Content uploaded by Professor Dilanthi Amaratunga
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Professor Dilanthi Amaratunga on Mar 23, 2016
Content may be subject to copyright.
A preview of the PDF is not available
Gender stereotypes: A barrier for career development of women in construction
Abstract
Although women representation in managerial positions is gradually increasing, the phenomenon of women being restricted to lower levels, under the glass ceiling effect is still valid in many countries. Different studies in several countries show that the increase of women in managerial positions is unbalanced compared to the total number of the workforce. According to the recent statistics, women managerial representation is less than 1% of the total construction work force in the UK. Several barriers for women's career advancement have been identified, most notably gender stereotypes. The stereotypical belief is that if women in managerial positions possess traditional male characteristic it is a better predictor for success, which reinforces the belief of "think manager-think male" and this discriminates women from reaching the higher positions with characteristics commonly associated with females. Since construction is one of the highest male dominated industries, the effect of stereotypes as a barrier for women's career progression in construction is salient. This paper reviews academic literature on gender stereotypes and its consequent effects on women managers. It attempts to discover the pertinent issues for women in the construction industry in order to reduce the stereotypical image.
... The current scenario has made it imperative to prioritize women's economic empowerment since involving them in sustainable development efforts is crucial. This aligns with global trends and recommendations from the Institute of Arab Countries [31]. ...
... Women's career advancement is impeded, and an unfair advantage is established due to the difficulty of balancing work and family life [41]. In Saudi Arabia, women frequently face obstacles and disruptions in their careers, which are frequently the result of deeply entrenched gender stereotypes surrounding the division of labor [31]. The frequency and nature of these interruptions can differ based on a woman's upbringing and conditions [42]. ...
This chapter describes the recent fundamental socio-economic changes achieved in Saudi Arabia to include women in the workforce in the face of a culture that traditionally excluded them from the public arena. It shows how this change is being achieved through Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 and how these changes have acted as a force that potentially empowers Saudi women. The historical background of the Saudi economy is briefly outlined before focusing on the feminization of the workforce and the challenges that this has faced and continues to face. Patriarchal attitudes and the barriers to women’s equality in education and employment are considered before discussing how these challenges are being addressed in Saudi Arabia, in particular how the controversial lifting of the requirement for permission from a women’s male guardian for a range of public activities has contributed to women’s empowerment and their participation in the workforce. The chapter concludes that the recent changes enacted as part of the Vision 2030 initiatives have gone some considerable way toward encouraging women into the workforce, but that there is still some way to go before the Saudi gender gap is closed. The chapter uses a range of secondary sources to illustrate the each of the points made, and has selected recent, peer-reviewed research published in reputable journals.
... Consistent with the ndings for this study, numerous studies have examined gender differences in the effect of perceived social support on the career choice process of men and women studying STEM [37,38,39,40] subjects and found that girls received less encouragement and support from their social networks . Studies have been conducted to examine the stereotypical beliefs on career choice in male-dominated occupations and have hypothesized that the under-representation of women in the construction industry is because of gender-stereotyping of [41,42] [ 19,21] careers . Previous research provides evidence that men and women differ in their perception of gender stereotypes . ...
... Studies have examined gender differences in the barriers to career choices among undergraduate students in traditionally male occupations and have found [43,44] female students to perceive more barriers than did their male counterparts . Gender disparities exist in the barriers [41] experienced by students in choosing a construction career . Studies conducted to examine the barriers to participation in construction suggest that women compared to men experience barriers such as discrimination, harassment, lack of role models, [45,46] wage gap etc., which hinder their entry and participation in the industry . ...
PURPOSE This study examines the gender differences in the perception of students as it relates to factors that determine their choices to undertake a career in construction. METHODOLOGY The study used a close-ended questionnaire in a survey of university students enrolled in construction-related programs in South Africa. A survey of 229 conveniently sampled undergraduate students, enrolled in construction-related programs was conducted. The Mann-Whitney U test was used to test for tnacingisdifferences between the gender groups concerning the nine constructs. FINDINGS Results from the questionnaire survey revealed that outcome expectations, perceived barriers, goal representations, social supports and gender stereotypes had the most ecneunion the career choice of men and women. Three of the nine predictor constructs (social supports, perceived barriers, and gender stereotypes) were found to have tnacingisdifferences between men and women. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS Findings of the current study have meaningful implication for practice in career choice and development in male-dominated environments and occupations.
... Globally, women"s progress in the workforce is subject to gender stereotypes and their roles in society (Schein, 2007). Indeed, gender stereotyping is considered the primaryand salient barrier that employed women face (Ginige et al., 2007;Schein, 2007), which affects their career progress and advancement (Heilman, 2012). Several scholars (e.g. ...
... Several scholars (e.g. Alfarran et al., 2018;Bahudhailah, 2019;Ginige et al., 2007;Schein, 2007) assert that women face several barriers and obstructions in their professional lives, particularly in relation to gender stereotypes. Indeed, the career interruptions that employed women may encounter differ according to intersectional barriers (Al-Asfour et al., 2017;Alfarran et al. 2018). ...
... The differences may have arisen not just from biological differences but also from sex role socialization during childhood and the way in which men and women develop psychologically. Gender stereotypes have consistently demonstrated that men are generally seen as more agent and more competent than women, while women are seen as more expressive and communal than men (Duher and Bono; Sczesny and Stahlberg, as cited in Ginige, 2007). ...
The title of this study is the role of performance women participate leadership women in Chiro finance the case of women participate leadership in Chiro finance office evaluating the performance of on their job in order to identify their strengths and weakness so as to improve upon their performance. As a result, performance role in determine the performance of staff at Chiro finance office. The main objective of this study is to assess the role of performance or women participation in leadership in Chiro finance performance, to find out the design and implementation of performance leadership women in Chiro finance, and to identify problem or challenges when conducting performance leadership women in Chiro finance. This study used both primary and secondary data. Primary data was collected from the employees through questionnaire, interview. The secondary source of data was collected from the published source of data. After the necessary data was collected the activity of data analysis, interpretation and presentation was followed. Based on the data collect as well as the information gathered, summary, conclusions and recommendations will be present
... Traditional roles of labor are at the basis of these gender stereotypes and certain traits and behaviors were linked to these roles (Hoyt & Simon, 2017). For example, Western literature describes that agentic traits such as confidence, assertiveness and dominance were linked to men and communal traits such as sensitive, affectionate, gentle and soft spoken were linked to women (Duehr & Bono, 2006;Eagly & Carli, 2007;Ginige, Amaratunga, & Haigh, 2007;Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011). These gender stereotypes are learned at an early age (Damon & Lerner, 2008) and impact perceptions and expectations regarding the position, roles, performance and behaviors of men and women (Beatty, 2007). ...
Purpose
This study aimed to collect data on the perception of top executive women in the Aruban hotel sector regarding implicit gender bias.
Design/methodology/approach
A qualitative study on the metacognitive processes of awareness, evaluation and autocorrection was utilized. Through purposive sampling women in the top two leadership levels in Aruba Hotel and Tourism Association (AHATA) member-hotels were selected.
Findings
Results showed that a third of the top female executives experienced implicit gender bias career barriers. Different types of bias were identified such as: judgments regarding pregnancy, unequal pay and obstructions by the male general manager. How the women dealt with this bias depended on the type of bias and their personality. The identification of bias and its effects on the career trajectory were also influenced by characteristics of the work setting such as the size of the hotel and functional area.
Research limitations/implications
The research limitations include the chosen scope, the impediment of the generalizability of the findings due to the nature of the study, self-perceived data and possible researcher and respondent bias.
Practical implications
This study added to the existing body of leadership development literature with a focus on the effects of implicit bias on female leadership advancement. Some specific theoretical concepts that were combined in this study are organizational leadership, metacognition and the unconscious mind. The important role of personality was also confirmed in this study however one element that stood out in the current study was the effect of resilience in overcoming perceived barriers and attaining personal career goals. Suggestions and directions for future research are provided.
Originality/value
Despite the fact that gender bias was not observed in an explicit form, participants advised to be aware of the existence and effects of the implicit form and to seek education and guidance from female mentors and to remain goal oriented when confronted with this bias. Since female under-representation in senior leadership positions in other economic sectors is not observed this advice serves as a significant practical implication for the development of female leadership in this important sector in Aruba.
... Women frequently choose workplace flexibility or career breaks to care for a partner and grandchildren throughout the late-level work period. Women's opportunities are limited as a result of the frequent interruptions to their employment, which are often caused by a cultural acceptance of and ideas about the place of women in society [33,36]. Multiple studies have found that flexible working arrangements are an alternative for women with childcare duties to manage the conflicting responsibilities of home and work, and it may be the best career option, especially with the advancement of technology and the internet [15,18,[37][38][39]. ...
One of the main challenges faced by companies, scholars, and governments nowadays is achieving economic, environmental, and social sustainability. Remote working, reduced work weeks, and other types of flexible working time arrangements (FWAs) are the new characteristics that will shape the future of work to ensure social sustainability. In changing work patterns, working styles are changed to possibly improve women employees’ mental health and life–work balance. However, recently, very few firms have succeeded in adopting these new FWA trends. The purpose of this paper is to investigate women’s preferences towards FWAs in the academic sector as a social sustainability source. We investigate the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on female faculty members’ future job preferences. The data used in the research are collected from a survey given to female faculty members who work in a Saudi women’s university and have already experienced FWAs during the COVID-19 period. The study uses mixed methods of research, combining a choice modeling (CM) method, one sample t-test, a paired sample t-test, cluster analysis, and probit models. Our results show that flexible working arrangements improve the wellbeing of women employees, which ensures sustainable social development. The findings also show that flexibility in location plays a significant role in the decision made by female faculty members when revealing their flexibility preferences. However, flexibility in time did not play a significant role in the decisions made by respondents. This study adds to the empirical evidence in the current literature on female academic staff preferences for FWAs in Saudi Arabia, using choice modeling conjoint analysis and mixed approaches.
... It is also commonly believed that women lack enthusiasm in taking up challenging assignments (Jain & Mukherji, 2010), visible and challenging assignments (Afza & Newaz, 2008;Azmi et al., 2012;Kilian et al., 2005;Sharma & Sehrawat, 2014), critical developmental assignments (Britt, 2002), job rotation programmes (Adamson, 2012) and assignments that increase internal visibility (Jackson, 2001). As a result of these gender stereotypical beliefs and attitudes, the skills of women are underestimated (Sharma et al., 2011), a negative attitude towards women is developed (Dimovski et al., 2010;Jamali et al., 2006;Omotayo et al., 2013;Princess et al., 2015), the performance of women is not fairly judged (Ginige et al., 2007;Oakley, 2000;Priyadarshini & Azeez, 2018) and the opinion of women is not heard at meetings (Bergman & Hallberg, 2002;Chary, 2016;Dimovski et al., 2010;Jamali et al., 2006). ...
It is generally believed that when compared to men, women have slower career advancement prospects. Usually, women in the workforce face several obstacles, commonly referred to as glass ceiling (GC), that weaken their career advancement prospects. The present study aims to develop a scale to measure the GC obstacles faced by women employed in the banking sector. The scale was developed and validated through a three-step process: item development, scale development and scale evaluation. The items were generated through literature review and focus group discussions (FGDs). The items developed were fine-tuned in consultation with academic experts. The scale was developed and validated, through a study, covering 411 women employees working in different banks in the state of Kerala. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) brought out seven dimensions of GC, namely family responsibilities (FR), discriminatory promotion practices (DPP), employee relations (ER), personality traits (PT), lack of organizational support (LOS), gender stereotypes (GS) and lack of training (LT). The scale was evaluated using reliability and validity measures, and it demonstrated adequate reliability, discriminant and convergent validity. The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was carried out using AMOS. Towards the end of the article, there is also a discussion on managerial implications, limitations of the study and directions for future research.
... Several studies detailing the status and participation of women in construction have argued that the barriers they encounter primarily influence the decision of women to take up careers in the field (Amaratunga et al., 2006;Ginige et al., 2007;English and Bowen, 2012). This signifies that it is vital to examine negative factors that hinder women's career choices in construction. ...
This paper presents findings of a Delphi study which sought to identify the key factors that influence and determine the career choices of women in the construction industry in the South African context. Adopting the Socio-Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) as the study's conceptual framework, a two-round iteration was performed to obtain the opinion of 14 experts actively involved in the South African construction industry. Consensus was achieved on ten predictors and 53 elements that influenced women's decisions to undertake a career in the construction profession. Findings from the study revealed women's career choices were influenced by gender, self-efficacy, socioeconomic status, outcome expectations, goal representations, learning experiences, interests, social supports, perceived barriers and access to opportunity structures. Ethnicity was found to have insignificant importance and impact on their career choices. The implication of the research is that results from the study provides insight into the factors that could conceivably increase the participation of women who want to enter and remain in the construction work.
The construction workplace is male-dominated and stressful, but little is known about gender-based differences in its stressors. This research examined the effect of gender and personal attributes on stressors in the New Zealand construction industry at four major levels: (1) individual, (2) group, (3) organizational, and (4) extra-organizational. Target respondents were professional construction members from Site Safe New Zealand, with 317 completed questionnaires and statistical analysis using the two-sample t-test, Kruskal-Wallis test, and Levene’s test. The findings show that females have higher qualifications than males, but males have about ten years more experience and more completed projects than their female counterparts. Males reported significantly higher technical skills than females and there was no significant difference between genders regarding sector involvement. At the individual level, females were most affected by role conflict stress and the perception of different treatment because of gender. Males felt significantly higher stress over the variable 'on/off-site office/administration building conditions’. At the group level, there were no significant gender differences, but sexual harassment warranted further investigation. Within the organizational and extra-organizational levels, no variables differed significantly between genders. The construction workforce has a strong gender imbalance and efforts are needed to address this through better work-life balance.
This study explores the perspectives of employed married women in Saudi Arabia and the impact of changing workplace patterns caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. A qualitative approach draws on the findings from in-depth semi-structured interviews with married Saudi working women in the public education sector. The key findings are identified through a thematic analysis. First, remote work is considered to provide a suitable and quiet workplace. Second, the challenges include weak internet connections (major factor), followed by communication, sitting for long periods, institutional disrespect for official working hours and non-specific working hours (minor factors). A specific difficulty was the distraction of children, but this was considered manageable. Third, working remotely gives Saudi married working women opportunities to increase their performance and productivity, develop themselves, create work-life balance and improve their technology skills. Finally, in the education sector, a blended workplace is a suitable pattern that can be implemented effectively. The study is exploratory with a small sample size, so the findings cannot be generalized. However, it generates new insights into gender stereotypes regarding the difficulties and opportunities of the changing workplace patterns caused by COVID-19, through the lens of Saudi married working women.
Aims to disseminate the findings of an investigation into the perception of women as managers and the obstacles that they face in the workplace. Identifies the issues and problems faced by women from “multinational corporations” and the impact of operating across national boundaries. The three key issues are age, gender, and family responsibility. Reports on evidence found from conducting “personal interviews” and “focus group” discussions, showing that the ensuing implications have had a significant impact on women in the workplace. Argues that little has changed in terms of employers’ perception of working women so far. The study was supported from funds provided via the European Union under the European Social Fund Scheme.
The issue of management style and women’s progression has been highlighted in the past, but women’s perceptions of successful management styles are important too, especially where women’s own preferred management style differs from their view of the top team. Such differences can lead to women not putting themselves forward for promotion. Reports a study of male and female managers in one very large insurance company. Uses the personality attributes questionnaire (PAQ) to identify the managers’ own management style, and their perceptions of the style of “the successful manager” who had reached the top team in their organisation. The PAQ identifies two dimensions of management from which four categories can be found. The survey of 363 managers revealed significant gender differences. The study provides further evidence of a shift in perceptions of leadership styles towards androgynous management, high on both instrumental and expressive traits. However, women are still thinking in “think manager, think male” mode, which may limit their confidence to put themselves forward for promotion.
Purpose
To investigate specific barriers that might be hindering Maltese women from achieving a managerial position.
Design/methodology/approach
This study is based on research by Cromie. Barriers are classified into two main categories; internal and external barriers. Job‐involvement and work‐based self‐esteem are considered to be internal barriers, whereas attitudes towards women in management are considered to be external barriers. The total population was 200, consisting of male and female middle managers, female and male employees and B. Commerce students.
Findings
Results indicate no differences between job involvement and work‐based self‐esteem of male and female managers. On the other hand, both male employees and students seem to hold more stereotypical attitudes towards women in management than their female counterparts.
Research limitations/implications
One of the basic limitations of this study was the sample size since small samples make it difficult to generalize. Further research may focus on two main areas. First, it would be useful to have qualitative research on the work experiences of female managers to further investigate the various factors that have helped and hindered women thorough their career advancement. Secondly, research on corporate climate can be helpful in identifying organizational practices that might be blocking female career prospects. Finally, a study considering how attitudes can be reshaped through the educational system and through the use of the media can also help to reduce gender stereotypes.
Practical implications
This study indicates that women often have to face several attitudinal barriers, which in turn may explain the lack of female participation in managerial occupations. A change in organizational policies can help women to overcome these barriers.
Originality/value
This paper confirms that, as in several countries, Maltese women are facing several barriers, which are hindering their career prospects. It also highlights the important role of organizations in reducing workplace barriers.
Reviews the relatively slow change in attitudes about the
characteristics required in management, and explores gender differences
in management style. Reports on research to investigate how both
“typical” and “good” managers are perceived in
terms of characteristics related to masculinity and feminity. Findings
suggest that, although managers in general are rated high in masculine
characteristics, good managers are rated high both in masculine and
feminine characteristics. Discusses results in the context of trends in
organizations.
Purpose
– Female resource represents about half of Nigeria's human resources. For optimal utilization of human resources, gender equality and equity, it was considered that women should be adequately represented in the construction industry which is the prime motivator of the country's economy. A survey was, therefore, conducted to know the level of participation of women in some selected categories of workforce in the industry.
Design/methodology/approach
– The research was designed to generate quantitative data on women participation in the construction industry in Nigeria. Data were, therefore, collected from medium and large construction contracting companies on the male/female numerical strength in some selected categories of workforce, the suitability of some construction tasks for women and constraints to female entry into the construction industry using questionnaires, interviews and visits to construction sites.
Findings
– The survey revealed that only 16.3 per cent of the sampled companies' workforces were women. Approximately, 50 per cent of these women were employed as labourers, 37.5 per cent as administrative staff, 10 per cent as management staff and 2.5 per cent as craftswomen. Paired t‐test performed on the male/female numerical strength showed that women were underrepresented in the construction industry in Nigeria. The survey also indicated that women preferred office related construction processes to site production.
Originality/value
– Findings in this field survey represent the unbiased level of women's participation in Nigeria's construction industry and the data are useful for policy formulation in relation to mainstreaming female into the construction industry.
Examines attitudes regarding female labour force participation among people of different ages using National Opinion Research Centre Social Survey data. Focuses specifically on the factors associated with a pro-feminist attitude. Demonstrates that younger people have more positive attitudes towards women working outside their homes than do older people. Men are less pro-feminist in their attitudes than are women. Men and women disapprove of a woman working if preschool children suffer by her working. In addition to age and gender, the factors influencing attitude are income, education, religious beliefs, urban residence, born in this country, having young children in the family or expecting more children, and work years and job security. A supportive attitude for working women was associated with higher education, higher family income, residence in urban areas, liberal viewpoints, and uncertainty about having more children. The absence of correlation between employment of women and attitudes towards participation in the workforce and between marital status and attitude were especially surprising. Discusses economic, social and political implications of the findings.
Purpose
A major barrier to women's progress in management worldwide continues to be the gender stereotyping of the managerial position. The purpose of the paper is to examine how this “think manager – think male” attitude has changed over the three decades since the author's initial research and to consider the implications of the outcomes for women's advancement in management today.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper reviews the author's research, first conducted in the 1970s and replicated in the USA and internationally, on gender stereotyping and requisite management characteristics.
Findings
The overview reveals the strength and inflexibility of the “think manager – think male” attitude held by males across time and national borders. Over the last three decades corporate males in the USA continue to see women as less qualified than men for managerial positions. Internationally, the view of women as less likely than men to possess requisite management characteristics is also a commonly held belief among male management students in the USA, the UK, Germany, China and Japan.
Practical implications
Women's continued progress depends on recognizing the intractable nature of these negative attitudes and continually seeking ways to ensure that these attitudes do not derail their success. The need to maintain and expand legal efforts is discussed. An argument is also made for challenging the “corporate convenient” way of working and restructuring managerial work to facilitate a work and family interface.
Originality/value
Based upon three decades of research, the paper highlights the importance of maintaining and increasing efforts to ensure that women advance to positions of power and influence in organizations worldwide.
This study investigates Egyptian society’s attitudes towards women who work held by a sample of 217 participants. The subjects completed the newly developed multidimensional aversion to women who work scale (MAWWWS). The study validates the scale in a non-western context. The results reveal that, contrary to our expectation, Egyptian students have very similar attitudes towards women who work to those of the older generations. There are significant differences between males’ and females’ perceptions towards women’s roles and participation in society. The study predicts that modernity may diminish patriarchal attitudes towards women in Arab societies. Finally, the study detects no significant difference between Muslims and non-Muslims in Egypt regarding their attitudes towards women who work.
An attitude survey was conducted with 72 management majors attending a prestigious business university in Beijing, China. The results indicate that there is still a significant “glass ceiling” effect to accepting women as they climb up the management hierarchy. The group estimated that it would take at least 32 years before equality would be reached. Women were less likely to prefer to work for a woman than for male subjects. Women were described as more incompetent, slower, weaker, more a follower-than-a-leader, more lenient, more democratic, less active, and more friendly than male managers. Women were significantly more in agreement with the idea of being both a professional and a wife. The results reflect a similar attitudinal position to US women. The conclusion is that it will not be easier for Chinese women to succeed than it is for women in theUSA.
Abstract: The relationship between sex role stereotypes and the characteristics perceived necessary for managerial success was examined among 153 male and 165 female commerce students in New Zealand using the 92-item Schein Descriptive Index. The results were compared with those from similar studies conducted in the USA, Great Britain, Canada, Germany, Japan, and the People's Republic of China. Both male and female commerce students in New Zealand perceive successful middle managers as possessing the characteristics, attitudes and temperaments commonly ascribed to men in general and, to a lesser degree, women in general. Discriminant analysis was used to identify the specific attributes used by respondents to distinguish the stereotypes.
Keywords:Managers; Stereotyping; Women; Gender
Article Type:Survey; Theoretical with Application in Practice
Content Indicators:Research Implications-**; Practice Implications-**; Originality-**; Readability-**
Reference Links: 7