is
also crucial (Baumol 2002).
Much entrepreneurship research concentrates on new venture creation (McMullan and
Long 1990) but has tended to ignore the impact of the social environment. This
7
imbalance can be addressed by examining the contribution of creativity on
entrepreneurial growth, while also examining creativity throughout the lifetime of the
business. Lee et al. (2004) note that entrepreneurial activity not only requires both a
supportive and productive business climate but that it also needs an environment
where creativity and innovation can flourish. Having a strong and diverse knowledge
base, well developed business and social networks and an ability to identify
opportunities also contribute to successful entrepreneurial behaviour (Harryson 2008;
Ko and Butler 2007; Kijkuit and van den Ende 2007; Rosa et al. 2008); for example,
intermittent interactions within a social network involving individuals seeking
information outside a close social circle can result in new idea generation (Perry-
Smith 2006). A successful integration of creativity and technology can then lead to
commercialisation of the idea, product or service. The knowledge base can also be
utilised in contributing to useful juxtapositionings or bisociations between previously
unrelated ideas or domains (Sternberg 2004; Ko and Butler 2006).
Entrepreneurial creativity has been defined as the generation and implementation of
novel, appropriate ideas to establish a new venture (Amabile 1997). This definition
sits alongside much entrepreneurship literature on new venture formation (Hisrich
1992; Woo and Daellenbach 1994), but fails to follow the growth of the business over
time. Entrepreneurial creativity, however, exists before, during and after the lifetime
of a particular business since it is shaped in part by the social world and by the
individual decision maker (Fillis and Rentschler 2006). There are also a number of
other contributing internal and external impacting factors:
entrepreneurial creativity requires a combination of intrinsic motivation and
certain kinds of extrinsic motivation – a motivational synergy that results when
strong levels of personal interest and involvement are combined with the
8
promise of rewards that confirm competence, support skill development, and
enable future achievement (Amabile 1997:18)
One inconsistency with this stance is the belief that the successful implementation of
creative ideas requires the input of a range of individuals working in teams. However,
other research identifies how the entrepreneurial microenterprise, consisting of ten or
less people, with often only one main decision maker, can also utilise creativity in
order to create competitive advantage in the marketplace (Cook 1998; Fillis 2002).
Those organisations which are prepared to recognise creative achievement are
subsequently likely to exhibit further creative behaviour.
An entrepreneur often has to make decisions which are influenced by the
organisation’s resources, but decisions are also often made irrespective of the
resources available via the process of intuition. The entrepreneur must demonstrate
strong leadership by shaping business strategy and motivating employees via creative
thinking (Darling et al. 2007; de Jong and Den Hartog 2007). A leadership style
modelled on democracy and participation facilitates creativity (Nystrom 1979) and a
leader’s vision is an important factor in managing creative individuals (Locke and
Kirkpatrick 1995; Frisch 1998; Becherer et al. 2008). This vision must be
communicated through appropriate informal and formal channels and across all levels
of management. An organisational culture which facilitates risk taking is also capable
of enhancing creative achievement (Amabile 1988). By owning a problem through
self initiated activity, creativity can lead to enhancing intrinsic motivation (Robinson
and Stern 1997). Encouraging an element of entrepreneurial thinking in business
contributes to the enhancement of motivation. Continual faithfulness towards a single
favoured approach to problem solving should be discouraged and instead:
9
An organisational culture, which supports creativity, should nourish innovative
ways of representing problems and finding solutions and regard creativity as
both desirable and normal and consider innovators as role models to be
identified with (Locke and Kirkpatrick 1995).
Creativity, problem solving and intuition interact in order to produce an appropriate
strategic vision for the entrepreneurially led organisation (Markley 1988). Intuition
can be viewed as a core business competency which is influenced by the ability to be
creative. Creative organisations have been visualised as consisting of idea-rich people
with innovative leadership and open communication (Roweton 1989).
Kao (1989) sees creativity as a competitive strength while Carson et al. (1995) view it
as a key competency in small and medium sized enterprises and Bridge et al. (2003)
view it as an entrepreneurial attribute. Entrepreneurial management can influence
creativity by providing a work environment in which creative individuals and groups
function. Taggar (2002) includes the componential theory of individual creativity
(Amabile 1983; 1996) as a contributing component of his multilevel model of team
performance in utilising creativity. The dimensions of agreeableness, extraversion,
conscientiousness, general cognitive ability and openness to experience impact on
individual behaviours which then influence individual and group level creativity:
P1: It can be proposed that an entrepreneurial environment has a positive impact on
both individual and group creativity.
People in an organisation are believed to exhibit either an adaptive or innovative style
of creativity (Kirton 1976; Stacey 1996). With the former, the individual is content to
10
operate within an existing system or paradigm in order to improve upon it while, with
the latter, existing thinking is challenged in order to change the situation:
P2: It is proposed that in an entrepreneurial firm environment, higher levels of
challenging existing thinking will occur and that any boundaries will be stretched or
even broken.
Filipczak (1997) promotes the need to have both adaptive and innovative creative
individuals. Creative adaptation concerns the reworking of existing ideas and
concepts, while innovative creativity relates to the invention of new and different
ideas. Entrepreneurial characteristics such as flexibility, visualisation and imagination
all play a part in an individual’s ability to see new ways of applying past experiences
and constructing alternative strategic directions. The working conditions within the
enterprise need to be flexible enough to allow for individual and group creativity.
Creativity may be easier to achieve within the smaller firm environment where
flexibility is a key factor in being able to address business opportunities (Poon and
Jevins 1997). The entrepreneur is more prepared to challenge existing practices and
implement changes when needed, rather than maintain the status quo.
Researching Entrepreneurial Creativity:
Creativity can be used to deal with the ambiguity and uncertainty in decision making
by matching the nonlinear responses of the entrepreneur to that of the business world.
Uncertainty has not tended to be modelled in investigations of creativity and social
networks, although it is very much part of an entrepreneur’s environment (Perry-
Smith and Shalley 2003). However, within new product development processes, it
11
does receive attention in terms of moves to reduce it in order to secure the desired
commercial effects. Creativity can also contribute to dealing with ambiguity. While
uncertainty refers to a lack of information, ambiguity refers to the existence of
multiple and conflicting interpretations regarding an organisational situation (Kijkuit
and van den Ende 2007):
P3: It can be proposed that the entrepreneurial manager and entrepreneurial
organisation is much better placed to deal with these circumstances than their
conservative counterparts.
A variety of quantitative and qualitative methods have been adopted in order to
research creativity; for example, there are merits in the construction of multivariate
models of creativity in attempting to explain its impact but its often intuitive and
intangible nature also lends itself to qualitative enquiry. Much creativity research
focus on specific aspects such as the qualities of the creative person, the creative
product, the creative process and the creative environment, rather than investigating
creativity from an holistic perspective. There are, however, also particular
methodological benefits of this wider viewpoint in terms of identifying patterns of
similarity between creative people working in particular fields (Mace 1997). The
creative activities of visual artists have been investigated using a qualitative approach
in order to reach an understanding of the interactive and mutually dependent nature of
the influencing factors of creativity:
It was thought that a qualitative examination of the process of art making
through the verbal reports of creatively active people might yield new and
valuable information regarding creativity. [The benefits of adopting a
qualitative approach include the ability to] capture the nature and meaning of
creative experience from the perspective of the research participants themselves,
rather than a measurement of frequency of responses or events….such an
12
approach would provide theory that was driven by the research participants
themselves, thus providing additional, and possibly insightful, material about
the construct creativity (Mace 1997:266).
Evaluating the creativity of entrepreneurial artists can uncover data which is also of
use to entrepreneurship researchers in general. Visual artists, for example, tend to
spend long periods of time engaged in creative problem-solving strategies. Ecker
(1963) viewed the process of making art as a problem solution problem continuum
and Fillis and Rentschler (2006) have shown how this notion can be applied to the
field of entrepreneurial marketing through their biographical analysis of the
entrepreneurial artists Salvador Dali, Vincent Van Gogh, Pablo Picasso and Andy
Warhol. A work of art serves as a biography of an artist’s life, providing the viewer
with insight into their creative personality. In the same fashion that products are given
meaning by the way in which they are positioned in the marketplace, the artist gives
meaning to the artwork. In both cases, there are also social and economic forces
which impact. The main thrust of this examination is that the creative philosophy of
the artist can be compared similarly to that of the entrepreneur (Fillis 2004; Fillis and
Rentschler 2005). Even though the creative process is complex, decision making is
common to all types of creative performance (Cawelti et al. 1992):
P4: It is proposed that investigation of the artistic decision making process can
provide insight into creative decision making generally
Taking a psychological perspective, creativity can be examined from cognitive, social
and personality points of view (Woodman and Schoenfeldt 1990), thereby gaining
insight into entrepreneurial thought processes. Other important factors include
motivational, attitudinal, social and environmental aspects (Runco 1993). Magyari-
13
Beck (1990) believes that the 4Ps interpretation of creativity is limited since it focuses
on creativity solely from a psychological perspective. The link with innovation, and
hence entrepreneurship, must also be considered, alongside personal, historical,
cultural, organisation and group influences (Boden 1992; Nayak 2008):
P5: It is proposed that instead of focusing solely on the creative individual, it is better
to adopt an holistic approach to understanding creative entrepreneurship.
Nayak talks about the use of an operating logic or ‘feel for the game’ when searching
for creative solutions. This matches the intuitive abilities of the entrepreneur as part of
his or her wider competency spectrum. Nayak believes that the literature on creativity
can be divided into the levels of the individual and the organisation but this
perspective omits the wider environmental and social factors which also influence
creativity. He also dismisses the value in researching poets, artists and scientists in
informing understanding of managerial creativity but such an approach has been
found to be of value to entrepreneurship research; for example, Fillis (2007a) has
carried out a biographical approach to understanding creativity in entrepreneurship
which uncovers valuable data on the individual but also grounds the findings
longitudinally in the social world.
There is also a growing body of work within management studies which analyses the
manager from an artist perspective which is relevant to entrepreneurship (Degot 1987;
Brownlie 1998; Monthoux 2004). Rather than reducing management activities down
to economic aspects alone with managers and their actions displaced to the
background, the manager can be visualised as the creator of acts of management. Both
14
management practice and research can be thought of in terms of styles or schools
where different, and even opposing forms are evident, from the autocratic to an
entrepreneurial approach. Instead of thinking outside of the box, Kupp and Anderson
(2009) advocate thinking outside of the canvas as they examine the artistic managerial
qualities of the artist Joseph Beuys. He identified three levels of creativity: the active
form of thinking, or personal creativity; the sculptural theory or process creativity;
and social sculpture or collective creativity. Kupp and Anderson note that when
routine solutions are not suitable for addressing strategic, leadership and other
organisational issues with no precedents, there should be a quest for non routine
creative solutions. Grounded in the Austrian economics school and the uncertainty
involved in economic decisions, together with the subjective perception of
opportunity (Kirzner 1973), Mahoney and Michael (2005) develop a subjectivist
theory of entrepreneurship where individual creativity, discovery, surprise and
learning are central components. Kor et al. (2007) further embrace individual
creativity as they seek to construct a subjectivist theory of entrepreneurship grounded
in the resources, skills and knowledge of the individual as he or she seeks to discover
and create. This subjectivist stance promotes a stochastic perspective of
entrepreneurship which centres on random events, uncertainty and ambiguity, rather
than planned, objective interpretations (Boettke 2002). Such an approach seeks to
reflect the reality of entrepreneurship in practice where the future is unknown.
The paper now develops a detailed analysis of additional themes within creativity
research which are relevant for entrepreneurship theory and practice, including its
impact on personality and cognitive style and the subsequent implications for decision
making, the process of creativity, creativity and biography, the motivation to be
15
creative and the impact of creativity in business generally. The paper also assesses
how we might best model, measure and test for entrepreneurial creativity.
Creativity, Personality and Cognitive Style as Factors in Entrepreneurial
Decision Making:
Examining creativity from a psychological perspective signals its scientific
connection, while also providing a link to entrepreneurship where exploration of
constructs such as personality, cognitive style and trait theory help to uncover how
creativity contributes to entrepreneurial decision making. Ward (2004) investigates
the relationship between cognition, creativity and entrepreneurship, remarking that
successful ideas occur as the result of a balance between the new and the familiar in
order to ensure that radical ideas are not rejected. However, creativity is concerned
with both incremental steps and paradigm shifts, so radical ideas should not be
dismissed. Ideas, however, cannot be created at will and often emanate from the
fringe of consciousness, rather than as the result of linear rational thinking (Dasgupta
1994). Utilising a network perspective, useful ideas tend to be the result of having
non-redundant and heterogeneous contacts which permit idea generation through the
combination of diverse information (Burt 2004). Non-redundant refers to contacts
which are only related to the individual in question but not to each other, while
heterogeneous contacts represent different functional backgrounds. Ward’s
perspective goes some way to explain why most new products are really only line
extensions, rather than totally new entities (Kuczmarski 1996). Some of the
techniques advocated include analogy, or the application of structured knowledge
from a familiar domain to a new or less known domain (Gentner et al. 2001), as well
as conceptual combination:
16
…when two previously separate concepts or images are merged into a single
unit, novel properties can emerge that were not obviously present in either of
the separate components, and that the effect is particularly strong for dissimilar
or divergent concepts. Such novelty can be exploited to develop new product
ideas or market niches. by Ward (2004:174)
This closely relates to the notion of transmutation of thought (Warhol 1975) and
bisociation, while analogy has connections with the use of metaphor in rationalising
uncertainty (Cornelissen 2006; Fillis and Rentschler 2008). As with metaphorical
construction, analogy works best when there is a deeper level connection between the
domains, rather than merely at the surface level. These techniques work because in
reality individuals do not make linear rational decisions when problem solving.
Study of the relationship between creativity and personality tends to take one of three
routes: explaining creativity by utilising personality theories; examining the
personality and biographical characteristics of well known creative individuals and
their activities in different fields; and focusing on a small number of particular
personality dimensions (Woodman and Schoenfeldt 1990). Personality theory is used
since it would be expected that any such theory should account for creative behaviour,
as well as other behaviour types. Psychoanalytical theorists view creativity as
emerging from the unconscious or preconscious while humanistic theorists relate
creativity to self-actualisation. By examining biographical information and identifying
details of any personality characteristics contained within it, future creative behaviour
can be understood and even predicted. Barron and Harrington (1981:453), for
example, identified the following creative characteristics following a fifteen year long
research programme:
…a fairly stable set of core characteristics (e.g. high valuation of aesthetic
qualities in experience, broad interests, attraction to complexity, high energy,
independence of judgement, autonomy, intuition, self-confidence, ability to
resolve or accommodate apparently opposite or conflicting traits in one’s self
17
concept, and finally, a firm sense of self as ‘creative’) continued to emerge as
correlates of creative achievement and activity in many domains.
Many of these factors are also firmly rooted in the entrepreneurship literature where
decision maker personality impacts on the future direction of the organisation (Lau
and Schaffer 1999; Williams 2004; Fillis and Rentschler 2006). Fillis (2007a)
identifies a set of creative entrepreneurial competencies and philosophies which
appear stable over time and which should be incorporated into subsequent modelling
of the entrepreneurial decision making process. These factors include self-belief and
ambition, utilisation of creative business networks, high motivational levels, intuition,
strong communication skills, ability to visualisation problems, flexibility and the
ability to break down physical and perceptual barriers. Other contributing factors
include the adoption of a variety of problem solving styles and divergent thinking.
The ability to make associations between previously unconnected domains also draws
on cognitive ability, or the capacity to perceive, reason or use intuition, something
which the creative entrepreneur is particularly good at doing. Creativity can also be
judged in terms of the amount of imagination utilised in solving problems (Piaget
1962; McFadzean 1998). Imagination integrates with intelligence as an individual
develops from child to adult. Throughout the developmental process, imagination
increases, with creativity and intelligence combining to encourage the generation of
more productive activity:
P6: It can therefore be proposed that the entrepreneur exhibits more imagination than
his or her conservative counterpart.
18
The personality of an individual consists of a unique pattern of traits which ensures
that each individual differs from another. Behaviour traits consist of aptitudes,
interests, attitudes, and temperamental qualities. Creative personality is determined by
the trait patterns which shape the characteristics of creative persons (Guilford 1950).
Creativity as a trait focuses on issues such as locus of control, or the impact of
internal and external influences on the outcomes of actions, self esteem, dogmatism
and narcissism. Examining creativity from a trait perspective alone can have limited
impact, given that the social environment has also been shown to impact upon
creative behaviour (Amabile 1998). A psychometric approach to understanding
creativity assumes that it is a measurable mental trait, in the same manner as
intelligence and the focus tends to be on measuring divergent thinking (Petrowski
2000). Positive personality traits of creative individuals include high levels of energy,
attraction towards complex and novel phenomena, openness to ambiguity, willingness
to be open-minded and being persistent in adverse conditions (Mintzberg et al. 1976;
Feist 1999). These factors are also located within the entrepreneurial personality.
Insight into the creative personality of the entrepreneur can be achieved through the
adoption of biographical research which is capable of uncovering data which would
not necessarily be identified using the survey or interview method alone. Approaches
used include the analysis of the allotted space in biographical dictionaries for each
individual and the construction of a longitudinal approach to understanding creativity
through biographical analysis of the individual, from their birth, socialisation, through
to establishment and growth of the business and beyond into later life. Recent work
relevant to entrepreneurship has focused on examining data in the form of the
biography, or ‘story’, of the organisation and its managers where both historical and
19
current data can be compared and contrasted (Carson and Carson 1998; Gabriel
2000). The adoption of a longitudinal research approach is one way of securing an in-
depth appreciation of the creative entrepreneur and the world in which he/she is
located. The merits of this technique include the ability to triangulate data on
personality as well as around social, economic and historical dimensions. Biography
itself is a creative medium, in terms of the way in which the story of the individual,
organisation or other entity is told. This and other narrative techniques can be used to
rethink entrepreneurship through their juxtapositioning with the arts and humanities;
for example, researchers have interrogated literature and other narrative forms as
entrepreneurial data sources. Biography or life history can strengthen our
entrepreneurial knowledge through its ability to explore the sociological imagination
(Downing 2005).
The Process of Creative Entrepreneurship:
Entrepreneurial creativity can be viewed as a process occurring in an individual who
has been shaped, in part, by a range of social factors (Amabile 1996; Perry-Smith and
Shalley 2003). A distinction can be made between conscious and unconscious
processes of creativity (Rothenberg 1979; Eysenck 1996). Attempting to measure its
conscious elements is challenging but assessing its unconscious contributors is
particularly intricate, given the many intangible dimensions involved. The creative
process has been visualised as involving a number of stages:
The first stage is problem identification, during which the problem solvers
recognise, define, and attempt to understand the problem or the opportunity
facing them. The second is preparation, during which the problem-solvers
gather information and other resources necessary to tackle the problem or
pursue the opportunity. The third stage is response generation, during which
various ideas for solving the problem or pursuing the opportunity are designed.
The fourth stage, validation and communication, involves the consideration of
20
the ideas generated, selection among them, and formalisation or communication
of the selected approach (Amabile 1997:23).
The creative act can be viewed as an extended, variable process rather than something
occurring at one particular point in time (Motamedi 1982; Sapp 1992).
Csikszentmihalyi (1999) interprets creativity as a systemic process consisting of
individuals originating the idea, the gatekeepers who represent the field or society,
and the culture or domain within which creativity occurs. These factors then interact
in order to interrogate and validate the new ideas. Viewing creativity as a process is
valuable but it also suggests that a certain sequence of events is inevitable. In reality
progression may not be linear and some stages may be leapfrogged or omitted
altogether. Alternative suggestions based on holistic and network approaches now
appear viable as alternatives to understanding creativity in entrepreneurship; for
example, improved understanding can be reached by focusing on a more multi-
layered, holistic conceptualisation where environmental, cognitive, competency and
motivational inputs shape creative practice.
Creativity, Motivation and Actualisation of the Entrepreneur:
Creativity may be part of an individual’s innate makeup but only a small proportion of
the population fully actualise their creative potential since not everyone is motivated
to be creative (Maslow 1968; Amabile 1983):
P7: It can be proposed that entrepreneurs are more likely to actualise their creative
potential than their conservative counterparts because of their predisposition to seek
out new opportunities.
21
There are also crucial differences between intrinsic and extrinsic creative motivation
which explain behaviour determined by internal and external drivers:
People will be most creative when they are primarily intrinsically motivated, by
the interest, enjoyment, satisfaction, and challenge of the work itself; this
intrinsic motivation can be undermined by extrinsic motivators that lead people
to feel externally controlled in their work (Amabile 1998:1157).
When interviewing entrepreneurs about their motivations concerning business
development it is clear that, although increasing their profit levels is a factor, being
able to shape and grow the business and its workforce are also key motivating factors.
Intrinsic motivation is essential in channelling the passion and interest of creative
personnel in an organisation who carry out a task because they feel they enjoy the
challenge of it. Individuals are extrinsically motivated when an additional goal is
reached which is separate from the act of doing the work, or when a constraint
imposed by an extrinsic source is overcome.
Those individuals who are more inclined to be intrinsically motivated exhibit
behaviour which is heavily involved in the activity at hand since they are free from
extraneous concerns about goals extrinsic to the activity itself. It would be expected
that this is the case for the entrepreneur. They exhibit playfulness with their ideas
because of their freedom to take risks and ability to explore new cognitive pathways.
Mainemelis and Ronson (2006) consider how ideas are generated through the
interaction of play and creativity within organisations. Play helps to stimulate the
cognitive, affective and motivational aspects of the creative process and there is even
a case for considering the merits of play as part of creativity for its own sake. Here,
unbounded searching for solutions to emerging problems can contribute to idea
generation and even contribute to new strategy formulation instead of adherence to
22
the usual linear, rational path. Individuals may even experience positive affect while
carrying out their work. Those who are mainly extrinsically motivated tend to be
concerned with the extrinsic goal to be attained and will not be as deeply involved in
the activity. They feel less able to take risks and will rely more on well-worn
cognitive pathways and experience less positive affect while working (Amabile et al.
1990). In new venture start-ups, extrinsic motivation issues might focus on heightened
external visibility while intrinsic motivation could concern the wishes to develop a
business based on certain lifestyle factors (Fillis 2007a).
Innovation, Creativity and the Entrepreneurial Leader:
Today, creativity appears more important than ever before, with it being seen as a
critical success factor for organisations (Basadur and Hausdorf 1996). The
understanding of attitudes towards creativity and the promotion of creative thinking
within the organisation are pre-requisites to facilitating creativity in all employees.
Although effectiveness and efficiency have long been viewed as central organisational
requirements, creativity is now also deemed a core success factor, with organisational
creativity resulting in higher levels of quality and customer satisfaction. The nature of
the business environment is changing, with more and more turbulent conditions being
experienced (Agor 1991; Mason 2007). Creative leadership is often deemed more
appropriate than conventional managerial methods in the quest to deal with these non-
linear and often unpredictable environmental conditions. In addition, managerial
judgement is now viewed as just as relevant a decision making competency as the
deployment of more conventional business skills centring on planning and strategy
(Brownlie and Spender 1995; Brownlie 1998). Intuitive decision making is deemed an
appropriate alternative response to changes in the contemporary business
23
environment, where the generation of a range of alternative directions can be
constructed through appropriate visionary leadership and creative entrepreneurial
behaviour.
Although creativity has yet to be fully embraced in the business world due to varying
attitudes towards risk and change, organisations of all sizes are now realising the
benefits of developing a creative orientation within a culture of globalisation as a
factor in the longer term wellbeing of the organisation. This orientation should then
lead to openness to innovation and acceptance of new ideas which can benefit the
company (Salford 1995; Berthon et al. 1999). The majority of firms are small, and the
majority of these are microenterprises employing ten people or less where business
growth and behaviour is often influenced by a single owner/manager who may not
necessarily be disposed towards encouraging creative thinking and practice (Storey
1994; Bridge et al. 2003). However, individuals in all sizes of organisation who
exhibit entrepreneurial tendencies are much more likely to embrace creativity than
those who do not demonstrate entrepreneurial ability (Bennett 2006; Day et al. 2006).
Creativity has been identified as a core organisational competency (Palus and Horth
2002) and the creativity of key decision makers is of vital importance in shaping
future business success. Organisational, customer and technological competencies
have all been found to contribute to heightened innovative performance through their
ability to extend existing strengths while also shaping new skills (Teece et al. 1997;
Lokshin et al. 2009).
There are also connections between creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship in the
development of a product. The product is shaped by the tangible outcomes of
24
creativity but it is also influenced by the creative process and creative ability of those
involved in its production (Magyari-Beck 1990). In order to know what is creative
also requires the ability to know what is not creative. In line with what has been found
in the new product development literature where the vast majority of ‘new’ products
are really only existing product extensions (Casto 1994; Coats et al. 1997), Magyari-
Beck (1990) found no example of creation which was not an application of an existing
model. At first glance the product does appear new but over time it is viewed as a
routine response due to the application of an existing paradigm. However, paradigm
shifts do occur occasionally and creativity can sometimes result in the establishment
of an entity with little or no prior connections with other spheres; for example, via the
use of new technologies with no market precedents. Innovation, as the commercial
tangibilisation of creativity, is often the driving force behind successful business
performance and it should be viewed as an investment rather than an unwanted cost
(Kuczmarski 1996). Amabile et al. (1996) distinguish between creativity and
innovation in that creativity is seen as the production of novel and useful ideas within
any field. Innovation is viewed as the successful implementation of creative ideas
within an organisation.
The creativity in individuals and teams is often the origin for innovation. Akehurst et
al. (2009) believe that, instead of focusing on individual talent, the heads of
organisations should be more concerned with creating and sustaining an internal
environment which is supportive of collective support for creativity and innovation.
There is still a focus on the single heroic entrepreneurial figure and this must now be
set against the merits of internal cooperation and teamwork. Collective
entrepreneurial endeavour within an organisation has been termed internal
25
entrepreneurship (Casson and Wadeson 2007) and is closely related to the notion of
entrepreneurial teams of employees (Stewart 1989). Entrepreneurship from the bottom
up, where creative thinking and innovative behaviours originate from employees
rather than the entrepreneur has been referred to as intrapreneurship (Huse et al.
2005). However, Fillis (2007a) has shown that focusing on a single entrepreneurial
decision maker is still relevant, as long as his or her role is defined within wider social
and business environments.
The link between creativity, innovation and environmental variables has been
examined from collaboration and leadership perspectives (Bullinger et al. 2004;
Howell and Boies 2004). Collaborations can sometimes result in the development and
integration of complementary competencies which impact on creativity. The climate,
or people’s perceptions of their work environment in terms of factors such as support
and autonomy, has also been found to impact on creativity (Anderson et al. 1998;
West 2002):
P8: It can therefore be proposed than an entrepreneurial culture can have a positive
effect on the creative climate.
Both Mumford et el. (2002) and Amabile et al. (2004) also found that leader support
was positively related to the level of employee creativity;
P9: It can therefore be further proposed that an entrepreneurial culture has a higher
probability of resulting in support for the leader as an entrepreneur than other forms of
leadership due to the empowering of employees to make decisions.
26
This also has an impact on the level of innovation in the organisation. An
entrepreneurially led organisation should have effective lines of communication and
should also be prepared to act on opportunities identified during
employee/manager/customer interactions.
Modelling, Measuring and Testing Entrepreneurial Creativity:
A number of creativity models have been constructed but, to date, very few have been
able to account for the subjective nature of creative activity. The componential model
of creativity (Amabile 1988) utilises the dimension of organisational motivation to
innovate as a supportive structure for creativity and innovation throughout the
enterprise. Other relevant factors include the resources available to assist creative
work such as sufficient time and appropriate training, management practices and the
allowance of freedom or autonomy in carrying out challenging work through the
construction of work teams with contrasting skills. Woodman and Schoenfeldt (1990)
develop an interactionist model of creative behaviour which integrates personality,
cognitive and social psychology perspectives. Antecedent conditions such as early
socialisation experiences, learning, family socio-economic status and gender are
viewed as precursors to the current attitudes and behaviour of the individual towards
creativity. Their model promotes the belief that creativity is fundamentally process led
but there is now ample evidence as shown in this paper to show that this is not the
best way to view entrepreneurial creativity. West (2002) develops an integrative
model of innovation and creativity implementation among groups at work, noting that
the environment can hinder creativity but that any uncertainty can serve to drive
innovation. Lubart (2001) evaluates a number of process-led creativity models,
noting that the basic four stage model may need to be superceded, as also noted earlier
27
in this paper. Figure 1 illustrates the impact and benefits of creativity in
entrepreneurship by viewing it as a response to the dynamic nature of the
environment, conflicting with previous linear, process-led modelling of business
behaviour. Additional important factors include the influence of the social world, the
effect of cognitive skills and both creative and entrepreneurial competencies such as
vision, judgement, curiosity and opportunity recognition. These factors in
combination are capable of enabling the organisation to achieve competitive
advantage.
Take in Figure 1
Eysenck (1996) uncovers several dimensions of creativity which help in attempting to
measure it. These include viewing it as involving the production of new and original
content, as a creative product which can involve more than just creative
characteristics, as individual creativity and as a creative solution to problem solving.
Creativity has also been measured using tests of divergent thinking, attitude and
interest inventories, personality inventories, biographical inventories, ratings by
teachers, peers and supervisors, the tangibilising of creativity through the creation of
products, the study of eminent people and self-reported creative activities and
achievements (Hovecar and Bachelor 1989; Creigh-Tyte 2005). Cropley (2000)
believes that creativity tests are actually only measures of creative potential due to
their inability to account for factors such as technical skills and opportunity.
Unsworth (2001) develops a typology of creative states or orientations which helps in
understanding how creative individuals behave in different ways, rather than being
seen as a homogeneous group. Responsive creativity is externally shaped where the
28
individual reacts to the problem being posed. Expected creativity occurs when there is
a need for a creative solution to a particular problem driven by external motivation.
Contributory creativity occurs when an individual decides to engage in a creative task
even though he or she has no direct initial involvement. Proactive creativity is driven
by an internal motivation to seek out problems to solve. This last category appears to
have the best fit with entrepreneurial creativity where the owner/manager actively
seeks out business opportunities. This orientation also matches the notion of the
proactive personality (Bateman and Crant 1993) and the concept of personal initiative
(Frese et al. 1996). These different orientations can be compared with the four
creative states found by Fillis (20007b) in a study of creativity in craft firm
internationalisation. Differing forms of creativity are located in the four craft firm
types depending on the owner/manager’s attitude towards creativity. Some choose to
work in the craft industry because of the type of lifestyle involved and are unwilling
to sacrifice this in order to expand the business. These creative types are called
lifestylers. Another type is the business-oriented entrepreneur who is willing to take
risks with both the business and the product, while recognising the importance of
developing a customer base. The third type can be described as an artist/designer or
idealist who is unwilling to view the craft as a product but as a creative object. They
take risks as far as the craft itself is concerned in order to break new ground and they
can be innovative and certainly creative with the craft product. The fourth creative
type, the late developer, enters the industry much later than the others, having gained
previous work experience in unrelated areas before making a career change.
Researchers of entrepreneurship should be interested in the concept of creativity since
it is often associated with unusual solutions to solving problems. Creativity, and the
29
resultant innovation, often develops through juxtapositions of previously unconnected
fields through the freedom to think in a non-linear, unblinkered fashion. Although
logical thinking does have its purposes, continual adoption of this often sequential
approach serves to omit many potentially useful associations which might otherwise
be formed by following flexible, exploratory, non-predetermined paths. If we choose
to adopt the social psychological perspective of Amabile and others in terms of how
we view creativity, this then provides a useful connection across domains, from the
sciences to the social sciences and entrepreneurship. Many measures of creativity and
other associated dimensions such as entrepreneurial orientation have been constructed
and operationalised but these tend to be quantitative, tangible attempts at capturing
seemingly measurable dimensions. The reality, however, is that much of our
behaviour is shaped by intangible, implicit dimensions based on mood and feeling,
sensory experience and elements of the unconscious (Davis 2009):
P10: It is proposed that an entrepreneurial environment is more likely to result in
impacting on mood in a positive sense, and therefore creativity, than a conservative
environment.
Also, we cannot reasonably hope to measure intuition, for example, as a dimension of
creativity solely through the application of Likert-type attitudinal scales (Likert 1932;
Braunsberger and Gates 2009).
Conclusions and Areas for Future Research:
The holistic conceptualisation of creativity in entrepreneurship as shown in Figure 2
acknowledges the impact of imaginative thinking which embrace intangible
30
dimensions and move beyond the often rigid frameworks of testing variable
relationships. Creative entrepreneurship is influenced by the external effects of
globalisation and technology which impact on the enterprise and its members in terms
of instilling an innovative culture. This impacts on a number of different levels, from
the individual, team, organisation through to the particular industry and beyond. In
order to realise the full creative potential of the enterprise, in-depth understanding of
problem solving and decision making activities which embrace factors such as
ambiguity and uncertainty should also be achieved. A research agenda needs to be
developed which accounts for both scientific and artistic ways of knowing which are
influenced by cross disciplinary and diverse domains. This paper has suggested a
number of potential avenues outside the conventional boundaries of entrepreneurship
research which can help inform future research activities and it is hoped that other
researchers will continue to interrogate other fields with creative potential.
Take in Figure 2
Increasing globalisation effects drive the need for greater creativity within a
marketplace with increased levels of opportunity but also with heightened levels of
competition. A creative entrepreneurial response represents the best chance of
capitalising on these opportunities. This paper has shown that there is a clear link
between creativity, entrepreneurship and related areas such as innovation in terms of
establishing competitive advantage for the organisation. It should also be noted that
profitability should be measured not just in monetary terms, but also in relation to
dimensions such as social wealth or capital. An entrepreneurial contribution to
creativity can assist in breaking the rules of convention, or at the very least, stretching
31
their boundaries in order to achieve both incremental and ground breaking success.
Entrepreneurial creativity can be informed by a wide variety of disciplines, rather than
just within the business world; for example, this paper has shown how interrogation of
domains such as the art world, biography and psychology can inform understanding.
So it is important to adopt a more holistic perspective when attempting to grasp the
essence of entrepreneurial creativity, rather than attempt to view it solely as a process
led phenomenon.
Entrepreneurship matches the flexible, exploratory paths of creative discovery where
solutions do not necessarily need to be complex. Entrepreneurial factors overlap with
many creative characteristics such as curiosity, self confidence, high energy levels,
risk taking and vision. Entrepreneurial creativity impacts throughout the lifetime of
the entrepreneur, and not just during the span of the business. Success is stimulated
through the use of juxtapositioning and bisociations of ideas from diverse and often
unrelated domains which then impact on decision making. Although there are
undoubtedly a number of extrinsic motivational factors which affect attitudes towards
creativity, entrepreneurial creativity is largely driven by intrinsic dimensions
concerning the tasks being performed in the enterprise. Entrepreneurial creativity
should be concerned with the continual creation of alternative solutions to problem
solving and identification of new opportunities. It should also be seen as a competitive
strength and portfolio of competencies. Adopting an entrepreneurial approach to
creativity also helps to deal with uncertainty and ambiguity in decision making and
within the external environment. Rather than ignoring these dimensions, it acts to
embrace this unsureness as part of the everyday entrepreneurial climate.
32
In terms of future research, if we are to improve our understanding of creativity from
an entrepreneurship perspective, we need to consider the adoption of alternative
methodologies which are capable of uncovering previously undiscovered data.
Blackburn and Kovalainen (2009) note the reservations by many researchers to adopt
approaches which depart from both functionalist paradigms and quantitative
approaches and yet by researching creativity in entrepreneurship, this should serve to
stimulate interest in other methodological avenues. The continued utilisation of
common techniques such as the survey and in-depth interviews have their uses but
researching creativity must involve much more than just asking set questions or
exploring a range of themes. Creativity data collected using a biographical approach,
for example, can be triangulated with the more usual approaches in order to check for
stability in the constructs being analysed and in terms of generating more holistic and
insightful understandings (Young 1988; Roberts 2002; Fillis 2007a). Biographical
insight can be used to construct the longitudinal story of the entrepreneur and the
organisation while also identifying the impact of social and historical factors on
shaping creativity.
Creativity is potentially most useful within the smaller enterprise as a way of
overcoming barriers to acquiring resources and in terms of deriving alternative and
lower cost solutions to solving problems. Many of these organisations have specialist
skills relating to their core products and services but do not have the expertise or the
time to develop formal ways of generating future strategies as occurs in the larger
organisation. This being the case, understanding creativity as leverage to lower cost
but no less useful solutions is crucial to future economic success. Future research
should embrace more innovative approaches to its understanding which sometimes
33
conflict with more mainstream methodological approaches. It is this conflict and the
creation of juxtapositions between previously unrelated fields which can result in new
insight and more valuable directions of enquiry.
34
References:
Agor, W.H. (1991). “How intuition can be used to enhance creativity in
organisations”, Journal of Creative Behavior, Vol.25, No.1, pp.11-19.
Akehurst, G., Comeche, J.M. and Galindo, M-A. (2009). “Job satisfaction and
commitment in the entrepreneurial SME”, Small Business Economics, Vol.32, pp.277-
289.
Amabile, T. (1983), The Social Psychology of Creativity, New York, Springer Verlag.
Amabile, T. (1988), “A model of creativity and innovation in organisations”, In:
Research in Organisational Behaviour, (Eds.) Staw, B.M. and Cummings, L.L., USA,
Greenwich, CT, JAI Press, pp.123-167
Amabile, T. (1996). Creativity in Context: Update to the Social Psychology of
Creativity, Boulder, CO, Westview Press.
Amabile, T. (1997). “Entrepreneurial creativity through motivational synergy”,
Journal of Creative Behavior, Vol.31, No.1, pp.18-26.
Amabile, T. (1998), “How to kill creativity”, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 76, No.
5, pp.77-88
Amabile, T., Conti, R., Coon, H., Lazenby, J. and Herron, M. (1996), “Assessing the
work environment for creativity”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 39, No 4,
pp.1154-1184
Amabile, T., Goldfarb, P., and Brackfield, S. (1990). “Social influences on creativity:
evaluation, coaction, and surveillance”, Creativity Research Journal, Vol. 50, pp.14-
23.
Amabile, T.M, Schatzell, E.A., Moneta, G.B. and Kramer, S.J. (2004). “Leader
behaviours and the work environment for creativity: perceived leader support”, The
Leadership Quarterly, Vol.15, pp.5-32.
Anderson, N.R. and West, M.A. (1998). “Measuring climate for work group
innovation: development and validation of the team climate inventory”, Journal of
Organizational Behavior, Vol.19, pp.235-258.
Barron, F. and Harrington, D.M. (1981). “Creativity, intelligence, and personality”, in
L.W. Porter and M.R. Rosenzweig (eds.), Annual Review of Psychology, Vol.32,
pp.439-476.
Basadur, M. and Hausdorf, P.A. (1996). “Measuring divergent thinking attitudes
related to creative problem solving and innovation management”, Creativity Research
Journal, Vol.9 No.1, pp.21-32.
35
Bateman, T.S. and Crant, J.M. (1993). “The proactive component of organizational
behaviour: a measure and correlates”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol.14,
pp.103-118.
Baumol, W. (2002). The Free Market Innovation Machine: Analysing the Growth
Miracle of Capitalism, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Becherer, R.C., Mendenhall, M.E. and Eickhoff, K.F. (2008). “Separated at birth: an
inquiry on the conceptual independence of the entrepreneurship and the leadership
constructs”, New England Journal of Entrepreneurship, Vol.11, No.2, pp.13-27.
Bennett, R. (2006). ‘Business lecturers’ perceptions of the nature of
entrepreneurship’, International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research,
Vol.12, No.3, pp.165-188.
Berthon, P., Hulbert, J.M. and Pitt, L.F. (1999). “To serve or create? Strategic
orientations toward customers and innovation”, California Management Review,
Vol.42, No.1, pp.37-58.
Bilton, C. (2007). Management and Creativity: From Creative Industries to Creative
Management, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.
Blackburn, R. and Kovalainen, A. (2009). “Researching small firms and
entrepreneurship: past, present and future”, International Journal of Management
Reviews, Vol.11, No.2, pp.127-148.
Blumenthal, A. (1980). Wilhelm Wundt and the Making of a Scientific Psychology,
Columbia University, New York.
Boden, M. (1992). The Creative Mind, Abacus, London.
Boettke, P.J. (2002), “Information and knowledge: Austrian economics in search of
its uniqueness”, Review of Austrian Economics, Vol.15, pp.263-274.
Braunsberger, K. and Gates, R. (2009). “Developing inventories for satisfaction and
likert scales in a service environment”, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol.23, No.4,
pp.219-225.
Bridge, S., O’Neill, K. and Cromie, S. (2003). Understanding Enterprise,
Entrepreneurship and Small Business, second edition, Basingstoke, MacMillan Press
Ltd.
Brownlie, D. (1998). “High minds and low deeds: on being blind to creativity in
strategic marketing”, Journal of Strategic Marketing, Vol.6, pp.117-130.
Brownlie, D. and Spender, J.C. (1995). “Managerial judgement in strategic marketing:
some preliminary thoughts”, Management Decision, Vol.33, No.6, pp.39-50.
36
Bullinger, H.J., Aurnhammer, K. and Gomeringer, A. (2004). “Managing innovation
networks in the knowledge-driven economy”, International Journal of Production
Research, Vol.42, pp.3337-3344.
Burt, R.S. (2004). “Structured holes and good ideas”, American Journal of Sociology,
Vol.110, pp.349-399.
Carson, D., S. Cromie, P. McGowan and J. Hill (1995), Marketing and
Entrepreneurship in SMEs. An Innovative Approach, UK, Prentice Hall
Carson, P.P. and Carson, K.D. (1998). “Theoretically grounding management history
as a relevant and valuable form of knowledge”, Journal of Management History,
Vol.4, No.1, 29-42.
Casson, M. and Wadeson, N. (2007). “The discovery of opportunities: extending the
economic theory of the entrepreneur”, Small Business Economics, Vol.28, pp.285-
300.
Casto, J. (1994). ‘Concept definition: a new model’, World Class Design to
Manufacture, Vol.1, No.4, pp.5-12.
Cawelti, S., Rappaport, A., and Wood, B. (1992). “Modelling artistic creativity: An
empirical study”, Journal of Creative Behavior, Vol. 26, pp. 83-94.
Coates, N.F., Cook, I. and Robinson, H. (1997). “Idea generation techniques in an
industrial market”, Journal of Marketing Practice: Applied Marketing Science, Vol.3,
No.2, pp.107-118.
Cook, P. (1998). “The creativity advantage - is your organisation the leader of the
pack?”, Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 30, No. 5, pp. 179-184.
Cornelissen, J.P (2006).”Metaphor in organization theory: progress and the past”,
Academy of Management Review, Vol.31, No.2, pp.485-488.
Creigh-Tyte, A. (2005). “Measuring creativity: a case study in the UK’s designer
fashion sector”, Cultural Trends, Vol.14, No.2, pp.157-183.
Cropley, A.J. (2000). “Defining and measuring creativity: are creativity tests worth
using?”, Roeper Review, Vol.23, No.2, pp.72-79.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999). “Implications of a Systems Perspective for the Study of
Creativity”, in R.J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of Creativity, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, pp. 313-335.
Darling, J., Gabrielson, M. and Seristo, H. (2007). “Enhancing contemporary
entrepreneurship: a focus on management leadership”, European Business Review,
Vol.19, No.1, pp.4-22.
Dasgupta, S. (1994). Creativity in Invention and Design, Cambridge University Press,
New York.
37
Day, J., Reynolds, P. and Lancaster, G. (2006). “Entrepreneurship and the small to
medium-sized enterprise: a divergent/convergent paradox in thinking patterns
between advisers and SME owner-managers”, Management Decision, Vol.44, No.5,
pp.581-597.
Davis, M.A. (2009). “Understanding the relationship between mood and creativity: a
meta-analysis”, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol.108,
pp.25-38.
Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in
Human Behavior, New York, Plenum.
Degot, V. (1987), ”Portrait of the manager as an artist”, Dragon: The SCOS Journal,
Special Issue: Art and the Organization, Vol.2,No.3, pp.13-50.
De Jong, J.P.J. and Den Hartog, D.N. (2007), “How leaders influence employees’
innovative behaviour”, European Journal of Innovation Management, Vol.10, No.1,
pp.41-64.
Downing, S. (2005), “The social construction of entrepreneurship: narrative and
dramatic processes in the co production of organisations and identities”,
Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Vol.29, pp.185-204.
Duderstadt, J.J. (2000). “A Choice of Transformations for the Twenty-First Century
University”, Chronicle of Higher Education, Vol. 46, No. 22, pp. B6-B7.
Ecker, D. (1963). “The Artistic Process as Qualitative Problem Solving”, Journal of
Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Vol. 21, pp. 283-290.
Eysenck, H.J. (1996).“The Measurement of Creativity”, In Dimensions of Creativity,
(Eds.), Boden, M.A., USA, MIT Press
Eysenck, H.J. (2008). Genius: The Natural History of Creativity, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
Feist, G.J. (1999). “The Influence of Personality on Artistic and Scientific Creativity”,
in R.J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of Creativity, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, pp. 273-296.
Filipczak, B. (1997). “It takes all kinds: creativity in the workforce”, Training, Vol
34, No.5, pp.32-39.
Fillis, I. (2002). “An Andalusian dog or a rising star: creativity and the
marketing/entrepreneurship interface’, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 18
No.3/4, pp.379-395.
Fillis, I. (2004), ‘The entrepreneurial artist as marketer – lessons from the smaller firm
literature’, International Journal of Arts Management, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 9-21.
38
Fillis, I. (2006). “Art for art’s sake or art for business sake: an exploration of artistic
product orientation’, The Marketing Review, Vol.6, No.1, pp.29-40.
Fillis, I. (2007a). ‘A methodology for researching international entrepreneurship in
SMEs: a challenge to the status quo’, Journal of Small Business and Enterprise
Development, Vol.14, No.1, pp.118-135.
Fillis, I. (2007b). “Celtic craft and the creative consciousness as contributions to
marketing creativity”, Journal of Strategic Marketing, Vol.15, No.1, pp.7-16.
Fillis, I. (2009). “The art of marketing: an exploration of artistic influences on
marketing theory and practice’, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Vol.27, No.6.
Fillis, I. and Rentschler, R. (2005). “Using creativity to achieve an entrepreneurial
future for arts marketing”, International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector
Marketing, Vol. 10, pp.275-287.
Fillis, I. and Rentschler, R. (2006). Creative Marketing: An Extended Metaphor for
Marketing in a New Age, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke.
Fillis, I. and Rentschler, R. (2008). ‘Exploring metaphor as an alternative marketing
language’, European Business Review, Vol.20, No.6, pp.492-514.
Ford, D.V. and Harris, J.J. (1992). “The elusive definition of creativity”, Journal of
Creative Behavior, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 186-198.
Frese, M., Kring, W., Soose , A. and Zempel, J. (1996). “Personal initiative at work:
differences between East and West Germany”, Academy of Management Journal,
Vol.39, pp.37-63.
Frisch, B. (1998), “A pragmatic approach to vision, Journal of Business Strategy, Vol.
19, No. 4, pp.12-15
Gabriel, Y. (2000). Storytelling in Organizations: Facts, Fictions and Fantasies,
Sage, London.
Gentner, D., Holyoak, K.J. and Kokinov, B.N.(Eds.) (2001). The Analogical Mind:
Perspectives from Cognitive Science, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Gilad, B. (1984). “Entrepreneurship: the use of creativity in the marketplace”, Journal
of Creative Behavior, Vol.18, pp.151-161.
Guilford, J.P (1950), “Creativity”, American Psychologist, Vol. 5, p444
Harryson, S.J, (2008). “Entrepreneurship through relationships: navigating from
creativity to commercialisation”, R&D Management, Vol.38, No.3, pp.290-310.
Hirst, G., Van Knippenberg, D. and Zhou, J. (2009). “A cross-level perspective on
employee creativity: goal orientation, team learning behaviour and individual
creativity”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol.52, No.2, pp.280-293.
39
Hisrich, R. D. (1992), “The Need for marketing in entrepreneurship,” The Journal of
Business and Industrial Marketing, Vol.7, No.3, pp.53-57.
Hovecar, D. and P. Bachelor (1989). “A taxonomy and critique of measurements used
in the study of creativity”, in J.A. Glover, R.R. Ronning and C.R. Reynolds, eds.,
Handbook of Creativity, Plenum Press, New York, 53-75.
Howell, J.M. and Boies, K. (2004). “Champions of technological innovation: the
influence of contextual knowledge, role orientation, idea generation and idea
promotion on champion emergence”, Leadership Quarterly, Vol.15, pp.130-149.
Hunter, S.T., Bedell, K.E. and Mumford, M.D. (2007). “Climate for creativity: a
quantitative review”, Creativity Research Journal, Vol.19, No.1, pp.69-90.
Huse, M., Neubaum, D.O. and Gabrielson, J. (2005). “Corporate innovation and
competitive environment”, International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal,
Vol.1, pp.313-333.
Kao, J.J. (1989), Entrepreneurship, Creativity and Organization, New Jersey,
Prentice-Hall.
Kijkuit, B. and van den Ende, J. (2007). “The organisational life of an idea:
integrating social network, creativity and decision making perspectives”, Journal of
Management Studies, Vol.44, No.6, pp.863-882.
Kirton, M.J. (1976). “Adaptors and innovators: a description and measure”, Journal of
Applied Psychology, Vol.61, pp.622-629.
Kirzner, I. (1973). Competition and Entrepreneurship, University of Chicago Press,
Chicago.
Ko, S. and Butler, J.E. (2006). “Prior knowledge, bisociative mode of thinking and
entrepreneurial opportunity identification”, International Journal of Entrepreneurship
and Small Business, Vol.3, No.1, pp.3-16.
Ko, S. and Butler, J.E. (2007). “Creativity: a key link to entrepreneurial behaviour”,
Business Horizons, Vol.50, pp.365-372.
Koestler, A. (1960), The Act of Creation, New York, Macmillan
Kor, Y.Y., Mahoney, J.T. and Michael, S.C. (2007). “Resources, Capabilities and
Entrepreneurial Perceptions”, Journal of Management Studies, Vol.44, No.7,
pp.1187-1212.
Kuczmarski, T.D (1996). “Fostering an Innovation Mindset”, Journal of Consumer
Marketing, Vol. 13, No.6, pp.7-13
Kupp, M. and Anderson, J. (2009). “Understanding creativity: the manager as artist”,
Business Strategy Review, Summer, pp.69-73.
40
Lau, V.P. and Schaffer, M.A. (1999). “Career success: the effects of personality”,
Career Development International, Vol.4, No.4, pp.225-230.
Lee, S.Y., Florida, R. and Acs, Z.J. (2004). “Creativity and entrepreneurship: a
regional analysis of new firm formation”, Regional Studies, Vol.38, No.8, pp.879-
891.
Likert, R. (1932). “A technique for the measurement of attitudes”, Archives of
Psychology, Vol.140, pp.1-55.
Locke, E.A. and Kirkpatrick, S.A. (1995). “Promoting Creativity in Organisations”, in
C.M. Ford and D.A. Giota (Eds.), Creative Action in Organisations: Ivory Tower
Visions and Real World Voices, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.
Lokshin, B., Van Gils, A. and Bauer, E. (2009). “Crafting firm competencies to
improve innovative performance”, European Management Journal, Vol.27, pp.187-
196.
Lubart, T.L. (2001). “Models of the creative process: past, present and future”,
Creativity Research Journal, Vol.13, Nos.3/4, pp.295-308.
Mace, M.A. (1997). “Toward an understanding of creativity through a qualitative
appraisal of contemporary art making”, Creativity Research Journal, Vol. 10, Nos.
2/3, pp. 265-278.
Magyari-Beck, I. (1990). “An introduction to the framework of creatology”, Journal
of Creative Behavior, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 151-160.
Magyari-Beck, I. (1986). “The main paradigms in social sciences”, in Cheiron
Europe. V. International Conference, September, Varna, Bulgaria.
Mahoney, J.T. and Michael. S.C. (2005). “A subjectivist theory of entrepreneurship”,
in Alvarez, S.A., Agarwal, R. and Michael, S.C. (Eds.), Handbook of
Entrepreneurship, Kluwer, Boston, MA, pp.33-53.
Mainemalis, C. and Ronson, S. (2006). “Ideas are born in fields of play: towards a
theory of play and creativity in organizational settings”, Research in Organizational
Behavior, Vol.27, pp.81-131.
Markley, O.W. (1988). “Using depth intuition in creative problem solving and
strategic innovation”, Journal of Creative Behavior, Vol.22 No.2, pp.85-100.
Maslow, A. (1968), Creativity in Self-Actualizing People, Toward a Psychology of
Being, New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company
Mason, R.B. (2007), “The external environment’s effect on management and strategy:
a complexity theory approach”, Management Decision, Vol.45, No.1, pp.10-28.
41
McFadzean, E. (1998), “Enhancing creative imagination within organisations”,
Management Decision, Vol.36, No.5, pp.309-315.
McMullan, W.E. and Long, W.A. (1990). Developing New Ventures: The
Entrepreneurial Option, Harcourt, Orlando, FL.
McMullan, J.S. and Shepherd, D.A. (2006). “Entrepreneurial action and the role of
uncertainty in the theory of the entrepreneur”, Academy of Management Review,
Vol.31, No.1, pp.132-152.
Mintzberg, H., Raisinghani, D. and Theoret, A. (1976). “The structure of
‘unstructured’ decision processes”, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol.21, pp.246-
275.
Monthoux, P. Guillet de (2004), The Art Firm: Aesthetic Management and
Metaphysical Marketing., Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, CA.
Morris, M. H., Schindehutte, M. and LaForge, R. W. (2003) “The emergence of
entrepreneurial marketing: nature and meaning” in Hills, G. E., Hansen, D. J.,
Solomon, G. T. and Winslow, E. K. Research at the Marketing/Entrepreneurship
Interface, University of Illinois, Chicago.
Motamedi, K. (1982). “Extending the concept of creativity”, Journal of Creative
Behavior, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 75-88.
Mumford, M.D., and S.B. Gustafson (1988). “Creativity syndrome: integration,
application and innovation”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol.103, 27-43.
Mumford, M.D., Scott, G.M, Gaddis, B. and Strange, J.M. (2002). “Leading creative
people: orchestrating expertise and relationships”, The Leadership Quarterly, Vol.13,
pp.705-750.
Nayak, A. (2008). “Experiencing creativity in organisations: a practice approach”,
Long Range Planning, Vol.41, pp.420-439.
Nystrom, H. (1979). Creativity and Innovation, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester.
Oke, A., Munshi, N. and Walumbwa, F.O. (2009). “”The influence of leadership on
innovation processes and activities”, Organizational Dynamics, Vol.38, No.1, pp.64-
72.
Palus, C.J. and Horth, D.M. (2002). The Leader's Edge: Six Creative Competencies
for Navigating Complex Challenges, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Perry-Smith, J.E. (2006). “Social yet creative: the role of social relationships in
facilitating individual creativity”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol.49, pp.85-
101.
42
Perry-Smith, J.E. and Shalley, C.E. (2003), “The social side of creativity: a static and
dynamic social network perspective”, Academy of Management Review, Vol.28, No.1,
pp.89-106.
Petrowski, M.J. (2000). “Creativity Research: Implications for Teaching, Learning
and Thinking”, Reference Services Review, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 304-312.
Piaget, J. (1962). Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood, New York, Norton.
Poon, S. and Jevins, C. (1997), “Internet-enabled International Marketing: A Small
Business Network Perspective”, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol.13, No 1.
pp.29-41
Puccio, G.J. (1991). “William Duff’s Eighteenth Century Examination of Original
Genius and Its Relationship to Contemporary Creativity Research”, Journal of
Creative Behavior, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp.1-10.
Rich, J.D. and Weisberg, R.W. (2004). “Creating all in the family: a case study in
creative thinking”, Creativity Research Journal, Vol.16, pp.247-259.
Roberts, B. (2002). Biographical Research, Open University Press, Buckingham.
Robinson, A.G. and Stern, S. (1997). Corporate Creativity, Berrett, Koehler
Publishers, San Francisco, CA.
Robinson, K. (2001). Out of Our Minds: Learning to Be Creative, Capstone
Publishing, Oxford.
Rosa, J.A., Qualls, W.J. and Fuentas, C. (2008). “Involving mind, body and friends:
management that engenders creativity”, Journal of Business Research, Vol.61,
pp.631-639.
Rothenberg, A. (1979), The Emerging Goddess: The Creative Process in Art, Science,
and Other Fields, Chicago, University of Chicago Press
Roweton, W.E. (1989). “Enhancing individual creativity in American business and
education”, Journal of Creative Behavior, Vol.23 No.4, pp.248-257.
Runco, M.A. (1993). “Cognitive and psychometric issues in creativity research”, in
S.G. Isaksen, M.C. Murdock, R.L. Firestien and D.J. Treffinger (eds.), Understanding
and Recognising Creativity: The Emergence of a Disciple, Norwood, NJ, Ablex,
pp.331-368.
Salford, M. (1995). “Challenging the world of innovation”, Journal of New Entry,
Vol.6, No.3, pp.14-19.
Sapp, D.D. (1992). “The point of creative frustration and the creative process: a new
look at an old model”, Journal of Creative Behavior, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 21-28.
43
Shalley, C.E. (1991). “Effects of productivity goals, creativity goals, and personal
discretion on individual creativity”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 76, 179-185.
Shalley, C.E., Zhou, J. and Oldham, G.R. (2004). “The effects of personal and
contextual characteristics on creativity: where should we go from here?”, Journal of
Management, Vol.30, pp.933-958.
Stacey, R.D. (1996). Complexity and Creativity in Organisations, Berett-Koehler, San
Francisco.
Stein, M.I. (1974). Stimulating creativity: Vol. 1. Individual procedures. New York:
Academic Press.
Sternberg, R.J. (2004). “Successful intelligence as a basis for entrepreneurship”,
Journal of Business Venturing, Vol.19, No.2, pp.189-202.
Sternberg, R.J. and O’Hara, L.A. (1999). “Creativity and intelligence”, in R.J.
Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of Creativity, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
pp. 251-272.
Stewart, A. (1989). Team Entrepreneurship, Sage, Newbury Park, CA.
Storey, D. J. (1994). Understanding the Small Business Sector, Thomson Learning,
London.
Taggar, S. (2002). “Individual creativity and group ability to utilise individual
creative resources: a multilevel model”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol.45,
No.2, pp.315-330.
Teece, D.J., Pisano, G. and Shuen, A. (1997). “Dynamic capabilities and strategic
management”, Strategic Management Journal, Vol.18, No.7, pp.509-533.
Unsworth, K. (2001). “Unpacking creativity”, Academy of Management Review,
Vol.26, No.2, pp.289-297.
Van Den Broeck, H, Cools, E. and Maenhout, T. (2008). “A case study of
arteconomy:– building bridges between art and enterprise: Belgian businesses
stimulate creativity and innovation through art”, Journal of Management and
Organization, Vol.14, pp.573-587.
Vincent, P.H., Decker, B.P. and Mumford, M.D. (2002), “Divergent thinking,
intelligence and expertise: a test of alternative models”, Creativity Research Journal,
Vol.14, pp.163-178.
Ward, T.B. (2004). “Cognition, creativity and entrepreneurship”, Journal of Business
Venturing, Vol.19, pp.173-188.
Warhol, A. (1975). The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (From A to B and Back Again),
Harcourt Brace, San Diego, CA.
44
West, M.A. (2002). “Sparkling fountains or stagnant ponds: an integrative model of
creative and innovation implementation in work groups”, Applied Psychology: An
International Review, Vol.51, pp.355-387.
Whiting, B.G. (1988). “Creativity and entrepreneurship: how do they relate?”,
Journal of Creative Behavior, Vol.22, pp.178-183.
Williams, S.D. (2004). “Personality, attitude, and leader influences on divergent
thinking and creativity in organizations”, European Journal of Innovation
Management, Vol.7, No.3, pp.187-204.
Woo, C.Y. and Daellenbach, U. (1994). “Theory building in the presence of
‘randomness’: The Case of Venture Creation and Performance”, Journal of
Management Studies, Vol. 31, No.4, pp.507-524.
Woodman, R.W. and Schoenfeldt, L.F. (1990). “An interactionist model of creative
behaviour”, Journal of Creative Behaviour, Vol.24 No.4, pp.279-290.
Young, J.G. (1985). “What is creativity?”, Journal of Creative Behavior, Vol. 19, No.
2, pp. 77-87.
Young, R.M. (1988). “Biography: the basic discipline for human science”, Free
Associations, Vol. 11, pp. 108-130.
45
The Entrepreneur and the Enterprise:
Opportunity focused, innovative, open to change,
personality driven, operating under resource
constraints, informal knowledge exploitation,
entrepreneurial networking
Entrepreneurial competencies:
Energy, zeal, commitment,
determination, persistence,
opportunity focused, open to risks,
need for achievement, locus of
control
Creativity as:
Competitive advantage, strategic weapon ,
embedded philosophy, contributing to
employer and employee motivation,
problem solving and improved
performance
Social and other environmental influences:
Educational impact, openness to new
experiences, encouragement of creativity, seeing
things differently, curiosity, independent thinking,
persistence
Impact of cognitive skills (learned and
situational personality characteristics):
Idea generation, flexibility, originality,
motivation, unafraid of failure, opportunity
focused, exploitation of networks, analytical
skills, intuition, judgement, determination,
innovation, unrestrained thought, self-belief,
ability to work with change, ambition,
visualisation skills
Figure 1: Creativity in Entrepreneurship
46
47