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Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1743453
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Spirituality and Performance in Organizations: A Literature Review
Dr. Fahri Karakas
Research Fellow
The Open University, Business School
IMPEL (International Management Practice, Education, and Learning) Centre
Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0) 1908 655 888 - ext. 58068
Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1743453
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Spirituality and Performance in Organizations: A Literature Review
Abstract:
The purpose of this paper is to review spirituality at work literature and to explore how
spirituality improves employees’ performances and organizational effectiveness. The paper
reviews about 140 papers on workplace spirituality to review their findings on how
spirituality supports organizational performance. Three different perspectives are introduced
on how spirituality benefits employees and supports organizational performance based on the
extant literature: a) Spirituality enhances employee well-being and quality of life; b)
Spirituality provides employees a sense of purpose and meaning at work; c) Spirituality
provides employees a sense of interconnectedness and community. The paper introduces
potential benefits and caveats of bringing spirituality into the workplace; providing
recommendations and suggestions for practitioners to incorporate spirituality positively in
organizations.
Key words: Spirituality at work, performance, organizations, human resources, well-being,
benefits, caveats, review
Paper type: Literature review
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A new paradigm in organizations: Spirituality movement
The purpose of this paper is to review spirituality at work literature and to explore how
spirituality improves employees’ performances and organizational effectiveness. The paper
reviews about 140 papers on workplace spirituality to review their findings on how
spirituality supports organizational performance. Three different perspectives are introduced
on how spirituality benefits employees and supports organizational performance based on the
extant literature. The paper also introduces four potential caveats of bringing spirituality into
the workplace; and provides recommendations for practitioners to incorporate spirituality
positively in organizations.
A number of scholars mention a paradigm shift in organizational sciences, management
theory and practice in the past two decades (Capra, 1996; Giacalone and Dafna, 2000;
Harman and Hormann, 1990; Ray and Rinzler, 1993; Wheatley, 1992). It seems this
paradigm shift is complex and includes multiple dimensions such as moving from a
predictable outlook to chaos (Gleick, 1987), from command and control or fear-based
approaches to trust and empowerment (Conger and Kanungo, 1988), from simplicity to
complexity (Lewin, 1992), from transactional leadership to transformational leadership
(House and Shamir, 1993), and from closed systems to complex adaptive systems (Dooley,
1997). These changes in management include a shift from an economic focus to a balance of
profits, quality of life, spirituality, and social responsibility concerns (Walsh, Weber, and
Margolis, 2003; DeFoore and Renesch, 1995), a shift from self-centeredness to
interconnectedness (Capra, 1993), a shift from self-interest to service and stewardship
(Block, 1993; Neck and Milliman, 1994), and a change from materialistic to a spiritual
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orientation (Fox, 1994; Neal, 1997, DeFoore and Renesch, 1995). In line with this
paradigm shift, we have witnessed that organizations and managers have been discovering
and experimenting with new ways and methods to help employees balance work and family,
such as flexible work arrangements (Gottlieb, Kelloway, and Barham, 1998) and
telecommuting (Kugelmass, 1995). In relation to these practices, organizations in North
America have been increasing their focus on strategies of empowerment (Byman, 1991;
Conger and Kanungo, 1988) to enable and increase employee involvement and participation
(Hyman and Mason, 1995; Cotton, 1993). These innovations and new ways of working aim
to be mind-enriching, heart-fulfilling, and spirit-growing for employees and still be
financially rewarding at the same time.
This new paradigm that is emerging in organizations has also been called as “the spirituality
movement”. Ashmos and Duchon (2000) have described the spirituality movement as “a
major transformation” (p. 134) where organizations make room for the spiritual dimension,
which has to do with meaning, purpose, and a sense of community. This new spiritual
dimension embodies employees’ search for simplicity, meaning, self-expression, and
interconnectedness to something higher (Marques, Dhiman, and King, 2007). This paper will
contribute to the spirituality at work literature by inquiring its benefits for employees and its
relationship with organizational performance. To start doing this, it would be useful to
review the growing interest in spirituality at work literature and the definitions of spirituality.
Over the last decade, scholars report a steady increase of interest in spirituality at work issues
among management researchers and practitioners in North America (Cavanagh, 1999;
Giacalone and Jurkiewicz, 2003b; Ashmos and Duchon, 2000, Tischler, 1999). Howard
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(2002) argues the “explosion of interest in spirituality as a new dimension of
management…probably the most significant trend in management since the 1950s.” (p. 230).
Wagner-Marsh and Conley (1999) suggested that there has been “an organizational fourth
wave”, referring to an aftermath of Toffler’s (1980) technological third wave and they called
this “the spiritually based firm” (p.292).
The growing interest in workplace spirituality is also evident in bookstores, virtual
bookstores and the recent spirituality books on the issue. A search on spirituality and
business on Google Book yields around 2990 results, while the same search on Amazon.com
gives more than 3140 book titles; though not all results are directly related to the core issue
(October, 2008). Some of these books on spirituality at work or spirituality and leadership
have been among the best sellers, such as A Spiritual Audit of Corporate America (Mitroff
and Denton, 1999b), Liberating the Corporate Soul (Barrett, 1998), Spirit at Work (Conger,
1994), The Soul of a Business: Managing for Profit and the Common Good (Chappell, 1993),
Leading with Soul (Bolman and Deal, 1995) and The Heart Aroused: Poetry and
Preservation of the Soul in Corporate America (Whyte, 1994).
Finally, the growing interest in spirituality is evident in corporations, corporate meeting
rooms, and the business world as well. For example, a growing numbers of organizations,
including large corporations such as Intel, Coca-Cola, Boeing, and Sears, are reported to
have incorporated spirituality in their workplaces, strategies, or cultures (Burack, 1999; Konz
and Ryan, 1999, Wagner-Marsh, and Conley, 1999; Gogoi, 2005). Some spiritual practices
include holding Bible, Quran, or Torah study groups; forming voluntary prayer groups;
having “higher power lunches”; forming interfaith dialog groups; organizing reflection
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sessions; offering meditation exercises; and starting servant leadership development
programs.
Some corporations incorporate spirituality into their strategies within the framework of
corporate social responsibility. For example, Anita Roddick, founder of the Body Shop, is
committed to contributing to Glasgow through social responsibility projects aimed at solving
the problems of high unemployment, crime rates and urban decay in the region. She invests
a quarter of net profits back to the community to ‘keep the soul of the company alive’. Many
companies that are grounded in spiritual values and principles also are committed to social
responsibility and community service. Another example is Tom’s of Maine, which gives
away 10% of pre-tax profits to charities for common good and provides employees four paid
hours a month to volunteer for community service. These examples provide anecdotal
evidence of how organizations can incorporate spirituality and social responsibility into their
mission while still performing well.
Although the literature and interest on spirituality at work is growing rapidly; there is
confusion around how spirituality influences organizational performance. The objective of
this paper is to review current literature on spirituality at work and organizational
performance; in order to explore how spirituality is related to organizational performance.
The paper reviews the workplace spirituality literature to synthesize theoretical and empirical
findings on how spirituality benefits employees and supports organizational performance.
Three different perspectives are introduced on how spirituality supports organizational
performance based on the extant literature: a) Spirituality enhances employee well-being and
quality of life; b) Spirituality provides employees a sense of purpose and meaning at work; c)
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Spirituality provides employees a sense of interconnectedness and community. The paper
introduces potential benefits and caveats of bringing spirituality into the workplace;
providing recommendations and suggestions for practitioners to incorporate spirituality
positively in organizations.
Definitions of spirituality at work
There are more than seventy definitions of spirituality at work, and still, there is no widely
accepted definition of spirituality (Markow and Klenke, 2005). There are indeed many
possible ways to define such a complex and diverse term as spirituality at work. For example,
spirituality has been defined as our inner consciousness (Guillory, 2000), a specific form of
work feeling that energizes action (Dehler and Welsh, 1994), “a process of self-
enlightenment” (Barnett, Krell, and Sendry, 1999, p. 563), “a worldview plus a path”
(Cavanagh et. al., 2001, p. 6), “access to the sacred force that impels life” (Nash and
McLennan, 2001, p. 17), and “the unique inner search for the fullest personal development
through participation into transcendent mystery” (Delbecq, 1999, p.345). In these
definitions, spirituality is mostly described as an idiosyncratic, multifaceted, elusive concept;
difficult to be captured in a common definition.
Laabs (1995) points out that “defining spirituality in the workplace is like capturing an angel
- it's ethereal and beautiful, but perplexing” (p.63). The term “spirituality” comes from the
Latin word “spiritus” or “spiritualis” that means breathing, breath, air or wind (Merriam-
Webster). Spiritus is defined as “an animating or vital principle held to give life to physical
organisms” (Merriam-Webster). This implies spirit is the life force that inhabits us when we
are alive and breathing (Garcia-Zamor, 2003). Scott (1994) offers a parallel definition for
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spirit as “the vital principle or animating force within living beings; that which constitutes
one's unseen intangible being; the real sense or significance of something” (p.64).
Spirituality, as defined by Mitroff and Denton (1999a), is “the basic feeling of being
connected with one’s complete self, others and the entire universe” (p.83). As noted above;
the fuzziness, ambiguity and the complexity of the construct makes spirituality a difficult
research topic to investigate. In this paper, spirituality is defined as the journey to find a
sustainable, authentic, meaningful, holistic and profound understanding of the existential self
and its relationship/interconnectedness with the sacred and the transcendent. Spirituality is
distinguished from institutionalized religion by being characterized as a private, inclusive,
non-denominational, universal human feeling; rather than an adherence to the beliefs, rituals,
or practices of a specific organized religious institution or tradition. This distinction is
important in the spirituality at work literature, as manifested by Mitroff and Denton’s (1999)
study where 60 percent of the respondents had positive views of spirituality while negative
views of religion.
Spirituality and organizational performance
Whether applying, enabling, or incorporating spirituality practices in organizations result in
increase in productivity or profitability is a very complex and controversial issue. Dent,
Higgins, and Wharff (2005) review the controversies around the measurement and rigor
issues of how spirituality and performance are related. There are two opposite camps or
positions regarding the inquiries on the relationship between spirituality and organizational
performance. On the one hand, some researchers view spirituality as anti-materialist (Lips-
Wiersma, 2003; Gibbons, 2000) and anti-positivist (Fornaciari, Lund Dean, and McGee,
2003) by its nature and question positivist research methods on spirituality (see Fornaciari
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and Lund Dean, 2001; Mitroff and Denton, 1999; Palmer, 1994; Fornaciari, Lund Dean, and
McGee, 2003; Gibbons, 2000, Lips-Wiersma, 2003). These researchers argue that the anti-
materialist characteristic of spirituality may pose important challenges in the scientific
investigation of its links to financial performance (Fornaciari and Lund Dean, 2001; Dent et.
al, 2005; Fornaciari, Lund Dean, and McGee, 2003). Some researchers supporting this
position point out to the fact that there may indeed be ethical pitfalls and moral concerns in
the research question of whether enabling or incorporating spirituality at work results in
better organizational performance or profitability (Dent, Higgins and Wharff, 2005;
Fernando, 2005). Other researchers also mention their concerns about spirituality being used
as an administrative tool to manipulate employees (Brown, 2003; Fernando, 2005; Mirvis,
1997; Cavanagh and Bandsuch, 2002). These scholars argue that spirituality should be seen
as an end in itself and should not be used as a managerial tool for increasing financial
performance in organizations (Fernando, 2005; Cavanagh and Bandsuch, 2002). Some
scholars indeed express their reservations and urge caution on the potential abuses or misuses
of spirituality at work (Brown, 2003; Mitroff and Denton, 1999; Jackson, 2000; Cavanagh
and Bandsuch, 2002).
On the other hand, some scholars argue that spirituality can be used to improve
organizational performance (Ashmos and Duchon, 2000; Garcia-Zamor, 2003; Giacalone and
Jurkiewicz, 2003a; Fry, 2005); and spirituality research should demonstrate spirituality’s
links with productivity and profitability (Ashmos and Duchon, 2000; Giacalone, Jurkiewicz
and Fry, 2005; Fry, 2005; Garcia-Zamor, 2003; Giacalone and Jurkiewicz, 2003a and
2003b). These researchers, such as Giacalone, Jurkiewicz and Fry (2005), make a call to
spirituality at work researchers to empirically and rigorously demonstrate the positive effects
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of spirituality on performance to prevent the marginalization of spirituality at work research.
This position can be summarized as the strategy to empirically demonstrate positive effects
and outcomes of spirituality in organizations. The basic aim is to make the area of spirituality
at work research more legitimate and mainstream to organizational studies. Indeed, it has
been suggested that organizations that encourage spirituality experiences improved their
organizational performance and profitability (Biberman and Whitty, 1997; Biberman et al.,
1999; Burack, 1999; Kriger and Hanson, 1999; Korac-Kakabadse, Kouzmin, and Kakabadse,
2002; Neck and Milliman, 1994; Thompson, 2000). In the last decade, several research
projects have been conducted that reported positive relationships between spirituality at work
and organizational productivity and performance (Bierly, Kessler, and Christensen, 2000;
Delbecq, 1999; Korac-Kakabadse and Korac-Kakabadse, 1997; Mitroff and Denton, 1999b).
Additional research reveals that organizations that have voluntary spirituality programs have
had higher profits and success (Dehler and Welsh, 1994; Mitroff and Denton, 1999b; Konz
and Ryan, 1999; Turner, 1999).
Therefore, there have been a lot of controversies and confusion regarding the role and
legitimacy of “spirituality at work” and its relationship with organizational performance
(Giacalone and Jurkiewicz, 2003). Despite growing recognition of spirituality at work as a
significant area of inquiry, research conducted in the intersection of spirituality and
organizational performance has not been consolidated and systematically reviewed. This
review aims to contribute to the spirituality at work field by integrating three different
perspectives on how spirituality enables or leads to organizational performance (Figure 1):
a) Human resources perspective: Spirituality enhances employee well-being and
quality of life;
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b) Philosophical perspective: Spirituality provides employees a sense of purpose and
meaning at work;
c) Interpersonal perspective: Spirituality provides employees a sense of
interconnectedness and community.
Therefore, the paper introduces an integrative view of how spirituality at work benefits
organizations through these three perspectives. In particular, the paper notes and attempts to
explain the general lack of cumulative work and the lack of synthesis of work across these
three perspectives. I contend that the interplay between these three perspectives can provide
us a more comprehensive understanding of how spirituality leads to effectiveness and better
performance in organizations.
Figure 1: Three Perspectives of Spirituality and Performance
SPIRITUALITY
Employee Well-Being
Sense of Meaning & Purpose
Sense of Community &
Interconnectedness
Increased
Productivity
And
Performance
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Perspective 1: Employee well-being
First, I approach the issue from a Human Resources perspective, the perspective of employee
well-being. This includes individual level positive effects of spirituality; including subjective
well-being, morale, and commitment. This perspective purports that incorporating
spirituality at work a) increases employees’ well-being by increasing their morale,
commitment, and productivity; b) decreases employees’ stress, burnout, and workaholism in
the workplace.
Proposition 1: Spirituality enhances the general well-being of employees:
a) by increasing their morale, commitment and productivity
b) by reducing stress, burnout and workaholism
This perspective is particularly salient in today’s workplaces where employees spend most of
their time in their lives. Work sites have become the central pieces in our lives and the
source of values in society (Fairholm, 1996, p.11). Workplaces are the places where people
spend most of their lives, develop friendships, create value, and make their most meaningful
contributions to society (Fairholm, 1996). The organizations where people spend most of
their time become their most important community, their gemeinschaft. Thus, work has
meanings beyond the “nine-to-five” working hours; it is even becoming the cradle of
meaning in modern knowledge society. For some people, work and colleagues at work have
even taken the place of family or social groups. Conger (1994) observes workplace has
become the fountainhead of community for many people. However, together with the
increasing importance and centrality of work in people’s lives, associated problems also have
increased such as stress, burnout and workaholism.
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Several scholars including Rifkin (2004), and Gini (1998) argue that workaholism has
become a serious and growing problem for many Americans. The average worker in the U.S.
started to work 163 extra hours annually in 1987 compared to 1969 (Schor, 1991). Recent
research conducted by Galinsky et al. (2005) found 44 % of U.S. workforce experienced
overwork in the last month in their workplaces. Hard work and long hours can become
unhealthy and dissatisfying for employees as they confuse meaning and their inner worth
with external rewards, promotion, striving for mastery, and affluenza (p. 10-20, Burke,
2006). Stress caused by workaholism and long hours at work can result in loss of spirituality,
chronic illnesses, pain, chronic fatigue, fear, and guilt (Killinger, 2006). Cartwright and
Cooper (1997) report that increasing stress in the workplace leads to higher absenteeism,
lower productivity, and increased health compensation claims in the U.S. The collective cost
of stress for U.S. corporations have been estimated to be around $150 billion due to
absenteeism, loss of productivity, health insurance and medical expenses (Karasek and
Theorell, 1990).
In addition to increasing workaholism, several additional factors are reported that increase
uncertainty and stress at work in American workplaces. There have been many changes in
work environments over the past decades that created a climate of uncertainty, chaos, and
fear among employees (Cacioppe, 2000; Harman, 1992; Kennedy, 2001). Ethical scandals,
corporate crimes, downsizing, layoffs, mergers and acquisitions, September 11, global terror,
market crashes, financial crises, and global competition characterize a business environment
full of turmoil and uncertainty (Neal, 2000, Biberman and Whitty, 1997; Giacalone &
Jurkiewicz, 2003a, Cacioppe, 2000). There is evidence in the literature that downsizing and
layoffs have decreased the morale and commitment of employees (Brandt, 1996; Giacalone
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and Jurkiewicz, 2003a; Duxbury and Higgins, 2002). Neal (1999) argues that there is a
“legitimized schizophrenia” in today’s workplaces, referring to the uneasy feeling of putting
on masks, hypocrisy, artificiality, and playing to be successful. According to Neal (1999),
legitimized schizophrenia leads to an artificial separation between work and life, which
results in lower productivity and higher stress and burnout.
Contemporary evidence supports the statement that many employees in today’s workplaces
feel unappreciated, unconnected, lost and insecure in their jobs (Sparrow and Cooper, 2003;
Meyer and Allen, 1997). Several researchers found that employees began to feel distanced,
vulnerable, and cynical as a result of downsizing, restructuring, reengineering, delayering,
layoffs, and other current changes in organizations (Sparrow and Cooper, 2003; Bartlett and
Ghoshal, 1995, Meyer and Allen, 1997; Biberman and Whitty, 1997). Barrett (2004) cites a
recent survey of more than 800 mid-career executives, which reports that unhappiness and
dissatisfaction with work is at a 40-year high. Some researchers report a steady decline of
employee respect, trust, and confidence in management (Burack, 1999; Shaw, 1997). Mitroff
and Denton (1999b) argue that today’s organizations suffer from a deep spiritual emptiness
and many of problems in organizations result from this spiritual impoverishment. A growing
number of managers and employees are reported to resort to meditation, reflection and
spiritual practices; wellness programs, as well as fitness and sports exercises at work as a
method of coping with stress and uncertainty at work (Dehler and Welsh, 1994; Cartwright
and Cooper 1997).
Research suggests that the development and expression of the spirit at work may indeed
solve these problems of stress and burnout, as well as have beneficial consequences for the
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well-being of employees. Reave (2005) mentions the review of Emmons (1999, p. 876) that
summarizes seven studies that have reported “a significant correlation between spirituality
and mental health indices of life satisfaction, happiness, self esteem, hope and optimism, and
meaning in life” (p. 667). There is growing evidence in spirituality research that workplace
spirituality programs result in positive individual level outcomes for employees such as
increased joy, serenity, job satisfaction and commitment (Paloutzian, Emmons, and Keortge,
2003; Kouzes and Posner, 1995; Burack, 1999; Reave, 2005; Giacalone & Jurkiewicz,
2003a, Krishnakumar and Neck, 2002; Fry, 2003, 2005). There is also evidence that these
programs improve organizational productivity and reduce absenteeism and turnover (Fry,
2003, 2005; Giacalone and Jurkiewicz, 2003a). Milliman, Czaplewski, and Ferguson (2003)
found a positive correlation between workplace spirituality and employee attitudes such as
commitment to the organization, intrinsic work satisfaction, and job involvement. Neck and
Milliman (1994) claim spirituality values have positive effects on both personal well-being
and job performance.
More employers today are encouraging spirituality in the workplace as a way to enhance
employee morale, commitment and productivity. Research suggests fostering spirituality and
allowing free expression of spirituality at work enables employees to feel complete and
authentic at work (Burack, 1999); which leads to a high degree of personal fulfillment and
morale; and this in turn results in increased organizational performance (Turner, 1999).
Bento (1994) reviewed research proposing that spiritually empowered employees are found
to be more honest, courageous, and compassionate individuals and they can represent these
characteristics on their job. Krishnakumar and Neck (2002) suggested that the
encouragement of spirituality in the workplace can lead to benefits in the areas of creativity,
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honesty, personal fulfillment, and commitment, which will ultimately lead to increased
organizational performance. Some forms of encouragement of spirituality in the workplace
include organizing optional morning prayers or yoga sessions; designing multi-faith prayer
spaces; starting corporate chaplaincies, or introducing spiritual wellness and balance
programs for employees (Krishnakumar and Neck, 2002; Mitroff and Denton, 1999).
Further research revealed trust is crucial in forming a sound basis for commitment (Kriger
and Hanson, 1999) and spirituality increases commitment by establishing a climate of trust in
the workplace (Burack, 1999).
This body of work provides preliminary support for the argument that incorporating spiritual
practices at work can indeed increases employees’ morale, commitment, and productivity;
while decreasing their stress and burnout at work.
Perspective 2: Sense of meaning and purpose
Second, I approach the issue from philosophical and existentialist perspective; which is
connected to the concepts such as the search for meaning and purpose in what employees are
doing at the workplace. Providing a deeper sense of meaning and purpose for employees is
important; as this enables employees to perform better and to be more productive and
creative at work. This perspective contends that incorporating spirituality at work provides
employees and managers a deeper sense of meaning and purpose at work.
Proposition 2: Spirituality provides employees and managers a deeper sense of
meaning and purpose at work.
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This perspective is based on the argument that today’s workplaces have increasingly been
emotionally and spiritually barren, devoid of deeper meaning and spirit. Organizations of the
industrial age have been centered on creating material wealth; putting economic goals and
profitability before the social and public ones (Walsh, Weber and Margolis, 2003). As profit
maximization has become the main strategic objective and success is measured in financial
measures such as sales, cash flow, and market share; the social, interpersonal, and spiritual
functions and goals of organizational life have taken a back seat in today’s corporations
(Walsh, Weber and Margolis, 2003; Hertz, 2002; Gull and Doh, 2004; Post, Preston, and
Sachs, 2002). In most of today’s corporations, the central focus persists to be on observable,
external, controllable, empirical, and materialistic outcomes or variables (Gull and Doh,
2004); which led to the creation of “a world without depth” (p. 129; Gull and Doh, 2004) and
the isolation of the soulful aspects of work life (Bolman and Deal, 1995). In line with this
argument, Gozdz (1995) contends that organizations that value positivism, reductionism, and
empiricism may fall into the trap of denying the existence of spirit. The assumption that
material wealth and success will automatically lead to individual and collective well being is
starting to be questioned as people desire more meaning and quality of life at work (Cash and
Gray, 2000; Gull and Doh, 2004; Laabs, 1995; Pratt and Ashforth, 2003; Wrzesniewski,
2003). Moreover, a half century of ethical scandals and corporate crimes coupled with
environmental degradation necessitate radical improvement in social, environmental, and
ethical performance of companies (Frederick, 2006; Waddock, 2006).
A large number of employees today often feel psychological isolation and alienation at work
(Cavanagh, 1999; Harman, 1992; Bolman and Deal, 1995); as well as a vacuum and a lack of
meaning in their work lives (Pratt and Ashforth, 2003; Cavanagh, 1999, Dehler and Welsh,
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1994). Separating work, life, family, and spirit into compartments may rip authenticity off
employees; leaving them feeling unfulfilled, stressed and alienated (Cavanagh, 1999;
Fairholm, 1996). Accordingly, the saliency of the search for meaning and the need for inner
satisfaction for employees in today’s workplaces is foreseeable and well-documented in the
literature (Cavanagh, 1999; Fairholm, 1996; Jacobson, 1995). Fairholm (1996) cites Renesch
(1995) reporting more than forty million people “searching for a more intrinsically valued
lifestyle” in the U.S. (p. 11). Similarly, Johnson (2004) reports 61% individuals think their
workplaces would benefit from a greater sense of meaning and spirituality. Oldenburg and
Bandsuch (1997) interpret this trend as a longing in people's souls for deeper meaning,
deeper connection, greater simplicity, a connection to something higher. In a time of rising
emphasis on business ethics and work life balance; corporations feel compelled to respond to
the employee need for meaning at work (Cavanagh, 1999; Pratt and Ashforth, 2003; Gull and
Doh, 2004; Cacioppe, 2000).
Indeed, many employees in today’s workplaces are reported to question themselves and their
work, ask themselves about the essence and meaning of their work, and search for a sense of
purpose and meaning at work (Neal, 1997; Brandt, 1996; Cacioppe, 2000; Ashmos and
Duchon, 2000; Konz and Ryan, 1999; Kouzes and Posner, 2003; Burack, 1999; Fairholm,
1996). The following set of existential questions employees reflect on and ask themselves,
introduced by Kouzes and Posner (2003), exemplify this search of meaning and purpose for
employees (p. 69-70):
“What do I stand for? What do I believe in? Why?
What is the meaning of the work I am doing? Where does this lead me to?
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Is there a reason for my existence and the organization's?
What brings me suffering? What makes me weep and wail? Why?
What am I passionate about? Why? What keeps me awake at night? Why?
What do I want for my life? Why? What do I really care about? Why?” (p. 69-70)
These questions can go deep in the heart of employees and have implications for employees’
careers, lives, needs, aspirations, passions, and spirituality. Responding to the needs of
employees for meaning at work is turning into a critical success factor for companies as
employees’ quest for deeper meaning and fulfillment in their careers is intensified. A
number of researchers argue that workplace spirituality has the potential to provide
employees a feeling of purpose, a sense of connection, and a sense of meaning at work
(Giacalone and Jurkiewicz, 2003a; Brandt, 1996; Bolman and Deal, 1995). Lips-Wiersma
(2002) associated spirituality with finding meaning and purpose in life and living in
accordance with this meaning and deeply held beliefs (p. 385). Mitroff and Denton (1999a)
found that organizations that have a stronger sense of spirituality enable employees to
exercise stronger values and ethical beliefs in their workplace and empower them to show
more creativity and flexibility at work. Moreover, Mitroff and Denton (1999a) found workers
who can express their spirituality through their work actually find work more satisfying and
meaningful and accordingly perform better. This is in line with Gull and Doh (2004); who
propose that employees become more engaged and can work more responsibly, ethically,
collaboratively, and creatively when they find meaning in their work activities. Supporting
employees to incorporate their spirituality and values into their work is also reported to be
increasing their personal satisfaction and joy (Dehler and Welsh, 1994; Reave, 2005). Lips-
Wiersma (2002) argued that employees fully expressing their spirituality can benefit their
20
organizations through “creativity and intuition”, “increased empowerment”, “more cohesive
vision and purpose”; and “enhanced team and community building” (p. 385). Paloutzian,
Emmons, and Keortge (2003) report that work takes on new meaning and significance when
it is seen as a calling, a sacred duty, a service opportunity or a way to serve God, other
deities, or a higher purpose. When work is seen as a calling, it becomes more meaningful
and this increases productivity and commitment of employees (Reave, 2005; Paloutzian et
al., 2003). All this research supports and shows how productivity and performance increases
as a result of deeper meaning at work; as well as how spirituality at work can provide
employees a sense of meaning and purpose. The common pattern in all these work seem to
be the fact that workers want to be recognized for who they are; as whole persons with spirit,
heart, soul, passions, hopes, talents, aspirations, families, private lives, emotions, ups and
downs, and diverse perspectives on matters.
Perspective 3: Sense of community and interconnectedness
Third, I approach the topic from an interpersonal and community perspective, which is
connected to the concepts of belonging, community, and connectedness. This perspective is
centered on the interpersonal relationships, collective dimensions, and social dynamics of
spirituality. This perspective contends that incorporating spirituality at work provides
organizational members a sense of community and connectedness; thus increases their
attachment, loyalty and belonging to the organization.
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Proposition 3: Spirituality provides employees a sense of community and
connectedness; increasing their attachment, loyalty and belonging to the
organization.
Providing employees a sense of community and connectedness is critical in today’s
workplaces and corporations. Current concerns about ethical scandals and violations, such as
Enron and Arthur Andersen, have negative effects such as the elimination of trust and sense
of community in corporations (Gull and Doh, 2004; Schroth & Elliot, 2002; Neal, 2000).
Waddock (2006) argues corporate scandals have resulted from self-centeredness, greed,
egoism, and selfish passion instead of caring for others. As a result of the failure of trust in
institutions; employees are searching for a sense of community, high quality connections
(Dutton and Heaphy, 2003) and compassion at work (Frost et al., 2006). Because of the
decline of local communities and social groups that establish a sense of connectedness
(Conger, 1994) and the dissolution of traditional support systems such as the church and
family (Leigh, 1997); workplaces have replaced them as primary sources of community for
many people. It is also known that employees are seeking ways and means to connect to
each other and to be united in a common vision that goes beyond materialistic aims (Miller,
1998). Moreover, in times of uncertainty; employees and managers face significant
challenges and traumatic experiences in their lives; such as death, divorce, illnesses, and
layoffs (Weiss, et al., 2001) which force them to reach out to their communities for support,
guidance, and help. This makes the aspects of community and connectedness in spirituality
experiences even more important in today’s organizations.
22
The conception of workplaces as human communities with social functions and societal
benefits is taking ground and momentum in organizations (Walsh, Weber, and Margolis,
2003; Milliman et. al., 1999) There has been an invitation of researchers to consider
organizations as communities that produce significant social values and outcomes for society
(Walsh, Weber, and Margolis, 2003; Frost, Dutton, Mailis, Lilius, Kanov, and Worline,
2006). This perspective stresses that organizations are not just machines for producing goods
but also forms of human community that foster satisfying and meaningful life experiences for
individuals, families, and society (Gull and Doh, 2004). This perspective has its roots in
Human Relations movement and the humanistic discourses in organizational theory (e.g.
McGregor, 1960; Mayo, 1946). In line with this community oriented perspective, Cash and
Gray (2000) observe American corporations move toward a more value-expressive
philosophy and tolerant culture responding to employees' requests for spiritual connection
and sense of community. This transition toward the need for spirituality and connection is
also evident in changing managerial perceptions and values in today’s corporations. For
example, according to a study conducted by Ashar and Lane-Maher (2004), mid- and senior
level executives did not describe success in materialistic terms (such as money or
promotion), but instead used terms such as being connected, balance, and wholeness to
define success.
Feeling part of a community and sharing a common purpose are two dimensions that have
been frequently associated with workplace spirituality (Milliman et al., 1999; Brown, 1992,
Gozdz, 1993; Ray, 1992). A sense of connection and interconnectedness to something larger
than oneself (Brown, 1992) has also been considered an important part of spirit at work
(Milliman et. al., 1999). A good sense of community and connectedness becomes possible
23
through high quality connections at the workplace (Dutton and Heaphy, 2003). Milliman et
al. (1999) conducted a case study of Southwest Airlines demonstrating how incorporation of
spiritual values at work and tapping into the deeper levels of employee spirituality and
motivation can nurture a genuine sense of community, spirit and affection in the workplace.
In agreement with this finding, Chappell (1993) suggests shared values and a shared sense of
purpose can turn a company into a community where daily work takes on a deeper meaning
and inner satisfaction.
Spirituality at work provides employees a sense of community and connectedness. The
consequences of spiritual experiences at work are discussed in the literature including higher
levels of employee attachment, loyalty and belonging (Milliman et. al., 1999; Fairholm,
1996; Duchon and Plowman, 2005). Consequences of spiritual relationships include
intimacy, wholeness, authenticity, altruism, and integrity (Kendall, 1994; Burack, 1999;
Stiles, 1994). In the spirituality literature, spirituality is often linked to positive outcomes and
benefits associated with the “sense of community”; such as unifying and building community
(Cavanagh, Hanson, Hanson, and Hinojoso, 2001), serving the need for connecting to others
at work (Khanna and Srinivas, 2000), and being the source of daily expressions of
compassion, wisdom, and connectedness (Maxwell, 2003). There is also considerable
amount of research linking spirituality to consideration towards others at work (Milliman,
Czaplewski, and Ferguson, 2003; and Milliman, Ferguson, Trickett, and Condemi, 1999;
Burack, 1999). The International Center for Spirit at Work considers this the “horizontal”
component in spirituality; the desire to be of service to other people. This “horizontal
spirituality” is demonstrated by a service orientation and deep concern for others.
Consideration toward others (showing concern) and high quality interpersonal work
24
relationships have been correlated in empirical studies with high worker job satisfaction, low
turnover, group cohesion, group performance, and group efficiency (Bass, 1990, Champoux,
2000).
Examples of research presented above provide initial empirical support for the proposition
that spirituality provides employees a sense of community and connectedness; in turn
increases employee commitment, belonging, and effectiveness.
This paper has been built on the assumption that there is indeed a possibility of transforming
“barren workplaces” into “abundant workplaces” by incorporating spirituality positively into
our workplaces. Therefore, this paper has proposed three main perspectives inquiring into
how spirituality benefits employees and organizations: a) Spirituality enhances employee
well-being and quality of life; b) Spirituality provides employees a sense of purpose and
meaning at work; c) Spirituality provides employees a sense of interconnectedness and
community. Table 1 outlines these perspectives below. These three perspectives can provide
HR practitioners and managers new ways to develop new human resources approaches
incorporating spirituality at work. The paper also underlines the importance of taking all
three perspectives (human resources, philosophical, and interpersonal) into account while
designing spirited workplaces of the 21st century; which are engaged with passion, alive with
meaning, and connected with compassion.
25
Table 1:
Three Perspectives on Benefits of Spirituality for Employees and Organizations
Human Resources
Perspective Philosophical
Perspective Interpersonal
Perspective
Focus on
developing
employees’
well-being purpose and meaning community and
connectedness
The problem:
Barren
Workplaces
Emotionally barren
workplaces Spiritually barren
workplaces Socially barren
workplaces
Main
problems/
gaps/
necessity
Stress, burnout,
Workhaholism
Absenteeism
Low morale &
commitment
“Lethargy”
Excessive materialism
Loss of meaning &
depth
Low fulfillment, joy, &
creativity
“Atrophy”
Self-centeredness,
greed & egoism
Isolation
Low cohesion &
belonging
Lack of social support
“Entropy”
The solution:
Abundant
Workplaces
Emotionally abundant
workplaces Spiritually abundant
workplaces Socially abundant
workplaces
Positive
outcomes of
incorporating
spirituality
Increased morale &
commitment
Increased employee
well-being
Increased employee
productivity
Increased sense of
meaning & purpose
Increased fulfillment &
job satisfaction
Increased hope &
creativity
Increased reflection
Increased sense of
connectedness &
community
Increased attachment,
loyalty, & belonging
High quality
connections
Ideal benefits
for employees Empowered,
committed, passionate
employees
Highly aware, self-
reflective, creative
employees
Compassionate,
steward, benevolent
employees
Spirited
workplaces of
the 21st
century are
Engaged with passion Alive with meaning Connected with
compassion
26
Discussion: Caveats and cautions
This paper has reviewed the potential benefits of incorporating spirituality into our
workplaces. However, there are several limitations and challenges regarding the practices of
spirituality at work that need to be mentioned. This section will discuss and outline four of
the most important potential dangers or caveats about bringing a spiritual perspective into
workplaces (See Table 2). There are four good reasons to be cautious while incorporating
spirituality into the workplaces in the business world.
The first major problem is the danger of proselytism. The main potential danger of spiritual
expression at the workplace is the risk of proselytizing other people from diverse religions,
spiritualities or views (Krishnakumar and Neck, 2002) and this danger is widely recognized
and put forth in spirituality literature (Mitroff and Denton, 1999; Mirvis, 1997; Cavanagh,
1999; Milliman, Czaplewski, and Ferguson, 2003; Krishnakumar and Neck, 2002; Burack,
1999). Using spiritual beliefs to exclude others undermines the requirement for respect and
inclusiveness at work. Scholars also mention documented cases of companies that
proselytize employees using particular religious or spiritual doctrines (Mirvis, 1997).
Associated with this risk are the concerns about people feeling dissatisfaction and frustration,
not being able to express their own spirituality, not being respected for their diversity, and
feeling being coerced (Krishnakumar and Neck, 2002; Cavanagh, 1999; Milliman et al. 2003;
Brown, 2003). Indoctrination will lead to coercion and alienation on part of the employees
subjected to this. Moreover, implementing generic common spiritual principles or practices
may result in alienated, isolated or threatened people (Mirvis, 1997; Krishnakumar and Neck,
2002). There is also a danger when a specific community of individuals with similar
27
interests dictates their own agenda in an organization (Cavanagh and Bandsuch, 2002). The
existence of destructive groups such as “Al Kaide” imposing their agenda based on terror and
hate also harm the reputation and legitimacy of the issue of spirituality at work (Cavanagh
and Bandsuch, 2002; Mirvis, 1997). Shortly, spirituality issues, especially religious issues,
can have divisive and harmful influences in the workplace if there is not absolute respect for
diversity (Krishnakumar and Neck, 2002). There are all kinds of human rights and equity
issues here; including dangers of favoritism, intolerance or discrimination (Cavanagh, 1999;
Mirvis, 1997; Milliman, Czaplewski, and Ferguson, 2003).
The second major problem is the issue of compatibility. For some corporate cultures
(especially those characterized by a materialistic and positivist philosophy), it may be a
challenge to incorporate spirituality issues into the workplace (Mirvis, 1997; Cavanagh, et
al., 2001). Mirvis (1997) characterizes these corporate cultures as “antithetical” to
spirituality. Mirvis (1997) also mentions a corporate tendency of separating “church and
state”, “faith and reason”, “the spiritual and the secular” (p. 202); which makes perspectives
and feelings about spirituality “undiscussable” in many organizations (p. 203; Mirvis, 1997).
The argument that there might be legitimate resistance to open expressions of religion and
spirituality at work is a valid one in today’s corporate environments (Brown, 2003; Mirvis,
1997). Incorporating spirituality into work can disturb some managers who are trying to
protect their power and status quo. Moreover, some employees may perceive spiritual
conversations “too personal”; invasive of their privacy and may feel under pressure (Mirvis,
1997; Cavanagh, 1999).
28
The third major problem is the risk of spirituality becoming a fad or a being used as a
management tool to manipulate employees. This risk is the most mentioned and articulated
one in spirituality literature (Fernando, 2005; Cavanagh and Bandsuch, 2002; Gibbons, 2000;
Brown, 2003; Cavanagh, 1999; Mitroff and Denton, 1999; Milliman, Czaplewski, and
Ferguson, 2003) and it is a very justifiable concern as there are already visible signs of this in
popular spirituality books, training programs and corporate practices. The danger here is that
spirituality may lose all its essence, beauty, and authenticity if it is misused as a management
tool or a marketing device (Mirvis, 1997; Fernando, 2005; Gibbons, 2000). Spirituality at
work practices will have short life and validity if they are adopted as management fads or
programs used to increase worker productivity (Cavanagh and Bandsuch, 2002; Mirvis,
1997). Without a genuine commitment to the authenticity of spirituality for its own sake,
these programs of spirituality may turn into just “management fad, with sinister undertones,
which, when unmasked, is likely to prove ineffective and ephemeral” (p. 396; Brown, 2003).
Fineman’s (2006) recent criticism of positive programs of “empowerment”, “fun”,
“emotional intelligence” also applies to spirituality programs; as these programs may
“stigmatize” or “alienate” employees who may not feel comfortable with them (p. 277-278).
This critical discourse explaining how employees are manipulated, controlled or bought into
management interests is important (Brown, 2003; Milliman, Czaplewski, and Ferguson,
2003), because it shows how misuse of spirituality robs managers and employees of deeper
meaning, authenticity, and integrity (Cavanagh and Bandsuch, 2002, Brown, 2003).
The fourth major problem is the legitimacy problem spirituality at work field faces in theory,
research and practice. As an emerging field, spirituality at work topics are not yet well
established in the scientific literature as well as in professional practice (Giacalone,
29
Jurkiewicz and Fry, 2005; Giacalone and Jurkiewicz, 2003a and 2003b). There is great
ambiguity and confusion about the concept, definition, meaning, and measurement of
spirituality (Giacalone and Jurkiewicz, 2003a; Hicks, 2003; Ashmos and Duchon, 2004).
There are still controversies around methodology, validity, rigor and measurement of
spirituality at work (Kinjierski and Skrypnek, 2004; Giacalone and Jurkiewicz, 2003a). The
growing body of literature on spirituality at work has been criticized for being atheoretical
and ungrounded (Lund Dean, Fornaciari and McGee 2003), as well as lacking rigor
(Gibbons, 2000), and enough theory (Dent et. al. 2005). Dent, Higgins and Wharff (2005)
suggest that researchers must be rigorous in defining and differentiating spirituality to
prevent a “conceptual fog” (Bateson, 1972). Another related criticism to spirituality research
is that of “artificiality” which results from the lack of integration with established world
religions and traditions (Gibbons, 2000). Mitroff and Denton (1999b) also mention issues
that result from linguistic complexities within spirituality research; pointing out to the
inadequate language and tools of positivist inquiry and narrow-minded rationalism that
prevent deep understanding of the issue.
Table 2 outlines these four problems and lists four suggestions for practitioners for proper
implementation of spirituality at work. The paper concludes with these suggestions to
achieve the successful integration of spirituality into workplaces.
30
Table 2:
Major Problems and Suggestions for Incorporating
Spirituality in Organizations
Four Problems Four Suggestions
The danger of proselytism
The issue of compatibility
The risk of spirituality becoming a fad or a
management tool to manipulate employees
The legitimacy problem the field of
spirituality at work faces in theory,
research and practice
Accommodation of spiritual requests
Respect for diversity
Openness and freedom of expression
Acknowledgement of employees as
whole persons
Conclusion
How can organizations best buffer themselves from the potential caveats or concerns when
they are incorporating spirituality into work environments? For many employees, religion
and spirituality are central to their identities and important aspects of their lives (Hicks,
2003). To achieve successful integration of spirituality at work, major concerns and caveats
of bringing spirituality at work should be adequately addressed. It is critical to proceed
carefully in implementing spirituality programs and incorporating spirituality at work; as
imposing spirituality and religion on employees would be counterproductive, alienating, and
disastrous for some people. The following suggestions can be used by practitioners to
address the caveats and potential dangers of bringing in spirituality into the workplace:
31
Accommodation of spiritual requests: Although organizations may not have any spiritual
orientation, still managers should try to accommodate and encourage spiritual requests from
its employees, as suggested by Cash and Gray (2000). Organizations should encourage their
employees to feel free to express their own spiritual beliefs (see Krishnakumar and Neck’s
(2000) “spiritual freedom model” for details). Moreover, managers should accommodate
their spiritual requests of its employees irrespective of their different spiritual beliefs
(Cavanagh, 1999). This means; as long as the spiritual requests of some employees do not
limit the freedoms of others, managers should respond to them (Cavanagh, 1999).
Respect for diversity: In the post-September 11 era, the debates over religious conflict and
tolerance have become global (Hicks, 2003). Moreover, workplaces of today are more
diverse and multicultural than ever before. Therefore, it has become crucial to acknowledge
diversity in the workplace and absolutely respect individual differences (Krishnakumar and
Neck, 2002). Since spirituality is a highly individual and idiosyncratic experience, it is
necessary that spirituality practices be customized based on the principle of respecting and
valuing individual’s unique inner landscape, values, and perspective (Krishnakumar and
Neck, 2002). Promoting “one right path” or favoring a specific spiritual or religious
framework will not work in these diverse work environments (Hicks, 2003). A culture of
respect for diversity of beliefs and faiths should be cultivated in the workplace by enforcing
codes of conduct as well as instilling values of tolerance and compassion (Milliman,
Czaplewski, and Ferguson, 2003; Milliman et. al., 1999; Kouzes and Posner, 1995). Hicks
(2003) offers a model of “respectful pluralism” for addressing conflicts arising from religious
and spiritual differences at work. Hicks (2003) asserts that leaders should strive for creating a
32
respectful and tolerant environment where employees can freely express their own beliefs
and thoughts on spirituality.
Openness and freedom of expression: Spirituality practices and policies should put openness
and respect for diversity at the center of their focus (Thompson, 2000). Employees should be
able speak openly and express their inner feelings, values and spirituality, regardless of fear,
alienation or exclusion (Milliman, Czaplewski, and Ferguson, 2003; Thompson, 2000).
Krishnakumar and Neck (2002) developed an individual level model of spiritual enrichment
called “the spiritual freedom model”. This model embodies the implementation of “spiritual
freedom” that forms common good from diverse origins and spiritual orientations
(Krishnakumar and Neck, 2002). It is important to mention that the organization doesn’t
establish or enforce any particular spiritual principle common to all its employees. Spiritual
enrichment of the workplace is supported and ensured by the free and open expression of
intuition, creativity, honesty, authenticity, trust, and personal fulfillment in a positive
atmosphere (Krishnakumar and Neck, 2002).
Acknowledgement of employees as whole persons: It is important to acknowledge and know
a person’s emotional, intellectual, and spiritual needs, values, priorities and preferences. HR
and OD professionals stress the importance of engaging whole persons at work (Kahn 1992,
Hall and Mirvis 1996); with all their minds, hearts, spirits, and souls. It is important to
acknowledge people as spiritual beings, and take into account of people's spiritual lives and
the value and richness of their collective potential (Garcia-Zamor, 2003). As Leigh (1997)
states workplace spirituality starts with the acknowledgement that employees do not bring
33
only their bodies and minds to work; but also their hearts, souls, creativity, talents and unique
spirits.
At a time in which organizations are faced with more complexities, competition, and change
than at any other time in history, the need for spirituality is a recurring theme in corporations
and businesses (Karakas, 2006). In the 21st century, organizations need to incorporate a set
of humanistic and spiritual values into workplaces to enable human hearts, spirits and souls
to grow and flourish. Employees and managers increasingly need to reflect on the ways of
incorporating spirituality, wisdom, reflection, inspiration, creativity, and compassion into
work. I humbly hope that this literature review can contribute to a conversation about
spirituality at work and provide insights on the application and incorporation of spirituality in
work settings.
34
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