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Abstract

Coastal drownings claim on average 82 people per year in Australia. Beach flags are a primary safety strategy used on beaches. They are located away from rip currents, which are the main beach hazard affecting swimmers. Little is known about the behavioural and motivational factors associated with people choosing where to swim in relation to flags and rips. To assess the beliefs and behaviours of beachgoers in relation to beach flags and rip currents. Beachgoers at beaches in NSW were interviewed about their swimming beliefs and behaviours. They were asked to indicate on pictures depicting beach scenarios involving beach flags and fixed rip currents, where they would and would not swim. Logistic regression analysis was undertaken to determine predictors of correct and incorrect swimming behaviour. Beachgoers who are aged from 30 to 49 years (OR 0.34, 95% CI 0.16, 0.74, p=0.006) are less likely to choose to swim between the flags than other swimmers. In addition, beachgoers who are at the beach with children are significantly more likely to choose to swim between the flags (OR 2.74, 95% CI 1.39, 5.40, p=0.004). Beachgoers with basic knowledge about rip currents are significantly more likely to swim away from the rip (OR 11.59, 95% CI 5.89, 22.81, p<0.001). Ocean swimmers aged from 30 to 49 years may choose to swim outside the flags, though they may not necessarily be swimming in the rip. Swimming outside of the flags may be linked with experience. The flags appear to be attractive to parents and carers of children. Whilst the flags indicate a relatively safe area of the beach, it is still vitally important for parents and carers to supervise children in this area. Basic rip current knowledge is an essential component in developing national interventions aimed at reducing coastal drowning. Beachgoers clearly need to know what a rip looks like in order to actively avoid swimming in it.

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... considerations before entering open water. In another study, Sherker et al. (2010) found that 33.7% of Australian beachgoers were over-confident about their ability to identify a rip current, yet they were mistaken. They identified a subgroup of beachgoers who take risks by swimming outside the safety flags and perceived themselves as capable of identifying rip currents well enough to avoid getting caught. ...
... Specifically, we formulated the initial items by drawing from previous attitude scales, including the competitive attitude scale (Menesini et al., 2018), performance enhancement attitude scale (Morente-Sánchez et al., 2015), leisure attitude scales (Ragheb & Beard, 1982;Teixeira & Freire, 2013), risk-attitude scale (Weber et al., 2002), sport attitude scale (Yakut et al., 2016;Yanik, 2018), and physical education activity attitude scale (Zeng et al., 2011). Moreover, in developing these initial items, this study extensively reviewed previous research on attitude toward open water activities (Allkins et al., 2021;Pidgeon-Willcox et al., 2017;Sritanyarat & Marin, 2019;Wolch & Zhang, 2004), open water safety (Brenner et al., 2003;Bugeja et al., 2014;Cercato et al., 2015;Moran et al., 2011Moran et al., , 2012Petrass & Blitvich, 2014;Sherker et al., 2010;Virk & Pikora, 2011), and sport and leisure (Ateca-Amestoy et al., 2008;Berki et al., 2020;Kyle et al., 2007;Lee et al., 1994;Ling et al., 2019;Sánchez-Miguel et al., 2019;Scanlan et al., 2016;Siegenthaler & O'Dell, 2000). By integrating perspectives from these various sources, the initial items captured a comprehensive understanding of attitude toward open water activities. ...
... One effective intervention is the ban on alcohol consumption at beaches in New Zealand (Conway, 2002). Other strategies include educating the public, establishing signboards or notices (Williamson et al., 2012), and helping users identify rip currents and related risks (Sherker et al., 2010). Regarding wearing of PFDs or life jackets, multiple studies have supporting evidence to show its effectiveness in reducing drownings (Bugeja et al., 2014;Pitman, 2019;Viauroux & Gungor, 2016). ...
... These areas are generally marked out by two flags, although the colors of the flags may vary from country to country (Tipton & Wooler, 2016). However, it is still very common for people to continue recreating outside of these supervised areas (Wilks, de Nardi et al. 2007;Sherker, Williamson et al. 2010;Williamson, Hatfield et al. 2012;Uebelhoer, Koon et al. 2022). ...
... But information is far from being a guarantee of caution. This is attested by the results of a survey by Sherker, Williamson et al. (2010), in which the individuals who claimed to be the best informed about the risks were also those who, more often than others, admitted to swimming outside supervised areas. Similar results were obtained by Trimble and Houser (2018), Drozdzewski et al. (2012Drozdzewski et al. ( , 2015 and Williamson et al. (2012). ...
... bathing outside supervision areas on a usually patrolled beach, and recreating unpatrolled beaches). This type of model is quite common in the literature on risky water based behaviours (Sherker, Williamson et al. 2010;Williamson, Hatfield et al. 2012). The models estimate the probability of an individual adopting (or not) each of the two risky behaviours. ...
Article
Beaches are highly attractive environments providing a wealth of recreational services. However, many people drown unintentionally on beaches worldwide. In the face of these dangers, the establishment of supervised swimming areas remains one of the most effective preventive measures. Despite the risk of drowning, many beachgoers choose to recreate outside supervised areas or at unpatrolled beaches. Based on a representative survey of 240 beachgoers living in the southwest of France, we combine variable clustering method and logistic regressions to predict risky location choices. Surfers, anglers and beachgoers who practice beach sports are more likely to go outside the lifeguard supervised areas at patrolled beaches than those who do not. Collecting shells or having a picnic also encourages people to go to unsafe places more often. Individuals who do not like facilities are more likely to go to unpatrolled beaches. Neither gender nor the distance travelled to recreate at the beach has any significant statistical influence in the models. Two types of information seeking behaviours can be identified. Individuals who like waves and collect marine and weather information before going to the beach are more likely than others to bath outside of patrolled areas. In comparison, those who do not like waves do not necessarily seek to improve their knowledge base on the subject, but instead look for more detailed information on supervision/lifesaving patrols. These results highlight the need for a broader beach safety perspective with stronger interactions between lifeguards, beachgoers, and designers of recreational facilities.
... Lifeguards and the general population should be trained so that they can identify and prevent all the risks associated with natural aquatic spaces. Since society in general does not know how to identify these risks [27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35] visiting and using these aquatic spaces puts the general public at risk, as well as endangering those professionals who are charged with public safety and are responsible for rescues should an accident occur [36][37][38]. ...
... A program to learn these risks and to provide this information to the public is essential since it has been established that, currently, there is a lack of knowledge in this area, and that, after brief training, it is possible to acquire basic water safety principals [12,32,33,40,41]. For this reason, teachers take on an important role, as they are able to educate their pupils in the basics of aquatic safety and the prevention of drowning [42], educating these individuals as future beachgoers worldwide, thus contributing to reducing the number of drownings caused by this phenomenon. ...
... A questionnaire was devised, then reviewed by six experts in aquatic lifesaving, with nine questions focusing on knowledge regarding Rip Currents. This was based on a questionnaire used by de Olivera et al., [31]; Sherker et al. [32], and Wilks et al., [41]. Once prepared, it was disseminated through the internet, using the Google Forms program. ...
Article
Full-text available
Introduction: Drowning is a global problem. This so-called "silent killer" claims hundreds of thousands of lives every year around the world. Despite this, beaches are a fundamental space in the lives of many people throughout the world. The scant knowledge regarding aspects of safety, accident prevention and the identification of risks in these natural aquatic environments, all contribute to the number of aquatic accidents that happen. The objective of this study was to establish the reality about the Spain population's knowledge of risks on the beaches. Methods: A study was carried out using a questionnaire, generated through Google Forms©. The questionnaire was available for 7 days, from May 12 to 19, 2022. 289 responses were selected. The Chi-square statistic was used to analyze the associations while Cramér's V statistics and the Odds Ratio were applied to analyze their strength. The significance level was p < 0.05 for the entire study. Results: 50.5% of the participants knew how to correctly identify a rip current. In terms of definition, identification and response to a current, those who were lifeguards were more likely than the general population to answer correctly. Conclusions: Sex, age or place of residence do not seem to explain knowledge about rip currents in an active population group. Finally, as a factor in avoiding possible accidents related to currents, the importance of having professional lifeguards in natural aquatic environments is confirmed.
... Lifeguards and the general population should be trained so that they can identify and prevent all the risks associated with natural aquatic spaces. Since society in general does not know how to identify these risks [27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35] visiting and using these aquatic spaces puts the general public at risk, as well as endangering those professionals who are charged with public safety and are responsible for rescues should an accident occur [36][37][38]. ...
... A program to learn these risks and to provide this information to the public is essential since it has been established that, currently, there is a lack of knowledge in this area, and that, after brief training, it is possible to acquire basic water safety principals [12,32,33,40,41]. For this reason, teachers take on an important role, as they are able to educate their pupils in the basics of aquatic safety and the prevention of drowning [42], educating these individuals as future beachgoers worldwide, thus contributing to reducing the number of drownings caused by this phenomenon. ...
... A questionnaire was devised, then reviewed by six experts in aquatic lifesaving, with nine questions focusing on knowledge regarding Rip Currents. This was based on a questionnaire used by de Olivera et al., [31]; Sherker et al. [32], and Wilks et al., [41]. Once prepared, it was disseminated through the internet, using the Google Forms program. ...
... A study by Woodward et al. (2015) shows that beachgoers who have been taught about rip currents have a better understanding of them and that lifeguards are the most effective method for intervention in beach safety and awareness. Meanwhile, Sherker et al. (2010) highlighted the important role of parents in recognizing the beach flag and swimming in the designated safe area. However, in the case of heavily visited beaches that include larger areas, such as in Texas, almost half of beachgoers were not aware of the existence of beach safety features (lifeguards, flags, and signboards) when approaching the beach area. ...
... A temporary booth was set up near an open area closer to the beach with welcoming posters and refreshments, while respondents that were on the beach were approached directly to participate. A face-to-face survey following the technique by Sherker et al. (2010) was then conducted after the respondents agreed to take part in the study. The respondents then completed the questionnaire in approximately 5 to 10 min. ...
... However, almost all of them (93.7%) could understand the function of a red flag (Table 3). Additionally, each respondent was given three photos adopted from Sherker et al. (2010) to evaluate their ability to identify the presence of rip currents that depicted different beach conditions with different flag systems (Question 23). More than half of the respondents (53%) would swim in the rip and only 46% would consider bathing between the flags, just slightly lower than results by Sherker et al. (2010) in New South Wales beaches. ...
Article
Full-text available
Rip currents are known to be a global public health issue and have been extensively contributed to the coastguard rescues and drowning cases at recreational beaches. Most studies in Malaysia have focused on the physical control of rip currents, with little emphasis on social factors. This study aims to assess the public knowledge of rip currents and beach safety at Teluk Cempedak Recreational Beach (TCRB) in Pahang, Malaysia. A convenience sampling technique was used to conduct a cross-sectional study among 300 beachgoers in TCRB. All data was collected using a self-administered questionnaire. Bivariable and multivariable logistic analyses were computed to identify factors associated with satisfactory knowledge of rip current and beach safety. More than half of the respondents were females (51%) and residents of Kuantan (62%). Out of 300 respondents, 160 (53.3%) had a satisfactory knowledge of rip currents, while a higher number of respondents (n = 221, 73.7%) had an unsatisfactory knowledge of beach safety. Those aged 35 and up, females, and those who had never had difficulty with water activities at the beach were more likely to have satisfactory knowledge of rip currents. The only factor found to be significantly related to satisfactory beach safety knowledge was age (35 years old). In conclusion, the respondents were concerned about rip currents, but they had inadequate knowledge of beach safety. Therefore, the development of effective beach safety education programmes is needed in Malaysia.
... Most popular beaches in Australia are patrolled by professional lifeguards and/or volunteer surf lifesavers during the extended summer period (some year round) who install a pair(s) of red and yellow flags along the beach each day to denote safer areas for bathing and swimming. The primary and longstanding beach safety message promoted in Australia has always been to 'swim between the red and yellow flags' (Wilks et al., 2007;SLSA, 2021) and while numerous studies have reported that most domestic beachgoers are aware that they should swim between the flags, many choose not to for a variety of reasons (Mitchell and Haddrill, 2004;Ballantyne et al., 2005;White and Hyde, 2010;Sherker et al., 2010;Williamson et al., 2012;Uebelhoer et al., 2022). In surveys conducted of a representative sample of the Australian population , Surf Life Saving Australia found that only half the participants reported always swimming between the flags when at a patrolled beach (SLSA, 2017). ...
... It is therefore not surprising that the majority of drowning deaths in Australia occur >1 km from the nearest lifesaving service (SLSA, 2021), either on unpatrolled beaches, outside of the flags on patrolled beaches, or outside of lifeguard/lifesaver patrol times. When people choose to visit beaches in these locations, and at these times, their knowledge and awareness of beach conditions and hazards becomes a critical safety factor in regards to correct choice of both intent to swim and swim location (Sherker et al., 2010;Williamson et al., 2012). ...
... The potential vulnerability of beachgoers to the rip current hazard has been shown to be strongly influenced by a variety of social, physiological and psychological factors such as beachgoer demographics, swimming ability, knowledge and awareness, previous experience and behaviour (e.g. Ballantyne et al., 2005;McCool et al., 2008;Sherker et al., 2010;White and Hyde, 2010;Drozdzewski et al., 2012Drozdzewski et al., , 2015Williamson et al., 2012;Caldwell et al., 2013;Brannstrom et al., 2014;Gallop et al., 2016;Houser et al., 2016;Llopis et al., 2017;Clifford et al., 2018;Fallon et al., 2018a,b;Menard et al., 2018;Pitman et al., 2021). Most of these studies have found that beachgoer understanding and awareness of the rip current hazard, particularly their ability to identify rip currents, is poor. ...
Article
This study evaluates the effectiveness of a science-based beach safety presentation given to multiple audiences in Sydney, NSW, Australia. A total of 383 attendees aged 14 years and over completed pre- and post-intervention surveys associated with 10 Science of the Surf (SOS) presentations with 121 completing a follow-up survey. Following the presentation, attendees showed a significant improvement in their choice not to swim at beaches unpatrolled by lifeguards, intention to check for common hazards such as rip currents, knowledge of what a rip current looked like and ability to identify rip currents in photographs. These improvements were retained at least four weeks after seeing the presentation. However, there was evidence to suggest that perceived improvement of rip current identification led to over-confidence in terms of choosing appropriate swimming locations. Overall, these findings suggest that direct presentations may improve community understanding of beach safety practice and rip current awareness and identification. However, it is recommended that future presentations be given by trained and skilled communicators, use video footage and time lapse imagery of dye releases into rip currents, and use the finding of over-confidence as a cautionary tale when designing beach safety presentations for the public.
... The survey structure and questions were modelled on previous Australian beachgoer surveys [28,32,34], then modified for the Southern Asian community through an online workshop held on November 19, 2020. The workshop included representatives from community groups and organisations working with the Southern Asian community in Australia. ...
... Similarly, just over half acknowledged that they have previously entered the water at an unpatrolled beach, mostly as a family or group (Table 4). These results are higher than those reported for international students at Australian universities by Ballantyne et al. [13] and Clifford et al. [32] and by general beachgoers on beaches in NSW [28]. Clearly, some members of the Southern Asian community are not receiving, understanding, or acting upon the 'swim between the flags' message as soon, or as much, as they should be. ...
... The fact that many of the surveyed Southern Asian community were beach safety aware is apparent from almost half stating that the hazard they are most worried about at the beach is drowning or rip currents (Table 4). However, the results of this study have shown that their understanding and recognition of the rip current hazard is poor (Table 4; Fig 4) and less than those of other Australian beachgoers [28]. The Southern Asian community in Australia would benefit from improved education regarding the rip current hazard, including the message that rip currents often appear as seemingly calmer waters. ...
Article
Full-text available
Multicultural communities in Australia are recognised as a priority area for drowning prevention, but no evidence-based study has addressed their knowledge of beach safety. This study used an online survey tool to identify and examine risk factors relating to swimming ability, beach visitation characteristics and behaviour, and beach safety knowledge of the Australian Southern Asian community to assist in the development of future beach safety interventions. Data was obtained through 249 online and in-person surveys of people aged > 18 years. Most respondents reported poor swimming ability (80%), often swam in in the absence of lifeguards (77%), did not understand the rip current hazard (58%), but reported that they entered the water (76%) when visiting beaches. Close to one-quarter (28%) had not heard, or didn’t know the purpose, of the red and yellow beach flags, which identify lifeguard supervised areas on Australian beaches. Length of time living in Australia is an important beach safety consideration for this community, with minimal differences in terms of gender and age. Those who have lived < 10 years in Australia visit beaches more frequently and are less likely to have participated in swimming lessons, be able to swim, heard of the flags or swim between them, understand rip currents, or have participated in a beach safety program. Very few (3%) respondents received beach safety information from within their own community. The importance of beach safety education and swimming lessons within the Southern Asian community should be prioritised for new and recent migrants to Australia.
... This highlights the need for a more focused effort to better understand the relationship(s) between the dynamic, highly variable, and often hazardous Australian coast and the people who interact with it. Epidemiological studies have provided the majority of our understanding of who drowns in Australian coastal environments and the risk factors implicated in these fatalities [7][8][9][10][11][12][13]. However, coastal drowning risk is also influenced by a range of factors where evidence is scant, including individuals' risk perception, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours, as well as factors that impact exposure such as coastal visitation and participation in various activities [8,10,11]. ...
... Epidemiological studies have provided the majority of our understanding of who drowns in Australian coastal environments and the risk factors implicated in these fatalities [7][8][9][10][11][12][13]. However, coastal drowning risk is also influenced by a range of factors where evidence is scant, including individuals' risk perception, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours, as well as factors that impact exposure such as coastal visitation and participation in various activities [8,10,11]. Some behavioural research into coastal drowning from Australia has explored beachgoer knowledge and attitudes towards safety [11] and the impact of signage and beach flags [10,14], with a significant body of work focused on the rip current hazard [8,10,[15][16][17]. ...
... However, coastal drowning risk is also influenced by a range of factors where evidence is scant, including individuals' risk perception, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours, as well as factors that impact exposure such as coastal visitation and participation in various activities [8,10,11]. Some behavioural research into coastal drowning from Australia has explored beachgoer knowledge and attitudes towards safety [11] and the impact of signage and beach flags [10,14], with a significant body of work focused on the rip current hazard [8,10,[15][16][17]. However, studies with a national scope, or which are focused on individuals' risk perception, alcohol use, lifejackets and the impact of weather on coastal drowning risk, as examples, are relatively rare. ...
Article
Full-text available
Drowning is a global public health problem, but accurately estimating drowning risk remains a challenge. Coastal drowning comprises a significant proportion of the drowning burden in Australia and is influenced by a range of behavioural factors (e.g. risk perception, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours) that are poorly understood. These factors, along with those that impact exposure (e.g. coastal visitation and activity participation) all impact on drowning risk. While excellent mortality and morbidity data exists in Australia, a lack of coastal participation data presents challenges to identifying high-risk groups or activities and prioritising prevention efforts. This methods paper describes the development and evolution of an ongoing, annual, nationally representative online survey as an effective tool used to capture valuable data about the Australian population’s relationship with the coast. This paper explores how the survey is structured (12–14 sections spanning multiple topics and themes), the different question types used (including open text, 4-digit responses and categorical questions), the sample size (1400–1600 respondents), sampling strategy (using demographic quota sampling which can then be post-weighted to the population if required) and how topics and themes have changed over time to enhance the quality of data collected (i.e., wording changes to enhance participant comprehension or data usability and changing issue-specific ‘feature’ topics of interest such as campaign evaluation). How the survey is implemented online is described, both practically through to third-party recruitment processes and ethically to maximise anonymity of respondents and ensure data quality. Interim analyses indicate the impact of considering exposure when calculating fatal drowning rates, especially by activity (e.g., crude boating drowning rate 0.12 per 100,000 population vs 0.95 per 100,000 exposed population [relative risk = 8.01; 95% confidence interval: 4.55–14.10]). This study highlights lessons learned in the process of conducting a nationally representative coastal participation survey as well as the strengths and limitations of adopting this approach. Data collected will provide more detailed information on the skills, behaviours, knowledge and attitudes of coastal activity participants. Analyses of this unique dataset will inform research that will underpin development and evaluation of coastal drowning prevention initiatives prioritising those most at risk. It is hoped that the methods detailed within this study may be useful for other countries to develop similar approaches to understanding their own population.
... Meanwhile, the respondents were seen to have a good understanding of the connotation of the beach safety flags. Moreover, Sherker et al. (2010) conducted a study on beliefs and behaviors of beachgoers in relation to the beach flags and rip currents at New South Wales (NSW), Sydney. The results demonstrated that flags attracted parents and carers of children as the beachgoers with children tend to swim between the flags. ...
... The survey instrument is an adaptation from similar studies conducted in New South Wales and Spain (Basterretxea-iribar et al. 2018;Sherker et al. 2010). The questionnaire comprised 31 questions divided into five sections: (1) socio-demographic background, (2) Fig. 1 Study area (Teluk Cempedak Beach) which is located at Kuantan district frequency of visiting the beach, (3) beach safety knowledge, (4) swimming ability, and (5) rip current knowledge. ...
... As most of the respondents were unaware of the existence of the rip currents, most of them could not recognize the rip currents shown in the photographs. These findings aligned with other studies that highlighted beachgoers' difficulties in identifying rip currents (Ballantyne, Carr and Hughes, n.d.;Brannstrom et al. 2015;Sherker et al. 2010). In some research, although the respondents claimed to know what rip currents are, most of the respondents still failed to recognize them (Ballantyne et al., n.d.;Brannstrom et al. 2015;Caldwell, Houser and Meyer-Arendt 2013). ...
Article
Full-text available
Rip currents are one of the coastal hazards that put Malaysian beachgoers in a risky position. Most of the drowning accidents that occur at beaches worldwide are closely associated with this phenomenon. Research on rip currents is needed to build an effective measuring tool to overcome these issues. However, to date, research on rip currents is mainly focused on its physical aspects, commonly concentrating on the processes that influence and relate to the rips' generation. As an effort to minimize the negative consequences exerted by the rips, there is an urgent need to enhance the rip-related research in the social sciences field. Comprehensive research that includes all fields might produce more beneficial and reliable information. Therefore, this study intends to examine the level of public understanding of rip currents and beach safety knowledge of the Teluk Cempedak Beach. A questionnaire comprising 5 sections and 31 questions was developed as the primary tool in this study. A total of 60 beachgoers have been surveyed for this preliminary study through a questionnaire to investigate their demographic profile, frequency of visiting the beach, swimming ability, and their knowledge of rip currents and beach safety. The results show that the beachgoers have poor knowledge of rip currents. Conversely, they are observed to have higher beach safety knowledge. Also, the findings help in filling the research gaps of this study in terms of the instrument used for the data collection procedure. Above all, an extension of this study may contribute to the development of beneficial tools in assessing public knowledge on beach safety and rip currents throughout Malaysian beaches. Supplementary information: The online version contains supplementary material available at (10.1007/s11069-021-04613-z).
... However, several studies have shown that even when people are aware of what rip currents are and why they are dangerous, they are largely unable to visually identify a rip current in a photograph. Caldwell et al. (2013) report the successful identification of channel rips to be lower than 20 %, with success rates of up to 40 % reported by Willcox-Pidgeon et al. (2017) and a 48 % success rate in selecting a safe place to swim reported by Sherker et al. (2010). A similar study by Surf Life Saving Australia (SLSA, 2019a) surveyed ocean swimmers who self-assessed as highly competent and reported that only 27 % were able to accurately identify rip currents in multiple photographs. ...
... As demonstrated above, previous studies have shown that the existing rip current identification abilities of beachgoers is poor. However, in these studies, rip current identification by beachgoers has been based either on participants self-reporting on how confident they would feel at being asked to identify a rip current (Morgan et al., 2009a) or on asking people to directly identify rip currents in photographs taken from various perspectives (Moran, 2008;Caldwell et al., 2013;Brannstrom et al., 2015;Clifford et al., 2018) or to identify the safest place to swim in a photograph of a beach (Sherker et al., 2010;Houser et al., 2017;Willcox-Pidgeon et al., 2017;Clifford et al., 2018;Fallon et al., 2018). However, Ménard et al. (2018) noted that a fundamental problem is the lack of research investigating whether an individual's ability to identify a rip or a safe swimming area in a photograph translates to an equal ability to identify a rip current in situ at the beach. ...
... In our study, only 37 % of rip current survivors were able to identify the in situ rip, which highlights the additional complexity and skill required when considering an active and fluid surf zone rather than a static photograph. This was evidenced in the study by Sherker et al. (2010), in which 93 % of respondents indicated they could identify a rip when in reality less than two thirds of the respondents could actually identify the channel rip in a photograph. ...
Article
Full-text available
Rip currents (“rips”) are the leading cause of drowning on surf beaches worldwide. A major contributing factor is that many beachgoers are unable to identify rip currents. Previous research has attempted to quantify beachgoers' rip identification ability using photographs of rip currents without identifying whether this usefully translates into an ability to identify a rip current in situ at the beach. This study is the first to compare beachgoers ability to identify rip currents in photographs and in situ at a beach in New Zealand (Muriwai Beach) where a channel rip current was present. Only 22 % of respondents were able to identify the in situ rip current. The highest rates of success were for males (33 %), New Zealand residents (25 %), and local beach users (29 %). Of all respondents who were successful at identifying the rip current in situ, 62 % were active surfers/bodyboarders, and 28 % were active beach swimmers. Of the respondents who were able to identify a rip current in two photographs, only 34 % were able to translate this into a successful in situ rip identification, which suggests that the ability to identify rip currents by beachgoers is worse than reported by previous studies involving photographs. This study highlights the difficulty of successfully identifying a rip current in reality and that photographs are not necessarily a useful means of teaching individuals to identify rip currents. It advocates for the use of more immersive and realistic education strategies, such as the use of virtual reality headsets showing moving imagery (videos) of rip currents in order to improve rip identification ability.
... asked to identify a rip current (Morgan et al., 2009a), or by asking people to directly identify rip currents in photographs taken from various perspectives (Moran, 2008;Caldwell et al., 2013;Brannstrom et al., 2015;Clifford et al., 2018), or to identify the safest place to swim in a photograph of a beach (Sherker et al., 2010;Gallop et al., 2016;Houser et al., 2017;Willcox-Pidgeon et al., 2017;Clifford et al., 2018;Fallon et al., 2018). However, Ménard et al. (2018) noted that a fundamental problem is the lack of research investigating whether an individual's ability to identify a rip, or a safe swimming area in a photograph, translates to an equal ability to spot a rip current in situ at the beach. ...
... Brannstrom et al., 2014;Clifford et al., 2018) or to ask them to identify the safest place to swim (e.g. Sherker et al., 2010;Gallop et al., 2016;Warton and Brander, 2017) in an image that contained a rip current. The ability of beachgoers to specifically identify rip currents has generally resulted in successful identification rates less than 30%. ...
... Similar results have been obtained from studies asking participants to identify safe swimming spots. Sherker et al. (2010) showed that 52% of primarily Australian respondents chose a rip current as the safest place to swim in an image, while 40% did so in the UK based study of Gallop et al. (2016), and 73% chose a rip current as the safest place in at least one of the two images they were shown in a study at Miami Beach, Florida, by Fallon et al. (2018). ...
Preprint
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Rip currents ("rips") are the leading cause of drowning on surf beaches worldwide. A major contributing factor is that many beachgoers are unable to identify rip currents. Previous research has attempted to quantify beachgoers' rip spotting ability using photographs of rip currents, without identifying whether this usefully translates into an ability to spot a rip current in situ at the beach. This study is the first to compare beachgoers ability to spot rip currents in photographs and in situ at a beach in New Zealand (Muriwai Beach) where a channel rip current was present. Only 22% of respondents were able to identify the 5 in situ rip current. The highest rates of success were for males (33%), New Zealand residents (25%), and local beach users (29%). Of all respondents who were successful at identifying the rip current in situ, 62% were active surfers/bodyboarders and 28% were active beach swimmers. Of the respondents who were able to identify a rip current in two photographs, only 34% were unable to translate this into a successful in situ rip identification, which suggests that the ability to identify rip currents by beachgoers is worse than reported by previous studies involving photographs. This study highlights the difficulty of successfully 10 identifying a rip current in reality and that photographs are not necessarily a useful means of teaching individuals to spot rip currents. It advocates for the use of more immersive and realistic education strategies, such as the use of virtual reality headsets showing moving imagery (videos) of rip currents in order to improve rip spotting ability.
... The research design for this study, approved by the relevant human subject protection program from Texas A&M University, relied on an internet-based survey instrument sent by email to all undergraduate and graduate students from Texas A&M University who participated in a study abroad program between May 2013 and May 2015 (see Appendix 1). Our survey consisted of questions re-phrased from Sherker et al. (2010), and photograph-based rip current identification protocols modified from Brannstrom et al. (2014), with questions grouped into six categories (Table 1). Potential respondents were recruited by email in May 2015 from a database maintained by the Texas A&M University Study Abroad Program Office. ...
... For example, many beaches in the United States use flags to warn about the surf hazard (e.g. green; calm, red: hazardous), while in Australia a pair of red and yellow flags are used to designate areas lifeguards believe to be (relatively) safe to swim (Sherker et al., 2010). ...
... The majority of students did not believe that rip currents were visible, but most were able to identify the relatively safe locations of the beach in the photographs. This suggests that they already have some basic ability to discriminate between safe and unsafe areas of the beach consistent with the observations of Sherker et al. (2010), who noted that beach users who have some basic knowledge about rip currents are more likely to avoid swimming in areas with a rip. This suggests that providing students participating on a study abroad with some basic education on rip currents and other surf hazards could prevent drownings and the need for rescues. ...
Article
Students studying abroad or participating in a foreign exchange often visit a beach during their time abroad, but little is known about their understanding of rip currents and other surf hazards, their behavior, their choices, or if they take precautions when visiting a beach. This study describes the results of a survey of Texas A&M University students who completed a study abroad program between May 2013 and May 2015. Results of the survey suggest that a majority of the students surveyed (~74%) visited at least one beach during their time abroad, and over 50% of students visited more than 2 beaches. The visit to the beach was optional for most of the respondents and most went as part of a group. Decisions about the beaches visited tended to be based on convenience and recommendations from other students, tourists, or locals, and were rarely based on safety. Results of this preliminary study point to a need for implementing proactive beach safety education programs for students studying abroad.
... Globally research on the hazard of rip currents, the knowledge held, and behavioural choices of beach users has occurred in Australia (Ballantyne et al. 2005;Sherker et al. 2010;Williamson et al. 2012;Uebelhoer et al. 2022), the USA (Caldwell et al. 2013;Branstromm et al. 2014;Fallon et al. 2018), the UK (Woodward et al. 2015;Gallop et al. 2016), Costa Rica (Llopis et al. 2017), Spain (Diez-Fernández et al. 2023) and New Zealand (Pitman et al. 2021). Common to these studies, is that to reduce drowning fatalities associated with rip currents, there needs to be an understanding of the behaviour surrounding, and the perception of, the rip current hazard (Ballantyne et al. 2005;Sherker et al. 2010;Williamson et al. 2012;Brannstrom et al. 2014;Castelle et al. 2016;Fallon et al. 2018;Pitman et al. 2021;Uebelhoer et al. 2022;Woods et al. 2022). ...
... Globally research on the hazard of rip currents, the knowledge held, and behavioural choices of beach users has occurred in Australia (Ballantyne et al. 2005;Sherker et al. 2010;Williamson et al. 2012;Uebelhoer et al. 2022), the USA (Caldwell et al. 2013;Branstromm et al. 2014;Fallon et al. 2018), the UK (Woodward et al. 2015;Gallop et al. 2016), Costa Rica (Llopis et al. 2017), Spain (Diez-Fernández et al. 2023) and New Zealand (Pitman et al. 2021). Common to these studies, is that to reduce drowning fatalities associated with rip currents, there needs to be an understanding of the behaviour surrounding, and the perception of, the rip current hazard (Ballantyne et al. 2005;Sherker et al. 2010;Williamson et al. 2012;Brannstrom et al. 2014;Castelle et al. 2016;Fallon et al. 2018;Pitman et al. 2021;Uebelhoer et al. 2022;Woods et al. 2022). The ability of beach users to identify rip currents has traditionally been assessed using photographs, with respondents indicating either the presence of a rip current (Brannstrom et al. 2014;Pitman et al. 2021;Uebelhoer et al. 2022) or identifying where the safe area is to swim in an image (Ballantyne et al. 2005;Gallop et al. 2016;Fallon et al. 2018). ...
Article
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The risk exposure to rip currents may be reduced by increasing beach users’ ability to effectively identify the presence of rips. Static photographs have been widely used to assess and improve beach users’ identification ability, however this has not led to an overall increase in skill. This pilot study assesses the public’s knowledge of rip currents using two different media types and whether static or moving images make it more (or less) easier to identify rips. A questionnaire was used to assess the rip current identification ability of respondents while at the beach. Short video clips (15-seconds) were found to be no more effective for the identification of rips than photographs, and 50% of respondents were not able to identify rips in either photographs or videos, although some sub-populations of respondents, (those who regularly use rips in surfing activities or those with previous rip education), were slightly better at rip identification. Methodologies that test beach users rip identification competencies may benefit from using a mixture of media to discern rip identification ability more effectively, as confirmation bias may be present in small samples.
... However, Fallon et al. [23] discovered that male visitors to Miami Beach were well aware that rips were a major cause of drowning. Sherker et al. [20] revealed that age was not a significant factor influencing beachgoers' swimming between beaches or in rips. Barlas and Beji [40] and Williamson et al. [42] pointed out that foreign beachgoers were less knowledgeable about beach safety than native beachgoers. ...
... There was no hint of ignorance regarding rip currents among the respondents, and the responses to questions 13 and 14 were significantly more accurate. Numerous studies have shown that beachgoer ability to identify rips is poor [20][21][22][23]37,51], and all have recommended a need for increased education focusing on improving public recognition of rips. ...
Article
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Among many coastal hazards, rip currents have gradually become one of the most noticeable hazards. Studies have demonstrated that most drowning accidents at beaches around the world are related to rip currents. In this study, online and field questionnaires were combined for the first time to reveal beachgoers' awareness of rip currents in China from four aspects: demographic characteristics, swimming ability, information about visiting beaches, and knowledge about rip currents. One educational strategy was introduced to the field survey. The results suggest that (i) the proportion of online and field respondents who have heard of "rip currents" and seen warning signs of rip currents is extremely small. This reflects that beachgoers lack awareness of rip current hazards. Thus, China needs to strengthen the safety education of rip current knowledge. (ii) The level of awareness of rip currents can significantly affect the community's ability to identify the location of rip currents and their choice of escape direction. (iii) In the field survey, we implemented an educational strategy as an intervention for respondents, and the accuracy of identifying rip currents and choosing the correct escape route improved by 34% and 46.7%, respectively. This implies that the intervention of educational strategy can significantly deepen beachgoers' awareness of rip currents. It is recommended that more educational strategies about rip current knowledge be implemented on Chinese beaches in the future.
... No other flags were tested. Finally, a number of studies have focused on intended or actual behavior in relation to flags (in addition to, or instead of, recognition; Ballantyne et al., 2005;Crook, 2000;Sherker, Williamson, Hatfield, Brander, & Hayen, 2010;White & Hyde, 2010;Wilks, DeNardi, & Wodarski, 2007;Woodward et al., 2015). However, these studies too focused solely on the effectiveness of red & yellow waterfront flags, and only in Australia and the UK. ...
... Many studies have come with recommendations for shaping education and increasing awareness (e.g. Wright, 2016;Ballantyne et al., 2005;Hamilton et al., 2016;McCool et al., 2009;Nationale Raad Zwemveiligheid [National Council for Swim Safety], 2019;Sherker et al., 2010;White and Hyde, 2010;Willcox-Pidgeon et al., 2018;Moran, 2016;see Koon et al., 2021 for an overview), but these understandably tend to focus on preventing drownings in general rather than on specifically improving knowledge of the flag system. Where these studies did investigate the learning of flags, they focused solely on the red & yellow zone flags. ...
Article
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Beach safety flags form an internationally adopted warning system intended to prevent adverse incidents, including drownings. However, little is known about people’s familiarity with these flags. In this study we tested the recognition and understanding of beach warning flags in the Netherlands, a country which welcomes millions of beach visitors every year. A convenience sample (N = 174) of the Dutch population was interviewed using a structured survey which asked for the meaning of eight different flags, the respondents’ confidence in their choice, as well as their intention with regard to entering the water. The results show an overall poor understanding of the meaning of all flags except for the red flags (which indicate high hazard). The level of confidence largely followed the same pattern, with low confidence for most flags except the red ones. Strikingly, the yellow flag (which indicates potential hazard and is meant to discourage bathing) evoked a considerable proportion of opposite associations (i.e., safety), combined with moderately high confidence and intentions to enter the water. More people were in fact inclined to enter the water under a yellow flag than under a red & yellow flag (which indicates a patrolled beach). Direct or indirect experience with danger in the sea did not affect people’s knowledge of the flags but did reduce the intention to enter the water. We conclude that familiarity with the flag system in the Netherlands is wanting and we propose a number of recommendations to improve public understanding.
... No other flags were tested. Finally, a number of studies have focused on intended or actual behavior in relation to flags (in addition to, or instead of, recognition; Ballantyne et al., 2005;Crook, 2000;Sherker, Williamson, Hatfield, Brander, & Hayen, 2010;White & Hyde, 2010;Wilks, DeNardi, & Wodarski, 2007;Woodward et al., 2015). However, these studies too focused solely on the effectiveness of red & yellow waterfront flags, and only in Australia and the UK. ...
... Many studies have come with recommendations for shaping education and increasing awareness (e.g. Wright, 2016;Ballantyne et al., 2005;Hamilton et al., 2016;McCool et al., 2009;Nationale Raad Zwemveiligheid [National Council for Swim Safety], 2019;Sherker et al., 2010;White and Hyde, 2010;Willcox-Pidgeon et al., 2018;Moran, 2016;see Koon et al., 2021 for an overview), but these understandably tend to focus on preventing drownings in general rather than on specifically improving knowledge of the flag system. Where these studies did investigate the learning of flags, they focused solely on the red & yellow zone flags. ...
... Namun demikian, tingginya jumlah wisatawan apabila tidak dikelola dengan baik akan dapat meningkatkan risiko kecelakaan laut sebagai akibat dari adanya arus retas atau rip current di tiga pantai tersebut (Retnowati, 2013;Sherker et al., 2010;Susmayadi et al., 2010). ...
... Salah satu upaya yang paling sederhana adalah dengan mengembangkan budaya masyarakat yang sadar bahaya atau sadar bencana melalui sosialisasi maupun pamfletpamflet terkait, serta memperbanyak pemasangan papan informasi maupun bendera peringatan sebagai penanda lokasi-lokasi yang diidentifikasi terdapat arus retas (Branche & Stewart, 2001;Fenner, 2000;Hartmann, 2006;Sherker et al., 2010) (Gambar 6). ...
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Pantai di Desa Parangtritis, Yogyakarta termasuk dalam prioritas pengembangan pariwisata daerah berdasarkan Peraturan Daerah DIY Nomor 1 tahun 2019 dengan jumlah wisatawan yang mencapai 2,8 juta orang pada tahun 2019. Di sisi lain, data dari BPBD Kabupaten Bantul dan SAR Satlinmas Wilayah III Parangtritis tahun 2009-2015 menunjukkan tingginya jumlah korban arus retas. Oleh karena itu, perlu adanya suatu upaya identifikasi dan penyampaian informasi kepada wisatawan terkait dengan keberadaan arus retas di pantai-pantai yang ada di Desa Parangtritis. Identifikasi keberadaan arus retas dilakukan pada dua waktu yang berbeda, yaitu pada musim timur dan musim barat, dengan melakukan interpretasi visual melalui citra satelit dan memperhatikan keberadaan gisik tanduk maupun zona pecah gelombang yang terpotong. Hal tersebut dikarenakan morfologi pantai dapat berubah sebagai respon dari musim yang berdampak pada aktivitas gelombang, arus, dan pasang surut yang berbeda pula. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis morfologi, morfometri, dan morfoaransemen untuk menemukenali keberadaan, tipe, sirkulasi, dan bahaya arus retas di Pantai Parangtritis. Kemunculan 11 lokasi arus retas pada saat bulan Agustus/musim timur lebih tersebar secara merata di sepanjang pantai di Desa Parangtritis dibandingkan dengan 12 lokasi saat bulan April/musim barat. Arus retas di Desa Parangtritis sangat dinamis sehingga perlu adanya upaya diseminasi informasi bahaya arus retas pada wisatawan dan pelaku wisata sebagai salah satu tindakan mitigasi dan pengurangan risiko bencana di Desa Parangtritis.
... Existing studies typically describe the extent and characteristics of beach drowning (Silva-Cavalcanti et al., 2018;Koon et al., 2021;Segura et al., 2021), particularly in relation to strong, offshore flowing rip currents (Castelle et al., 2016), which are considered to be the main hazard for swimmers and bathers on surf beaches (Gensini and Ashley, 2010;Woodward et al., 2013;Brighton et al., 2013;Arozarena et al., 2015;Brewster et al., 2019;Cooney et al., 55 2020). Other studies have conducted surveys to describe the demographics, beach safety knowledge and behaviour of various types of beachgoers (Ballantyne et al., 2005;Williamson et al., 2012;Clifford et al., 2018;Sotés et al., 2018;), often in relation to the presence of lifeguards, beach safety flags and the rip current hazard (Sherker et al., 2010;Caldwell et al., 2013;Brannstrom et al., 2014;Fallon et al., 2018;Ménard et al., 2018;Locknick and Houser, 2021;Pitman et al., 2021). ...
... While rip currents were the primary hazard that beachgoers were concerned about, many respondents were unable to correctly explain what a rip current was, or identify them in photographs despite confidence in their ability to do so. While these findings are similar to those reported in previous beachgoer surveys on lifeguard patrolled beaches (Sherker et al., 2010;Williamson et al., 2012;Caldwell et al., 2013;Brannstrom et al., 2014;Fallon et al., 2018;Llopis et al., 2018;Locknick and Houser, 2021;Pitman et al., 2021;) they are of greater concern taken in the context of unpatrolled beaches. Given that more 350 than 95.9% of the surveyed beach users were aware of the meaning of the red and yellow flags, the obvious question is why they chose to ignore the core Australian beach safety message to 'swim between the red and yellow flags' at a patrolled beach? ...
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The majority of drowning deaths on Australian beaches occur significant distances away from lifeguard services. This study uses results of 459 surveys of beachgoers at five beaches unpatrolled by lifeguards in New South Wales, Australia to improve understanding of who visits these beaches and why, and to identify risk factors associated with their beach safety knowledge and behaviour. Many unpatrolled beach users were infrequent beachgoers and weak swimmers, with poor rip current hazard identification skills, who did not observe safety signage that was present, and yet intended to enter the water to swim despite being aware that no lifeguards were present. The survey found that the main reasons beachgoers visited unpatrolled beaches were because they were conveniently close to their holiday accommodation, or they represented a quieter location away from crowds. Future beach safety interventions in Australia need to extend beyond the standard ‘swim between the flags’ message in recognition that people will always frequent unpatrolled beaches. Future beach safety interventions for unpatrolled beaches should be tailored towards the varied types of demographic beach users, such as domestic tourist families, males, and day visitors attracted by social media.
... For example, numerous studies have taken a socio-physical approach to profile beachgoer behavior (Ballantyne et al., 2005;Sherker et al., 2010;Williamson et al., 2012;Woodward et al., 2013;Houser et al., 2016). Other groups studied patrons' understanding and recognition of rip currents (Hatfield et al., 2012;Caldwell et al., 2013;. ...
... Other groups studied patrons' understanding and recognition of rip currents (Hatfield et al., 2012;Caldwell et al., 2013;. Some suggested (Sherker et al., 2010) that most patrons encounter difficulties identifying rip currents; thus, they lack the knowledge to actively avoid entering them. According to Morgan et al. (2009), inexperienced and uninformed patrons are among those who are particularly vulnerable to rip-currents threats. ...
Article
This study aimed to explore beach-related hazard perception skills of surf lifeguards, swimming-pool lifeguards, and patrons who served as control. Participants were exposed to twenty-nine, 10s long video clips depicting real-world hazardous surf situations footage taken along Israeli Mediterranean beaches from a lifeguard tower perspective. While observing each video clip, participants were asked to press a response button in case they identify a surf situation that may pose a drowning threat for bathers. We examined the participants' eye-movement data and behavioral responses throughout the study.
... Increase open-water learning sites, the expansion of qualified educational personnel, and the enhancement of foundational national ocean education curricula are essential measures to improve marine literacy and promote public understanding of ocean environments. Addressing this issue requires a comprehensive and experiential educational approach to enhance public understanding of open-water environments, underscoring the critical importance of accessible openwater learning sites (Brander et al., 2022;Hsiao, 2009;Sherker et al., 2010). Inspired by UNESCO's interdisciplinary framework (2020), ocean education programs can incorporate innovative tools such as serious games and interactive teaching methods to improve engagement and learning outcomes in foundational ocean education. ...
Article
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Drowning incidents are an issue that attracts great attention all over the world. In particular, the impact of humanities and natural environments in different regions may be the cause of fatal drownings. The study collected 6 years of 192 drowning data and significant wave height of wind waves (Hs), changes in the fluctuating water level (ΔWL) and tidal period to analyze. Assessing the scientific basis that informs policy by evaluating the relationship between elements of Hs, ΔWL, tide period and fatal drowning on costal in Taiwan. Most drowning incidents occur during legal wading, but hidden rip currents caused by man-made structures and natural terrain can cause people to ignore them. Especially rip currents becomes more stronger when tide period changes or suddenly high Hs, people will be put into danger unknowingly. Therefore, the government or governor need to think implementation of a comprehensive, long-term strategy that aligns with the plans of several nations. Especially, the deepening of ocean education and the enhancement of the physical environment safety are critical areas requiring attention, as research findings explicitly highlight deficiencies in these domains.
... 15 23 Studies have shown that signage is often overlooked 24 and that there are low levels of compliance with safety signage in various settings. [25][26][27][28] Signage alone may not be sufficient as a drowning prevention strategy, 15 23 and, therefore, coroners' recommendations focusing solely or mainly on this preventive approach are unlikely to have a significant impact. ...
Article
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Background Unintentional injury deaths in sport and recreation represent a significant public health concern. This study analysed coronial recommendations related to such deaths, focusing on case specifics and recurring themes from January 2006 to December 2019. Methods This mixed-methods study used data from the Bureau du coroner du Québec. Reports with recommendations were analysed by sex, age group, context, mechanism and activity. A four-phase thematic analysis was conducted to emphasise the developed themes and connect them with the existing literature. Results Of 1937 coronial reports reviewed, 13.3% (n=258) contained at least one recommendation, totalling 609 recommendations (31 per 100 activity-related deaths). Reports were more likely to contain at least one recommendation for women (20.3%, p=0.0004), paediatric populations (≤5 years: 30.3%, p<0.0001; 6–11 years: 29.3%, p=0.0003; 12–17 years: 27.6%, p<0.0001), and organised events (55.0%, p<0.0001), despite most deaths occurring among men, adults and during unstructured events. All-terrain vehicle and snowmobile activities showed significantly lower rates of reports with recommendations (8.1%, p=0.0008 and 8.6%, p=0.0044, respectively). Most frequently addressed themes were Development, inspection and modification of bicycle infrastructure for cycling and Lake and river safety measures for swimming. Conflict with other types of users was the top theme for land motorsports, while Personal flotation device use was the most common for navigation activities. Conclusions Patterns from reports with recommendations will be shared with the Bureau du Coroner du Québec to improve coronial practices. Integrating recurrent themes and recommendations with activity-specific risk factors will help identify critical patterns and inform preventive measures holistically.
... Beyond the more easily quantified physical hazards, there is also a human element in many drownings (Puleo et al., 2015). This may include medical emergencies (Peden et al., 2022), lack of swimming ability (Irwin et al., 2009), unfamiliarity with the coastal environment (Sherker et al., 2010), risk taking behavior (Howland et al., 1996), alcohol use (Driscoll et al., 2010), and lifeguard attention and response time (Branche and Stewart, 2001;Schwebel et al., 2010). Synergism between the various physical hazards and aspects of the human element is common and becomes more apparent during periods of high beach attendance (Castelle et al., 2019;Radermacher, 2018). ...
... Increase open-water learning sites, the expansion of qualified educational personnel, and the enhancement of foundational national ocean education curricula are essential measures to improve marine literacy and promote public understanding of ocean environments. Addressing this issue requires a comprehensive and experiential educational approach to enhance public understanding of open-water environments, underscoring the critical importance of accessible openwater learning sites (Brander et al., 2022;Hsiao, 2009;Sherker et al., 2010). Inspired by UNESCO's interdisciplinary framework (2020), ocean education programs can incorporate innovative tools such as serious games and interactive teaching methods to improve engagement and learning outcomes in foundational ocean education. ...
... This requires further investigation. Our study confirms that there is no difference between sexes in the proportion swimming outside the patrolled area (Morgan et al. 2009;Sherker et al. 2010). ...
Article
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Globally rip currents are the primary physical hazard facing swimmers on surf beaches. However, beach swimmers also face other hazards such as large waves, tidal influenced currents, and shorebreak waves. The aim of this study was to investigate factors leading to the increased likelihood of surf lifeguard rescues. Rescue data from Surf Life Saving Queensland’s Lifesaving Incident Management System and Operations Console for 54 wave dominated beaches in South–East Queensland, Australia, from July 1st, 2016 to October 6th, 2021 was linked with wind speed and direction, air temperature, phase of tide, wave height and period, beach type, beach hazard rating, and beach swimmer numbers. Stepwise regression was performed to find independent predictors of rescue. There were 8515 rescues, with 3345 (39.3%) females and 5109 (60.0%) males (61 sex not recorded). There were no independent predictors of surf rescue but swimming outside the lifeguard patrol area was nine times more likely to result in rescue than swimming inside the patrol area. Increased rescues were noted at periods of increased rip activity. Rip currents (2992/6523, 45.8%) were the most frequently recorded contributing factor. Rescues occurred most frequently (5902, 69.3%) during the six hours of lower tide levels and during onshore winds (5463, 64.2%). Surf rescues increased with increasing wave height and period, air temperature, and wind speed but decreased as average values for each variable were surpassed. Beaches protected from the prevailing wave direction by headlands had a stronger relationship between rescues and wave height. Beaches adjacent to inlets with tidal flow had a stronger relationship between rescues and the ebb tide. Beach morphology, and hazard rating did not have a relationship with ratio of rescues per 100,000 swimmers. We found no independent predictors for surf rescue, however this study has, for the first time we believe, quantified the increased risk (× 9) posed by swimming outside the patrol area. Open beaches, beaches protected by headlands and beaches with tidal inlets all had different relationships between rescues, tides and wave size. Our findings suggest that lifeguards may need to adopt new approaches to prevent rescues adjacent to the patrol area, as well as a revision of the general hazard rating being required.
... Other studies find that many or even most beachgoers do not notice advisories (Matthews et al. 2014), do not understand advisories using symbols such as flags (Lucrezi & van der Merwe 2014), or evaluate advisories against current conditions visible to the beachgoer (Busch 2009;Brannstrom et al. 2015). An Australian study also finds that beachgoers evaluate riptide current warnings more seriously if they have children with them or are elderly (Sherker et al. 2010). While these studies look at beachgoers' behaviors and perceptions, a 2011 paper that surveyed 37 states and 18 municipalities reports wide variety in how water advisories are communicated to the public as well as the general lack of evaluation of the efficacy of these advisory systems (Pratap et al. 2011). ...
Article
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Drawing on responses from 238 beachgoers who have visited a Georgia (U.S. state) beach in the past three years, this study asks respondents about their knowledge of beach water quality monitoring, awareness of beach health advisories, perception of water quality, and expected responses upon learning of a beach's water pollution advisory. Binomial logistic regression finds that the only demographic predictor of respondents who would completely stop visiting a beach with an advisory is whether the respondent is a visitor or resident (year-round or part-time). Nearly 40% of visitors would not come to a beach with an advisory compared to 13.4% of residents. Most respondents report they would continue to visit a beach but would stay out of the water and stop harvesting seafood from the beach's waters. More than a third (36.1%), however, are unaware Georgia regularly monitors beach water for water quality, and 41.2% have never read a beach sign warning of contaminated water or seafood. Alarmingly, just over half view aesthetic factors such as no litter, no odor, and clear water as criteria for defining whether beach water is safe.
... Rips are the result of the naturally forming circulations from the combinations of wind, wave height, wave period, and variations of alongshore bathymetric features. This involves the transport and cross-shore mixing of heat, pollutants, nutrients, sediments, and biological species [1,2]. Every year, hundreds of beach users drown, and tens of thousands more are saved from rip currents globally [3]. ...
... There is also potentially an important lesson to be learned from surfers' attitudes towards rips in that they generally take time to check for rips, as well as wave conditions, before entering the water 57 as opposed to other non-surfing beachgoers who generally do not. 43,44,50,58,59 In this way, surfers are enacting their own 'Think Line'-one that is based on knowledge and experience, a theme explored further below. ...
Article
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Background: Rip currents are strong, narrow, fast-flowing currents of water that occur on many beaches and in Australia contributing to 26 drowning deaths and several thousand lifeguard/lifesaver rescues each year. Educating the public about the rip current hazard is a primary focus of beach safety practitioners, but there has been a lack of qualitative research exploring the firsthand experiences of being caught in a rip current to assist in this regard. The aim of this study was to analyse interviews of rip current survivors to understand more about how people react when unintentionally caught in a rip current in order to help guide future public education to mitigate rip current drowning. Methods: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 56 individuals (primarily Australian-born) about their experience of being caught in a rip current. Interviewees were recruited via an online survey and varied in age and self-reported swimming ability. Results: Thematic analysis revealed three key temporal elements to the rip current experience: Before the Rip in which lack of awareness and knowledge, complacency, over-confidence, and attitude were prevalent themes; During the Rip which identified panic and temporary inhibition of decision-making, physical response, prior experience, and relationships with other beach users as themes; and After the Rip where post-rip effects and rip safety messaging and education were key themes. The importance of experiential immersion was a prevalent thread throughout all phases of the thematic analysis. Discussion: Our research shows that being caught in a rip current can be an intense and traumatic experience and that lessons learned from survivors have significant implications for improving existing and future rip current education efforts. In this regard, we provide several recommendations based on evidence-based insights gained from our interviews including the development of immersive rip current experience using virtual reality. So what: Despite the prevalence of rip currents causing drowning deaths and rescues, there has been a lack of qualitative research on firsthand experiences to aid in public education. These interviews emphasise the intense and traumatic nature of being caught in a rip current, underscoring the need for improved rip current education to aid in prevention of this, often harrowing, experience.
... In a survey conducted in Australia, more than 33% of beachgoers were overconfident about their perceived knowledge of how to identify a rip current and the importance of swimming between the beach flags that were patrolled by a lifeguard. 28,29 Young adult males were found to have higher subjective knowledge and overconfidence in their swimming ability when compared to females, and this resulted in them engaging in riskier behaviors such as the consumption of alcohol when swimming, leading to a lower risk perception of drowning. [30][31][32][33] Providing safety information can help participants and coaches in OWAs gain knowledge of the danger of open water and prevent risky behaviors. ...
Article
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Subjective knowledge is a significant factor influencing individuals’ behaviors. It plays a critical role in preventing people from tragic event during open water activities (OWAs). However, a measurement scale for subjective knowledge in OWAs has not been developed and comprehensively investigated in the field of maritime and coaching studies. Therefore, this study aimed to develop and validate a subjective knowledge scale in OWAs (SKS-OWA) to better understand participants’ safety perceptions. We collected data from individuals who participated in OWAs within three years in Singapore. This study conducted the pilot study (n = 260) and the main study (n = 453) and employed a rigorous scale development procedure to assess the psychometric properties of the SKS-OWA. The findings of this study contribute to a better understanding of subjective knowledge in OWAs, and the SKS-OWA can be used to help coaches and practitioners to plan their training programs, increase public awareness, and reduce the rates of deaths from drowning.
... In Australia, a country renowned for surf beaches, beach culture and beach tourism, just over half (51%) of the 141 coastal drownings deaths between July 2021 and June 2022 occurred on beaches (SLSA, 2022). Person-based risk factors on surf beaches include swimming ability (McCool et al., 2008), choice of swim location (Sherker et al., 2010), knowledge of surf hazards (Williamson et al., 2012), beach activities (Willcox-Pidgeon et al., 2017) and the presence/absence of lifeguards (Gilchrist and Branche, 2016). Physical environmental hazards include variable surf zone morphology and water depths, large breaking and surging waves, dangerous shore breaks, strong uprush/backwash on beach faces, and in particular, rip currents. ...
Article
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Beaches are popular, recreational destinations, but can be hazardous environments where drowning fatalities and other types of injuries can occur. Ocean lifeguards and beach safety managers make operational safety decisions based on ocean conditions, including various elements of the tide. This study addresses assumptions about the tide that are common in beach safety management; assessing the scientific basis that informs these decisions by evaluating the relationship between elements of the tide and fatal drowning on microtidal surf beaches in New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Lower tidal water levels and time periods closer to low tide were associated with increased likelihood of fatal drowning at surf beaches, while tidal phase (rising vs falling), tide range, and the rate of change of falling or rising water levels were not. These results have implications for ocean safety management and those responsible for educating the public about beach safety issues. Broad statements or anecdotal opinions that are not location or beach-specific should avoid describing times with falling water levels (an outgoing tide) as being inherently more dangerous.
... Even fewer methods measure how that learning might influence subsequent behaviours or transfer to other individuals and contexts. Instead, prevailing analyses of beach risk reduction tend to emphasise quantitative understandings of drowning fatalities (Koon et al., 2021;Lawes et al., 2020Lawes et al., , 2021Segura et al., 2022;Silva-Cavalcanti et al., 2018;Strasiotto et al., 2022) or assess public understanding of rip hazards using quantitative survey methods (Brannstrom et al., 2014;Caldwell et al., 2013;Pitman et al., 2021;Sherker et al., 2010). This study builds upon such deficit-based approaches through engagement by employing rigorous qualitative explorations of who learns what, how, and when, which carries implications for the ways in which future risk reduction and community engagements at (patrolled) beaches can be conceived and delivered. ...
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Despite reduced drowning incidence at lifeguard patrolled beaches, 71 drowning fatalities occurred on Australian beaches last year (2021–2022). Prevailing drowning prevention practices on beaches include patrolling lifeguards positioning safety flags in less hazardous locations and encouraging beachgoers to swim between them. Such methods represent a ‘deficit based’ approach to community engagement, in which experts determine acceptable behaviours and encourage adherence using a one-way transfer of information. Deficit based approaches can be useful, but participatory forms of community engagement are hypothesised to support learning that can transfer to other locations and through non-participants’ social networks. Using a lifeguard patrolled beach in Gerroa, Australia as a case study, we employed a ‘relationship building’ methodology to explore whether engagements on the beach can prompt transformational learning and whether such learning spills over to non-participants or to unpatrolled locations. Findings from 49 survey-interview engagements and 15 follow-up interviews suggest that building relationships with researchers is an enjoyable form of community engagement that contributes to learning about risk; simultaneously, findings suggest that learning can transform beachgoers’ intentions and practices at unpatrolled beaches. This paper provides a broadened theoretical and empirical model of community engagement aimed at beach drowning risk prevention via relationship building.
... To date, most of what is known about beachgoer's risk perceptions and behaviours internationally is based on quantitative surveys that characterize beach drowning incidents (Koon and Peden, 2021;Segura et al., 2022;Silva-Cavalcanti et al., 2018) or that describe beachgoer demographics, safety knowledge, and behaviours (Clifford et al., 2018;Fallon et al., 2018;Hamilton et al., 2016;Sot es et al., 2018;Williamson et al., 2012) in relation to lifeguards, positioning of beach safety flags, and rip current hazards (Brannstrom et al., 2014;Caldwell et al., 2013;Locknick and Houser, 2021;M enard et al., 2018;Pitman et al., 2021;Sherker et al., 2010;Woodward et al., 2015). ...
... There is also potentially an important lesson to be learned from surfers' attitudes towards rips in that they generally take time to check for rips, as well as wave conditions, before entering the water 57 as opposed to other non-surfing beachgoers who generally do not. 43,44,50,58,59 In this way, surfers are enacting their own 'Think Line'-one that is based on knowledge and experience, a theme explored further below. ...
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Rip currents are strong, narrow, and fast-flowing currents of water that initiate along the shorelines of many beaches globally. They are considered a major hazard to beach users and are responsible for most surf rescues conducted by lifeguards and lifesavers and contribute to many drowning deaths. In Australia, rips are the cause of twenty-six drowning deaths each year. There has been a lack of qualitative research exploring effects of firsthand experience of being caught in a rip current from the perspective of the survivor.Participants were recruited via online survey. Fifty-six semi-structured interviews took place between May 2013 and January 2014 with participants who had experience being caught in a rip current. Interviewees self-reported swimming proficiency and varied by country of birth and age.Thematic analysis of the interviews revealed three key temporal elements to the experience of a rip current; 1) Before the rip: in which education, rip preparedness and experience, and attitude were prevalent themes, 2) During the rip: in which panic and temporary inhibition of decision making, physical response, prior experiences, and relationships with other beach users were themes, and 3) After the rip: in which aftereffects, and rip safety messaging and education by experience were prevalent themes. The idea of experiential experience was the prevalent thread across all phases of a rip current encounter–changing many of our interviewee's’ relationship with the ocean forever.Our research highlights the need to develop further educational and messaging strategies to impart the knowledge of rip currents upon the public. However, it also shows that knowledge and messaging may not be enough, and that experience itself is a keystone to avoiding and surviving rip currents.
... Also, most of them were ignorant about the strategy to survive in the rips, i.e., swimming in parallel with the ow of currents. These ndings were consistent with the results of other studies, i.e., beachgoers had di culties recognising rip currents (Ballantyne et al., 2005;Sherker et al., 2010;Brannstorm et al., 2015). In Malaysia, initiatives to raise awareness among local communities about the dangers posed by rip currents are very scarce. ...
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A cross-sectional study was conducted to examine the public understanding of rips currents at Teluk Cempedak Recreational Beach of Pahang, Malaysia, from November 2020 to March 2021 via a questionnaire survey. Convenient sampling was used to collect data from 300 respondents. The questionnaire consisted of 24 questions, encompassing five sections, i.e., the demographic background, frequency of visiting the beach, swimming ability, their knowledge of rip currents, and understanding of beach safety. Associations between the study variables and the knowledge of both rip currents and beach safety were evaluated using the independent sample t-test, Chi-square test, and multiple logistic regressions at the confidence level of 0.05. In general, only 86% of the respondent knew about the rip currents. For beach safety knowledge, 83% of the respondents on the lifeguard facilities, 44% for the yellow red-flag and 93.7% for the red flag. Variables such as gender (knowledge of rip currents: Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) = 0.647, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.487 - 0.60, p = 0.003; beach safety: AOR = 0.665, 95% CI = 1.14 - 5.02, p = 0.021), locality (knowledge of rip currents: AOR = 2.482, 95% CI = 1.407 - 4.380, p = 0.002, beach safety: AOR = 1.821, 95% CI = 1.022 - 3.245, p = 0.042), and respondents’ experience of having problems in water activities (knowledge of rip currents: AOR = 0.170, 95% CI = 0.635 - 6.379, p = 0.000) were significantly associated with the knowledge of both rip currents and beach safety. Further studies are essential to enhance public understanding of rip currents and hence the beach safety in Malaysia.
... Overseas tourists were also found to have high rates of fatal drowning while participating in water recreational activities such as diving and swimming (Peden et al., 2016b;Pidgeon et al., 2018). Some activities are more dangerous for children under 5, such as bathing alone (Royal Life Saving Society -Australia, 2010) or unsupervised (Croft & Button, 2015;Peden et al., 2016a;Peden, Franklin, Leggat, & Aitken, 2017;Sherker et al., 2010). ...
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Drowning has been described as a major global public health problem and has recently been acknowledged by a United Nations Declaration on Global Drowning Prevention. While drowning impacts countries of all income levels, the burden is overwhelmingly borne by lowand middle-income countries (LMICs) who account for 90% of the global death toll. In addition, there is scarce data collection on drowning in LMICs, so the magnitude of drowning may be far greater than is represented. A range of factors including sex, age, education, income, access to water, a lack of swimming skills, certain occupations like commercial fishing, geographically isolated and flood-prone locations, preexisting medical conditions, and unsafe water transport systems, influence the risk of drowning. Some behavioral factors, such as alcohol or drug consumption, not wearing life jackets, and engaging in risky behaviors such as swimming or boating alone, increase drowning risk. Geopolitical factors such as migration and armed conflict can also impact drowning risk. There is a growing body of evidence on drowning prevention strategies. These include pre-event interventions such as pool fencing, enhancing community education and awareness, providing swimming lessons, use of lifejackets, close supervision of children by adults, and boating regulations. Interventions to reduce harm from drowning include appropriate training for recognition of a drowning event, rescue, and resuscitation. An active and/or passive surveillance system for drowning, focusing on individual settings and targeting populations at risk, is required. Drowning requires coordinated multisectoral action to provide effective prevention, rescue, and treatment. Therefore, all countries should aim to develop a national water safety plan, as recommended in the WHO Global Report on Drowning. Further research is required on the epidemiology and treatment of drowning in LMICs as well as non-fatal and intentional drowning in both high-income countries (HICs) and LMICs. Effective and context-specific implementation of drowning prevention strategies, including pilot testing, scale up and evaluation, are likely to help reduce the burden of both fatal and non-fatal drowning in all countries. Keywords: drowning, injury, risk factors, prevention, epidemiology, alcohol, swimming, rescue, resuscitation, migration
... At the same time, research by Sherker et al. (2010) found that beachgoers with basic knowledge about rip currents are significantly more likely to avoid swimming in the rip. This is an important finding that supports continuing education on rip safety, but perhaps using more immersive and realistic education strategies, such as the use of virtual reality headsets showing moving imagery (videos) of rip currents rather than static photographs in order to improve rip spotting ability (Pitman et al., 2021). ...
Chapter
Coastal and marine tourism is the largest segment of the travel industry, historically associated with the Sun, Sand and Sea imagery of beach holidays, and more recently inclusive of a broad range of boating and watercraft activities within what has been termed Blue Tourism. The health and safety of visitors in water-based environments is particularly important as the consequences of an incident can result in drowning or more serious injuries than on land. This chapter describes the activities of tourists in coastal and marine environments, where they are likely to experience difficulties and the services available through various government agencies and organisations to assist them. A particular focus is on the legal responsibilities and duties of care owed to tourists, recognising that for many visitors water-based environments are very unfamiliar settings. The chapter concludes by looking at innovations and initiatives in coastal and marine tourism in response to COVID-19 and how safety contributes to greater enjoyment of the marine environment.
... Rip currents are the leading causes of rescues and drownings off many surf coasts worldwide. 4 [6][7][8][9] Drowning is sudden; prevention is key when the aim is to reduce the incidence of drowning. [10][11][12] Primary prevention may modify beachgoer behaviour 13 ; lifeguards can impart preventative messages, 14 reducing the need for medical attention and cardiopulmonary resuscitation of drowning victims. ...
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Objective To predict the coast-wide risk of drowning along the surf beaches of Gironde, southwestern France. Methods Data on rescues and drownings were collected from the Medical Emergency Center of Gironde (SAMU 33). Seasonality, holidays, weekends, weather and metocean conditions were considered potentially predictive. Logistic regression models were fitted with data from 2011 to 2013 and used to predict 2015–2017 events employing weather and ocean forecasts. Results Air temperature, wave parameters, seasonality and holidays were associated with drownings. Prospective validation was performed on 617 days, covering 232 events (rescues and drownings) reported on 104 different days. The area under the curve (AUC) of the daily risk prediction model (combined with 3-day forecasts) was 0.82 (95% CI 0.79 to 0.86). The AUC of the 3-hour step model was 0.85 (95% CI 0.81 to 0.88). Conclusions Drowning events along the Gironde surf coast can be anticipated up to 3 days in advance. Preventative messages and rescue preparations could be increased as the forecast risk increased, especially during the off-peak season, when the number of available rescuers is low.
... Moreover, for every child who dies from drowning, it is estimated another five receive emergency department care for nonfatal submersion injuries (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.). The vast majority of drowning deaths occur in open water, and rip currents are one of the most dangerous hazards that significantly increase death by drowning and are difficult to identify (Brander, Bradstreet, Sherker, & MacMahan, 2011;Brighton, Sherker, Brander, Thompson, & Bradstreet, 2013;Sherker, Williamson, Hatfield, Brander, & Hayen, 2010). Teaching school-age children swimming and water safety skills is a key intervention (World Health Organization, 2017). ...
Article
This study investigated the potential of Virtual Reality (VR), using 360-degree (360°) videos, as a tool to teach children about water-safety skills. Children (n = 182) aged 10–12 years were randomly assigned to learn about water safety using one of three instructional mediums: 360° VR videos, traditional video, or poster. The training was designed to address specific themes that contributed to drowning in coastal environments, allowing children to learn about dangers of rip currents in a relatively safe environment. Overall, 95% showed improved knowledge of water safety after participating in the water-safety workshop and retained their knowledge during the subsequent tests both one and eight weeks later. No difference was found in the learning outcomes obtained across the three mediums; however, participants in the 360° VR medium reported higher levels of interest and enjoyment than participants using the other two mediums (91% of students in the 360° VR video group found the activity engaging versus 61% for traditional video and 51% for the poster). Teacher feedback also indicated that 360° VR videos are a useful, engaging, and effective method of learning. Overall, we found support for the hypothesis that 360° VR videos are a useful tool to teach targeted skills, and that using 360° VR videos is more motivating and engaging than using traditional learning methods. We also found evidence to support the hypothesis that 360° VR videos are an effective tool for self-directed learning.
... Moreover, for every child who dies from drowning, it is estimated another five receive emergency department care for nonfatal submersion injuries (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, n.d.). The vast majority of drowning deaths occur in open water, and rip currents are one of the most dangerous hazards that significantly increase death by drowning and are difficult to identify (Brander, Bradstreet, Sherker, & MacMahan, 2011;Brighton, Sherker, Brander, Thompson, & Bradstreet, 2013;Sherker, Williamson, Hatfield, Brander, & Hayen, 2010). Teaching school-age children swimming and water safety skills is a key intervention (World Health Organization, 2017). ...
Preprint
This study investigated the potential of Virtual Reality (VR), using 360-degree (360°) videos, as a tool to teach children about water-safety skills. Children (n = 182) aged 10 to 12 years were randomly assigned to learn about water safety using one of three instructional mediums: 360° VR videos, traditional video, or poster. The training was designed to address specific themes that contributed to drowning in coastal environments, allowing children to learn about dangers of rip currents in a relatively safe environment. Overall, 95% showed improved knowledge of water safety after participating in the water-safety workshop and retained their knowledge during the subsequent tests both one and eight weeks later. No difference was found in the learning outcomes obtained across the three mediums; however, participants in the 360° VR medium reported higher levels of interest and enjoyment than participants using the other two mediums (91% of students in the 360° VR video group found the activity engaging versus 61% for traditional video and 51% for the poster). Teacher feedback also indicated that 360° VR videos are a useful, engaging, and effective method of learning. Overall, we found support for the hypothesis that 360° VR videos are a useful tool to teach targeted skills, and that using 360° VR videos is more motivating and engaging than using traditional learning methods. We also found evidence to support the hypothesis that 360° VR videos are an effective tool for self-directed learning.
... Significant progress has been made in the past few decades to understand the pattern, dynamics and formation of rip currents (Castelle et al., 2016b;Dalrymple et al., 2011;Leatherman, 2017;MacMahan, Thornton, and Reniers, 2006), develop and evaluate escape strategies (MacMahan et al., 2011;McCarroll et al., 2014) and examine the rip current knowledge of beach visitors and rip survivors (Drozdzewski et al., 2012;Fallon, Lai, and Leatherman, 2018;Sherker et al., 2010). Yet, few studies have quantified the severity of rip current hazards to beachgoers, which is important for public education. ...
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Zhang, K.; Zhang, M.C.; Leatherman, S.B., and Leatherman, S.P., 2020. Rip current hazard analysis. In: Malvárez, G. and Navas, F. (eds.), Global Coastal Issues of 2020. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 95, pp. 969–973. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. The effect of rip currents on swimmers was analyzed based on the drag force acting on swimmers and the power they need to generate to overcome the drag force. The drag force and power increase quadratically and cubically, respectively, with increase of rip current and swimming speeds. An additional 50% increase in rip current speed above swimmer's speed results in a 125% increase in drag force, requiring a 238% increase in power by the swimmer to overcome the additional drag. Hence, even rip currents of low velocity can be dangerous and swimming against the current should be avoided.
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The dataset provides data on beachgoers’ behaviours, attitudes and perceptions of coastal bathing risks at a high energy beach in South-West France [1]. Data were collected from a face-to-face quantitative survey conducted at La Lette Blanche beach, during the lifeguard-patrolled summer period (July-August) 2022 from a sample of 722 visitors. Beachgoers were interviewed across various times of the day (i.e. morning or afternoon), on various days of the week (i.e. weekdays or weekends) and various marine and weather conditions. All respondents provided informed consent after reading a participant information form at the beginning of the survey. The survey was conducted in French or English and consisted of forty questions convering four main topics: (1) attitudes toward risk in general and concerns about risks in everyday life, including leisure and water based recreation context; (2) risk experience (participation in beach activities in general, visits at southwest France beaches, recreational activities, previous accidents); (3) visits to La Lette-Blanche beach at the time of the survey (attractiveness, bathing behaviour and perception of risks); (4) sources of information and preventive behaviours related to bathing risks. Respondents socio-demographic characteristics were collected at the beginning of the survey [2]. At the same time, environmental data were collected by a nearby directional wave buoy, tide gauge and weather station, and an hourly estimate of rip current hazard, shore break wave hazard and of the total beach crowd during the patrolling hours has been provided by the chief lifeguard of the study beach [3]. The dataset can be used to conduct quantitative analyses or to compare with others studies in the domain of beach safety research.
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Objective Evaluate the impact of a broadened theoretical and empirical model of community engagement aimed at coastal drowning prevention via relationship building between lifeguards and beachgoers through the delivery of skill development sessions on the beach. Setting A lifeguard-patrolled beach in Lorne, Victoria, Australia, during the 2023 peak summer holiday season. Methods In total, 12 skill development sessions were delivered by teams of lifeguards and risk researchers to beachgoers. Sessions were codesigned by the research team and shared with lifeguards beforehand to review and include lifeguards’ interpretations of localised risk during delivery. In total, 85 survey interviews were conducted with self-selecting beachgoers post participation. Results In total, 79 participants (93%) enjoyed participating in the session(s) and 77 participants (91%) reported learning something new. Learning how to identify rip current (n=59) and escape a rip current (n=40) were the two most commonly learnt skills. Participants’ intended changes in future beachgoing behaviours (n=46) include asking lifeguards at patrolled beaches how to identify site-specific (rip current) risk (n=11) and attempting to identify a rip current before entering the water (n=10). The spillover effects of participation include sharing what participants had learnt with family and friends. Conclusions Creating a dialogic model of collaboration via participatory community engagements between lifeguards and researchers with the beachgoing public can successfully prompt learning drowning prevention skills. These skills are required when navigating dynamic coastal hazards at unpatrolled beaches. Supporting lifeguards and life-savers to provide skill development expands the ways that life-saving services can engage the public, including measurement of lifeguards’ contributions to coastal drowning prevention.
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Most drowning deaths on Australian beaches occur in locations not patrolled by lifeguards. At patrolled locations, where lifeguards supervise flagged areas in which beachgoers are encouraged to swim between, the incidence of drowning is reduced. To date, risk prevention practices on coasts focus on patrolled beaches, deploying warning signs at unpatrolled locations with the aim of raising public awareness of risk. What remains unexplored is the potential for learning and behaviour change that can transfer from patrolled to unpatrolled beaches through beachgoer's experiences and interactions with lifeguards. The aim of this preliminary study is to explore the risk perceptions of beachgoers at a patrolled beach to establish if and how their experiences of beach risk and interactions with lifeguards affect their behaviours. Data was collected in Gerroa, Australia by engaging 49 beachgoers using a mixed survey-interview methodology. Results show that beachgoers are aware that they should ‘swim between the flags’, but many did not know the basis for the positioning of safety flags. A key finding is that beachgoer's express a clear desire for a skills-based model of community engagement that enables learning with lifeguards. This demonstrates a reflective public that desires skill-development, which may transfer from patrolled to unpatrolled beaches to affect broader risk reduction on the Australian coast. Learning how to avoid site-specific rip hazards with lifeguards at the beach presents a promising, and previously unexplored model for beach drowning risk prevention that has the potential to affect behaviour at unpatrolled beaches, providing an empirically-supported alternative to prevailing deficit-based awareness raising methods.
Article
The aim of this paper is to analyse the meaning of beach safety flags and their management along the Northern Spanish coast. There are more than 1000 small beaches, which are often in high demand by tourism during the summer season. To carry out the research, most of main beaches have been visited to observe and analyse the meaning of all the safety flags and their correct use depending on the oceanographic and meteorological conditions. The influence of the beach safety management and regulations on the use of beach safety signage has been also analysed. The results show that safety flag systems differ even between very close beaches where safety management is in the hands of different local governments. Outdated and local legal framework and the absence of an agreed system between the different organizations that provide lifeguarding services seem to be behind this lack of uniformity. A specific guide for beach safety flags and signage within a national safety beach plan agreed by all the autonomic or provincial governments may be a solution.
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The majority of drowning deaths on Australian beaches occur significant distances away from lifeguard services. This study uses results of 459 surveys of beachgoers at five beaches unpatrolled by lifeguards in New South Wales, Australia, to improve understanding of who visits these beaches and why, and to identify risk factors associated with their beach safety knowledge and behaviour. Many unpatrolled beach users were infrequent beachgoers (64.9 %) with poor rip current hazard identification skills, who did not observe safety signage that was present, and yet intended to enter the water to swim (85.6 %) despite being aware that no lifeguards were present. The survey found that the main reasons why beachgoers visited unpatrolled beaches were because they were conveniently close to their holiday accommodation, or they represented a quieter location away from crowds. Future beach safety interventions in Australia need to extend beyond the standard “swim between the flags” message in recognition that many Australian beaches will remain unpatrolled, yet still frequented, for the foreseeable future. Future beach safety interventions for unpatrolled beaches should be tailored towards the varied demographic groups of beach users.
Article
Rip currents at beaches are a public health hazard, with the potential to have serious socio-economic impacts on coastal communities globally, particularly those that depend on tourists. The potential for drowning or rescue depends on a combination of physical and social factors, and this is the first study to examine the relationship amongst the presence and location of rips, beach user intentions and behavior, and the hazard level identified by the lifeguards. Results of a survey administered in the summer of 2019 at Cavendish Beach and Brackley Beaches along the north shore of Prince Edward Island (PEI), Canada, suggests that beach user intention and perception of the rip current hazard may not accurately reflect their actions. Despite being aware of beach hazards, most beach users and in particular the tourists to the area, did not observe beach warnings. Their activity on the beach also appears to be influenced by the design of the beach access and the presence of other beach users. Respondents who could not recall the hazard level defined by beach flags and signs on the boardwalk tended to sit further away from the access point and lifeguards. Most of the respondents were tourists who were at a higher risk of needing rescue or drowning caused by rip currents due to their lack of rip knowledge and familiarity with those beaches. It is argued that the potential for drownings and rescues can be mitigated through changes in the design of the beach access and the distribution of lifeguard resources, but further research into the correspondence of beach user perception, lifesaving strategies and rip currents is required.
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Objective: To examine temporal trends in drowning in Australia against targets set in the Australian Water Safety Strategy (AWSS) 2008–2020 and to inform the development of the next iteration of the Strategy. Methods: A national analysis of unintentional fatal drowning rates per 100,000 population over 16 years (2004/05–2019/20) was conducted. Baseline rates (three-year average 2004/05–2006/07) were compared to the current three-year average (2017/18–2019/20) by sex, age group, drowning location and jurisdiction. Results: The overall rate of unintentional fatal drowning during the period decreased by 28%. Substantial reductions were observed in children 0–4 years (-63%) and 5–14 years (-56%). Progress has been less pronounced among people aged 75 years and over (-11%) and 15–24-year-olds (-14%). All locations and jurisdictions recorded reductions, aside from rocks (+46%). Conclusions: Although the strategy fell short of its aspirational target of a 50% reduction in drowning by the year 2020, this target was exceeded in key age groups, including children. Implications for public health: The AWSS is a powerful tool to align drowning prevention sector actions to agreed objectives. Forthcoming strategies must take into consideration demographic and social change, areas where limited progress has been made and the latest evidence to guide future priorities.
Article
The COVID-19 pandemic significantly altered personal and group behaviors that may directly or indirectly affect other public health issues. This paper examines if and how COVID-19 indirectly influenced beach safety and drownings within the Great Lakes region using daily drowning data from 2020 in comparison to historical trends in drownings pre-COVID. Results suggest that the number of beach drownings in the Great Lakes region was significantly greater compared to the pre-COVID period of 2010–2019. Statistically significant increases in drownings were observed in Lake Michigan (+14), Lake Ontario (+11) and Lake Huron (+4), while no change and a slight decrease was observed in Lake Superior and Lake Erie respectively. Drownings were lower than the historical average early in the pandemic but began to increase as stay-at-home orders were lifted through June and July. It is argued that the increase in drowning is due to a combination of reduced local lifeguard resources, cancelled swimming lessons, large beach crowds, warm weather, high-water levels and self-isolation fatigue. Whether in the Great Lakes region or elsewhere around the world, beach safety cannot be sacrificed in a future public health emergency by budget cuts or by reducing the focus of lifeguards with enforcement of social distancing.
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Measurements of hydrodynamics and topography were obtained during two separate field experiments at Palm Beach, NSW, Australia in order to assess flow characteristics within rip current systems during accretionary conditions. At an evolutionary time scale (days-weeks), feeder channel flow decreased and rip-neck flow velocity increased during a cycle of intermediate beach state evolution. At shorter time scales (hours), rip current velocity is inversely related to changes in water depth and is clearly modulated by the tide. Spatially, rip current velocity increases progressively both longshore from the feeders to the rip-neck and offshore within the rip-neck itself. Flow velocity is not constant across the rip channel and increases towards the middle and deeper section of the rip channel. Vertical velocity profiles within the rip-neck and feeder channels show an initial increase in flow magnitude above the bed, with maxima towards the middle of the flow and then a subsequent decrease towards the surface. Evidence of pulsatory rip flow behaviour was found at infragravity frequencies in both rip-feeder and rip-neck environments. Infragravity energy was dominant in the feeder channels during the observed beach state evolution and increased in the rip-neck as the system evolved towards transverse bar and low tide terrace and rip beach states. There is evidence to suggest that topography may exert direct controls on rip flow. The results of this study provide both new quantitative information on the flow kinematics of rip currents and confirm findings of previous studies.
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Introduction to the Logistic Regression Model Multiple Logistic Regression Interpretation of the Fitted Logistic Regression Model Model-Building Strategies and Methods for Logistic Regression Assessing the Fit of the Model Application of Logistic Regression with Different Sampling Models Logistic Regression for Matched Case-Control Studies Special Topics References Index.
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Along the 190 km of the Israeli Mediterranean coast, of which only about two-thirds is accessible to bathing activities, there are about 100 statutory surf bathing beaches guarded by professional sea lifeguards. The rest of the accessible Israeli Mediterranean coastline is divided into two additional legal categories, which are not guarded: (A) beaches where bathing is forbidden by governmental ordinance because they are too dangerous. (B) Beaches where swimming is freely permitted but not guarded. The estimated number of drowning victims in the Israeli Mediterranean surf since 1948 is about 2200. Reported drowning data show that, since 1973, the number of drownings in the surf has been about 1200 victims. There are almost no drownings reported within the perimeters of the official guarded beaches. The Israeli Mediterranean relative drowning number (RDN) in the surf per million inhabitants reveals for the last 32 years a long-term quasi-stable average of 8.1 and a SD of 2.7. The estimated average number of drownings for the present population would be about 56 victims. The Israeli RDN is higher than that of other Mediterranean countries and probably of other beaches in the world. In this article, I study the Israeli beach-safety management (BSM) schemes and identify and examine the various long-term and short-term temporal variations in drowning patterns, some demographic patterns leading to the identification of some risk groups and some other human, cultural, and managerial factors that seem to be typical for Israeli beaches and relate them to the drowning statistics. The high drowning figures in Israel seem to reflect both the meteorological and oceanographic conditions of Israel's Mediterranean coast and the BSM schemes. I suggest that Israeli RDN can, however, be reduced by proper modern scientific and managerial approach.
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SHORT, A D, 2006, Australian Rip Systems - Friend or Foe? Journal of Coastal Research, SI 50, (Proceedings of the 9 th International Coastal Symposium), 7 - 11, Gold Coast, Australia, ISSN 0749.0208 Since MCKENZIE'S (1956) classic article on rip currents in the Sydney region, rips have been recognised scientifically as an integral and important component of wave-dominated beaches in Australian and globally. Rips received less formal, but more important, recognition more than 50 years earlier, when Australian's began bathing in large numbers in the surf. The immediate result was a number of drowning owing to bathers being caught in rip currents and carried seaward. In the Sydney region where surf bathing was only legally permitted in 1902, the resulting rash of drowning in 1902 and 1903 lead to the formation of the world's first surf life saving clubs in 1903 and Surfing Life Saving Australia in 1907, an organization which now oversees 305 surf life saving clubs. Since 1949 when recordings begun it is estimated the lifesavers have rescued 300 000 people from the surf in New South Wales alone, the vast majority (~90%) from rip currents. This paper will examine the nature of rip currents, including the four types of rips; their role in surf zone morphodynamics; their nature and distribution around the Australian coast; the hazard they pose to swimmers; and ways we can mitigate this risk.
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SCOTT, T., RUSSELL, P., MASSELINK, G., WOOLER, A., and SHORT, A., 2007. Beach rescue statistics and their relation to nearshore morphology and hazards: a case study for southwest England. Journal of Coastal Research, SI 50 (Proceedings of the 9th International Coastal Symposium), 1 - 6. Gold Coast, Australia, ISSN 0749.0208 The coasts of Devon and Cornwall in the southwest of England experience some of the most energetic wave conditions (Hs,10% = 2-3 m) and largest tide ranges MSR = (4.2-8.6 m) in the UK. They are also a popular tourist destination during the summer months with over 10 million visitors per year. The energetic wave/tide conditions pose a considerable physical risk to beach users and 62 beach environments in this region are therefore patrolled by Royal National Lifeboat Institution (RNLI) lifeguards. Beach rescue statistics collected by the RNLI during spring and summer (1 May to 1 October) were analysed to examine and quantify the risk posed by physical beach hazards to beach users. Rip currents were found to be the main hazard and were responsible for 71% of all recorded incidents. The most hazardous beaches were found on the exposed west coast of the study area. Beaches here can be classified as morphodynamically intermediate and are characterized by low-tide tide bar and rip systems, often topographically-constrained by intertidal geology. The rip currents are generally most active around low tide. Beaches in Devon and Cornwall exhibit morphologies that are significantly different from previously studied beaches in Australia due to the combination of high energy surf zones, large tides and variable coastal geology. This work represents a first step towards the generation of standardized beach risk assessments in the UK.
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The Australian coast contains 10,685 beach systems, which occupy half the coast and can be classified into 15 beach types. These include six wave-dominated, three tide-modified, and four tide-dominated types which are a product of wave-tide and sediment conditions and two types which are influenced by intertidal rocks and fringing reefs. Wave-dominated beaches occupy the higher energy, microtidal southern coast exposed to persistent Southern Ocean swell. Tide-modified and tide-dominated beaches are most prevalent around the more tropical northern coast, which experiences meso-, macro-, and mega-tides and receives lower seas, as well as some sheltered and mesotidal southern locations. This article assesses the roles of waves, sediment, and tide range in contributing to beach type, particularly through the dimensionless fall velocity and relative tide range. It also describes their regional distribution, together with the occurrence of rip currents, multibar beach systems, and the influence of geological inheritance and marine biota.
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To determine the success of resuscitations performed by Queensland surf lifesavers and the factors associated with successful resuscitation. Retrospective case survey, using data from Surf Life Saving Association of Australia resuscitation report forms. 54 Queensland beaches patrolled by surf lifesavers, and nearby areas, between 1973 and 1992. Reasons and success rates for resuscitation, distance from surf clubhouse, whether inside patrolled area, victim's age, sex, facial colour on presentation, occurrence of vomiting, airway difficulties and involvement of alcohol. 171 resuscitations were reported (80% involving males and 20% females), with a success rate of 67%. Seventy-two per cent were performed during patrol hours, 17% within patrolled areas (95% successful) and 55% outside patrolled areas (only 62% successful) (P = 0.004 for difference in success rates); resuscitation success rates fell with increasing distance from the surf clubhouse (P = 0.009). Reasons for resuscitation were: immersion, 70% (success rate, 68%); collapse, 22% (success rate, 47%); and surf or beach injury, 7% and 1%, respectively (success rate, 100% for each). Resuscitation was more likely to be successful if the victim's facial colour on presentation was normal, pale or blue, but not if grey, and if the victim did not vomit or regurgitate. Resuscitation by surf lifesavers was highly successful when the victim was close to the surf patrol, indicating a need for funding to expand patrol areas. Public awareness of the greater safety of "bathing between the flags" (in the delineated patrol area) should be increased.
Book
This book provides a description of all NSW ocean beaches, together with those in several large bays. It is based on the results of the NSW section of the Australian Beach Safety and Management Program. It has two aims: first to provide the public with general information on the origin and nature of all NSW beaches including the contribution of geology, oceanography, climate and biota to the beaches, together with information on beach hazards and beach safety. Second, to provide a description of each beach, emphasising its physical characteristics including its name/s, location, access, facilities, dimensions and the character of the beach and surf zone. In particular, it comments on the suitability of the beach for bathing, surfing and fishing, with special emphasis on the natural hazards. Based on the physical hazards all beaches are rated in terms of their public beach safety and scaled accordingly from 1 (least hazardous) to 10 (most hazardous). The book includes descriptions of the 757 ocean beaches, 120 bay beaches and 15 beaches on Lord Howe Island; in all 892 beaches.
Book
This book provides a description of all NSW ocean beaches, together with those in several large bays. It is based on the results of the NSW section of the Australian Beach Safety and Management Program. It has two aims: first to provide the public with general information on the origin and nature of all NSW beaches including the contribution of geology, oceanography, climate and biota to the beaches, together with information on beach hazards and beach safety. Second, to provide a description of each beach, emphasising its physical characteristics including its name/s, location, access, facilities, dimensions and the character of the beach and surf zone. In particular, it comments on the suitability of the beach for bathing, surfing and fishing, with special emphasis on the natural hazards. Based on the physical hazards all beaches are rated in terms of their public beach safety and scaled accordingly from 1 (least hazardous) to 10 (most hazardous). The book includes descriptions of the 721 ocean beaches and 15 beaches on Lord Howe Island; in all 737 beaches.
Article
Beaches are one of the most popular recreational settings in most parts of the world. Indeed, marine tourism has been growing consistently in the last two decades. However, beaches are hazardous environments, and thousands of people die or sustain severe injuries while bathing or engaged in sea-related recreational activities. Unfortunately, both academics and practitioners have largely overlooked the issue of beach safety and management. this. paper presents the results of a research project developed in Southern Brazil - Beach Management and Safety Project, between the periods of 1995-2001. The results suggest that two contributing factors had a significant part to play in accidents occurrences: 1) there is a clear correlation between the knowledge level of beach users about the natural environment (sea) and accidents and, 2) rip currents are unequivocally the main natural hazard for bathers. Apart from those, the research also identified that the number of people on the beach, and their behavior, also influence beach accidents. As the number of people increases, bathers tend to move to the backshore and surf zone, creating the conditions to for accidents to occur. As a practical result, the most significant one has been the reduction of fatal accidents by 80% since the introduction of the project in Santana Catalina's north beaches (100 Km).
Article
Contents: Preface. Introduction and Overview. Reviewing the Influence of Social Roles on Drug Use During the Transition to Young Adulthood. Examining Roles and Experiences During the Post-High School Years--Sample Characteristics and Analysis Strategy. Changes in Cigarette Use. Changes in Alcohol Use. Changes in Marijuana Use. Changes in Cocaine Use. Summary, Conclusions, and Implications.
Book
From the reviews of the First Edition."An interesting, useful, and well-written book on logistic regression models . . . Hosmer and Lemeshow have used very little mathematics, have presented difficult concepts heuristically and through illustrative examples, and have included references."—Choice"Well written, clearly organized, and comprehensive . . . the authors carefully walk the reader through the estimation of interpretation of coefficients from a wide variety of logistic regression models . . . their careful explication of the quantitative re-expression of coefficients from these various models is excellent."—Contemporary Sociology"An extremely well-written book that will certainly prove an invaluable acquisition to the practicing statistician who finds other literature on analysis of discrete data hard to follow or heavily theoretical."—The StatisticianIn this revised and updated edition of their popular book, David Hosmer and Stanley Lemeshow continue to provide an amazingly accessible introduction to the logistic regression model while incorporating advances of the last decade, including a variety of software packages for the analysis of data sets. Hosmer and Lemeshow extend the discussion from biostatistics and epidemiology to cutting-edge applications in data mining and machine learning, guiding readers step-by-step through the use of modeling techniques for dichotomous data in diverse fields. Ample new topics and expanded discussions of existing material are accompanied by a wealth of real-world examples-with extensive data sets available over the Internet.
Article
To document patterns of water exposure at surf beaches by gender and identify factors that predict bather confidence to return to shore if caught in a rip current. Recreational surf beach bathers (N=406) provided self-completed data on water exposure patterns, surf activity behaviours and potential drowning risk and protective factors. Relative to females, males visited surf beaches more frequently, expected to spend longer in the water and in deeper water, and more often bathed after using alcohol (p<0.05). Confidence to return to shore if caught in a rip current was predicted by confidence to identify a rip current, self-rated swimming ability, gender, times visited any beach, and age in a standard linear regression model (adjusted R(2)=0.68). The study supports explanations that high male drowning rates result from more frequent exposure to water than females at high situational risk levels. Controlled studies are required to determine the role in drowning of overconfidence, swimming ability, surf experience, floatation devices and response to sea conditions.
Article
Because not all persons bathe at surf beaches, drowning rates based on resident population are likely to be underreported. To facilitate more precise drowning risk exposure data, this study aimed to develop a reliable direct observation measure of frequency and duration for surf beach bather exposure to water, by gender and age group. Bathers were defined as persons entering the water to wade, swim or surf with equipment. Observed bathers were systematically selected entering the water in daylight hours at six patrolled or unpatrolled beaches over 10 days. Variables measured were: weather and water conditions, water entries, duration of water exposure, water exposure location and person factors. The dataset comprised 204 (69.6%) males and 89 (30.4%) females, with males more likely to be in an older age group (p<0.05). Compared to females, males spent longer in the water, were more likely to use surfing equipment, and mainly used a surf zone located farther from the shore in deeper water (p<0.05). Two factors were significant predictors of bathing duration (adjusted R(2)=0.45): main surf zone occupied (based on water depth and distance from shore); and surf equipment used. The study provides new information about water exposure for bathers at surf beaches and new methods for measuring exposure to drowning risk. The findings suggest that overrepresentation of adolescent and adult males in surf beach drowning statistics is in part a product of greater total exposure to the water plus more frequent exposure to deeper water and bathing farther from shore.
Article
To determine patterns of victims, circumstances and locations of drownings in Australia in 1992-1997, inclusive. Population figures and available details of all drownings were obtained from the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Accidental non-boating drownings (ICD E910), boating incidents (E830-832), homicide (E964), suicide (E954), and other deaths without a drowning E code but "flagged" because drowning was involved (although not the primary cause of death) were included. The overall accidental non-boating drowning rate was 1.44/100,000 population/year. The commonest sites for non-boating drowning were ocean or estuary (22%), private swimming pools (17%), non-tidal lakes and lagoons (17%), surfing beach (10%) and bathtub (7%). 22% of victims were aged under 5 years; this group had a drowning rate of 4.6/100,000 population/year. Very few young children drowned in the ocean or in boating incidents. The rate of boating drownings was 0.29/100,000 population/year. Overseas tourists comprised 4.7% of all non-boating drownings, 18% of surf and ocean drownings, and 25% of all scuba drownings. Indigenous people had a much higher drowning rate than the general population. Drownings in children aged less than 5 years continue to be the greatest challenge for water safety organisations and legislators. Drownings in the Indigenous community and among tourists requires more detailed study and action. To assist in developing preventive strategies, the National Water Safety Council will need to clarify the categories described as "ocean/estuary" and "lake, lagoon, dam and waterhole".
Article
Drowning is a common, preventable problem, especially in childhood where it is the second most common cause of death by accident in Australia, with 0-4 year olds comprising 22% of all drownings. Commonest sites for drowning are nontidal lakes and lagoons; private swimming pools (especially preschool children); ocean/estuary and surfing beaches; bathtub and bucket drownings (especially in infants and toddlers with up to 10% of bucket drownings due to child abuse). This article reviews the current information on the epidemiology, prevention and treatment of drowning. Despite prevention strategies, including pool fencing, drowning rates in young children have remained relatively static. In older children, drowning rates have declined dramatically despite the lack of prevention. The indigenous population have a much higher rate of drowning than the overall figure and their toddler rate is very high. Approximately 69% of near drowning victims will have complete neurological recovery, 28% will suffer some selective deficit, and 3% survive in a permanent vegetative state. Alcohol has been strongly implicated in drowning and banning alcohol from adjacent swimming areas has reduced drowning rates. Overseas tourists were 4.7% of all nonboating drownings in Australia with 89% of these drowning in the ocean. Further funding for drowning prevention strategies are essential, yet noticeably lacking.
Article
This report uses data from a nationally representative longitudinal sample to examine the relationship of marijuana use by high school seniors to occupational attainment 10 years later. Analyses were conducted separately by gender, with and without controlling for other variables. Control variables, all measured when respondents were seniors, were: academic performance, educational aspirations, and occupational aspirations. Results indicate that the influence of marijuana use on occupational attainment is considerably different for males and females.
Article
Pedestrian accidents are a serious health risk to children in the UK and other Western countries. There remains a considerable amount to be learned about children's behaviour in real-traffic environments. The present study was intended to help fill this gap, by observing unobtrusively the behaviours of 123 adult-child pairs as they crossed the road at pedestrian light-controlled crossings. Eight behaviours were coded, including whether or not the pair stopped at the kerb, waited for the light to change, and checked to ensure traffic flow had stopped. Results showed that the adults observed provided reasonably good models of pedestrian behaviour, but that they rarely treated the crossing event as an opportunity to teach children explicitly about road safety. The only gender difference to emerge revealed that adults were more likely to hold girls' hands than boys' hands. No differences were observed in relation to (estimated) age of child. The implications of these findings for parental training programmes are explored.
Article
To describe gender specific suicide rates associated with partner's psychiatric disorder, loss of a spouse, or child by suicide or other causes, being a parent, and marital status. Nested case-control study. Information on causes of death, psychiatric admission, marital status, children, and socioeconomic factors was obtained from routine registers. Denmark. 9011 people aged 25-60 years who committed suicide; 180 220 age-gender matched controls; 111 172 marital partners; 174 672 children. The suicide risk in women whose partner had been first admitted with a psychiatric disorder after 31 December two years earlier was 6.9 (95% CI 3.6 to 13.0), whereas their male counterpart experienced a risk of 3.9 (2.7 to 5.6); p value gender difference = 0.39. Men who had lost their partner by suicide or other causes of death experienced a suicide risk of 46.2 (18.3 to 116.4) and 10.1 (6.5 to 15.8), respectively; the analogous risk among women were about one third: 15.8 (6.6 to 37.4) and 3.3 (1.5 to 7.2), respectively. Child bereavement by suicide or other causes imposed an approximate twofold risk increase in their parents, whereas being a parent was protective in women. Except for widows (1.6, 1.2 to 2.0) and widowers (3.0, 2.3 to 3.9) the suicide risk associated with being separated (2.0, 1.8 to 2.3), divorced (1.8, 1.7 to 2.0), never married (1.4, 1.3 to 1.6), cohabitant (1.2, 1.1 to 1.3) was virtually the same in the two sexes. The suicide risk is associated with partner psychiatric illness. Conjugal bereavement is particularly indicative of suicide in men, and spousal suicide is particularly indicative of suicide. Child bereavement is associated with parental suicide, while being a parent is protective against suicide in women.
Article
Unlabelled: Retrospective data extraction from two complementary mortality datasets determined the descriptive epidemiology and population rates in unintentional drowning deaths at surf beaches (n = 129). The annual average crude surf beach drowning rate was 0.28 per 100 000 population for males and 2.36 per 100 000 population for international tourists. The study generated hypotheses for risk assessment to assist Intervention: adult males, international tourists, people with cardiovascular conditions, and exposure to rip currents.
Analysis of hazards associated with seabathing:resultsoffiveyearsworkinoceanicbeachesofSantaCatarinastate, southern Brazil
  • A Klein
  • G Santana
  • F Diehl
  • J Menezes
Klein, A., Santana, G., Diehl, F., Menezes, J., 2003. Analysis of hazards associated with seabathing:resultsoffiveyearsworkinoceanicbeachesofSantaCatarinastate, southern Brazil. Journal of Coastal Research 35, 107–116
Smoking, Drinking, and Drug Use in Young Adulthood: The Impacts of New Freedoms and New Responsibilities
  • Safety Water
  • Council
  • Sydney
  • J Bachman
  • K N Wadsworth
  • O Malley
  • P M Johnston
  • L D Schulenberg
Aus-tralian Water Safety Council, Sydney. Bachman, J., Wadsworth, K.N., O'Malley, P.M., Johnston, L.D., Schulenberg, J.E., 1997. Smoking, Drinking, and Drug Use in Young Adulthood: The Impacts of New Freedoms and New Responsibilities. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
Coastal risk management COASTSAFE: the national coastal safety management service
  • Farmer
Farmer, N., 2009. Coastal risk management COASTSAFE: the national coastal safety management service. In: Proceedings of 2008 Australian Water Safety Conference, AWSC, Sydney, pp. 26-42.
Surf Life Saving Australia
Surf Life Saving Australia, 2008. 2008 National Coastal Safety Report. Surf Life Saving Australia, Sydney.