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Chemical risks and consumer products: The toxicity of shoe soles
Abstract
The European chemicals legislation, REACH, aims to ensure a high level of protection of human health and the environment. However, chemicals included in consumer products are covered only to a very limited extent even though they constitute the main source of chemical emissions. Shoes are large volume products and the overall aim of the present study was to study the ecotoxicological effects of three types of shoe soles and relate these effects to chemical emissions to the aquatic environment. The shoe soles were abraded and leached in water for 29 days and the alga Ceramium tenuicorne and the crustacean Nitocra spinipes were exposed to different concentrations of the leachate. Chemical analyses were performed to determine the chemical contents of the leachate. The main conclusions are that the shoe soles contain substances that are toxic to both test organisms, and that the toxicity is mainly explained by the presence of zinc. The estimated concentration of zinc from shoe soles in storm water runoff is low, but it still contributes to the overall load of chemicals and metals in the environment. The outlined test procedures may, in our view, provide a useful screening tool for assessing the risk that chemicals in consumer articles pose to the environment.
... Among these, MPs from long-lasting plastic stand out, which can also serve as MPs' inputs into the natural environment. Shoes, for instance, are a type of widely consumed product whose production involves the use of various chemical compounds, including different plastic polymers (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010). The mean worldwide footwear production between 2015 and 2020 was, for instance, approximately 20 billion pairs (Statista, 2022). ...
... However, little is known about the effects of MPs from shoe soles fragments on organisms. Only three studies were conducted to assess the toxicity of these micromaterials (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010Lee et al., 2022). These studies demonstrated shoe soles' toxicity related to their leaching chemicals, such as benzothiazole, para-xylene, and zinc. ...
... These studies demonstrated shoe soles' toxicity related to their leaching chemicals, such as benzothiazole, para-xylene, and zinc. It has been reported that these components inhibit growth and induce abnormalities in aquatic-living organisms (algae, crustaceans, and fish) (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010;Kim et al., 2022) and cause water and oxidation stress and hinder growth in mung bean plants (Vigna radiata) . However, as highlighted by Kim et al. (2022), the toxicity of MPs from shoe soles fragments can be underestimated in the absence of direct fragment-exposure studies and, therefore, studies on the possible effects of direct exposure of organisms to these MPs are necessary to understand the magnitude of their impacts. ...
More recently, many studies have reported the impacts of microplastics (MPs) on the health of organisms. However, our knowledge of its effects on some vertebrate groups, such as amphibians remains incipient. Thus, we evaluated whether the exposure of Physalaemus cuvieri tadpoles to MPs from shoe soles can induce harmful effects on their health. After 30 days of exposure to different MP concentrations (2 ×105 MP particles/m3 and 4 ×106 MP particles/m3), we noticed that the tadpoles ingested particles with a mean diameter of 148.8 µm and irregular shapes, which accumulated in the intestinal tube. Such accumulation was associated with a lower-body condition index, non-uniformity in the keratinized structures of the jaw sheath, alterations in the intestine position in the abdominal cavity, bowel tube winding condition, and the emergence of dark regions in the intestine like pseudomelanosis. The reduction of superoxide dismutase and catalase activities suggests that MPs have affected the antioxidant system. The minor nitrite production provides evidence that the production of nitric oxide by cells of the intestinal immune system has been affected. In addition, we observed a significant reduction in the size (area, perimeter, and diameter) of MPs after ingestion, which suggests that tadpoles can act as vectors for their dispersal of MPs from shoe soles in the environment. The principal component analysis and integrated biomarker response assessment also confirm that higher MPs concentration induces a more stressful response. Therefore, our study demonstrates that “my sneakers,” while seemingly harmless, can pose a health risk to amphibians.
... Among these, MPs from long-lasting plastic stand out, which can also serve as MPs' inputs into the natural environment. Shoes, for instance, are a type of widely consumed product whose production involves the use of various chemical compounds, including different plastic polymers (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010). The mean worldwide footwear production between 2015 and 2020 was, for instance, approximately 20 billion pairs (Statista, 2022). ...
... However, little is known about the effects of MPs from shoe soles fragments on organisms. Only three studies were conducted to assess the toxicity of these micromaterials (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010Lee et al., 2022). These studies demonstrated shoe soles' toxicity related to their leaching chemicals, such as benzothiazole, para-xylene, and zinc. ...
... These studies demonstrated shoe soles' toxicity related to their leaching chemicals, such as benzothiazole, para-xylene, and zinc. It has been reported that these components inhibit growth and induce abnormalities in aquatic-living organisms (algae, crustaceans, and fish) (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010;Kim et al., 2022) and cause water and oxidation stress and hinder growth in mung bean plants (Vigna radiata) . However, as highlighted by Kim et al. (2022), the toxicity of MPs from shoe soles fragments can be underestimated in the absence of direct fragment-exposure studies and, therefore, studies on the possible effects of direct exposure of organisms to these MPs are necessary to understand the magnitude of their impacts. ...
... Thus, the actual negative effects of microplastics in the environment are related to the eluted materials from plastics and plastic fragment toxicity. Tire leachates include toxic chemicals, such as benzothiazole, benzo[a]pyrene, pyrene, and zinc (Zn), which have also been detected in shoe sole leachates (Capolupo et al., 2020;Ingre-Khans et al., 2010;Kolomijeca et al., 2020). ...
... According to previous studies, microplastic particles originating from terrestrial environments could leach toxicants when released in aquatic environments (Canepari et al., 2008;Ingre-Khans et al., 2010;Wagner et al., 2018;Shruti et al., 2021). The present study aimed to examine the effects of leachates of irregular-shaped plastic fragments, which were acquired from manual fragmentation of shoe soles, on three aquatic model species (algae, water fleas, and fish embryos). ...
... Four types of shoe sole leachate were prepared as per the leaching method described by Ingre-Khans et al. (2010) with some modifications. The original method used shoe sole fragment with size less than 1 mm were used to produce leachates as a liquid/solid (L/S) ratio of 1000. ...
This study investigated the toxic effects of leachates from microplastic fragments of soles from four different types of shoes (slippers, trekking shoes, running shoes, and sneakers) on three aquatic organisms (Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Daphnia magna, and Danio rerio). The chemical components in each leachate were identified; furthermore, chlorophyll a contents of C. reinhardtii were measured, and immobilization of D. magna and deformities in D. rerio were observed. The abnormalities observed in the test species exposed to the leachates were compared and chemical compounds majorly influencing the species were determined by principal component analysis (PCA). Sneaker leachate showed growth inhibitions in C. reinhardtii, immobility and mortality in D. magna, and severe abnormalities in D. rerio. Consequently, aquatic toxicity was majorly associated with benzothiazole, carbon disulfide, ethyl acetate, and p-xylene. The results showed that toxic chemicals could leach from load-originated microplastics when exposed to aquatic media, and consequently, induce significant negative effects on aquatic organisms. Since microplastics from shoe soles discharge the above-mentioned toxic chemicals, regulating the chemical use during plastic production is critical to prevent severe effects of microplastic toxicity in aquatic organisms, and to maintain the health of aquatic environments.
... This compound both facilitates the vulcanization process and has a beneficial effect on the physical properties of the rubber (Heideman et al. 2005). However, it is known that Zn is an environmental pollutant, so efforts have been made to reduce the amount used in rubber products (Wik and Dave 2009;Ingres-Khans et al. 2010). Reduction in the particle size of the ZnO appears to be effective at reducing the quantities required while still maintaining the physical properties of the rubber. ...
... Footwear production is another important industry requiring significant quantities of vulcanized rubber. For example, the worldwide production of footwear in 2004 was some 17 billion pairs (quoted by Ingres-Khans et al. 2010). Ingres-Khans et al. (2010) investigated the ecotoxicological effects of leachates from three rubber-soled shoes (shoes 1-3), two from China and one from Vietnam. ...
... For example, the worldwide production of footwear in 2004 was some 17 billion pairs (quoted by Ingres-Khans et al. 2010). Ingres-Khans et al. (2010) investigated the ecotoxicological effects of leachates from three rubber-soled shoes (shoes 1-3), two from China and one from Vietnam. They filed approximately 1 g from the soles of each pair and leached this material for 29 days in prepared solutions resembling brackish water. ...
An HHpXRF study of 296 lava stepping stones from ancient Pompeii showed that their surfaces were contaminated by superficial deposits of Zinc (Zn) and Lead (Pb). Recent research has shown that concentrations of these elements are highest in urban areas where they were attributed to tyre dust and leaded petrol respectively. The distribution of these elements on the stepping stones is represented on maps of the site. Zn pollution is most abundant in areas visited by tourists and is attributed mostly to wear of tourist's rubber‐soled shoes. The Pb pollution is attributed to movement of on‐site vehicles using leaded petrol.
... 165 μm in size), purchased from Dongwan Shunjie Technology Co., Ltd., China, were used in the MPs leaching test. The MPs leaching experiment was based on previous studies (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010;Kim et al., 2022;Wang et al., 2020) with minor modifications, that is, no sulfuric acid solution was applied during the leaching process to prevent organic matter from decomposing and mimic natural environmental conditions. In brief, 30 g of each mPE and mPVC was placed in 1 L clear glass bottles. ...
... The composition of the leachate stock solution of MPs (i.e., 30 g/L) aged for 90 days was analyzed, and the analytical methods were based on previous studies with some minor modification (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010;Kim et al., 2022). Metal elements in the MPs leachate were detected using an Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP-OES, 5110, Agilent Technologies, USA). ...
The leaching of microplastics (MPs) additives and their negative effects on aquatic organisms remain to be systematically elucidated. In this study, the toxicological effects of MPs leachate (micro-sized polyethylene (mPE) and micro-sized polyvinyl chloride (mPVC) acceleratedly leached by UVA for 15, 90, and 180 days in seawater) on microalga Chlorella vulgaris in terms of cell growth inhibition, oxidative stress, and transcriptomes were investigated. The leachate components of MPs aged for 90 days were further identified to elucidate the corresponding toxicity mechanisms of MPs on microalgal cells. The results revealed that both leachates of mPE and mPVC inhibited cell growth and increased oxidative stress in C. vulgaris, accompanied by a growth inhibition rate to microalgal cells of 4.0%-36.2% and 7.1%-48.2%, respectively. At the same mass concentration, the toxicological effects on C. vulgaris followed the order of mPVC leachate > mPE > mPE leachate > mPVC, whereas MPs leaching time indicated no change in MPs leaching toxicity. Furthermore, the gene functions of "translation, ribosomal structure and biogenesis" were mostly affected by MPs leachate. Compared to mPE leachate and pure MPs, the stronger inhibitory effects of mPVC leachate on microalgal cells may be attributed to the fact that more substances were leached from the polymer of mPVC, including Zn, farnesol isomer a, 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol, and acetyl castor oil methyl ester. In summary, this study provides a better understanding of the ecotoxicological influences of MPs and MPs leachate, and offers a warning on the ecological risk caused by plastic additives.
... This daily abrasion can generate considerable amounts of sole fragments, which cannot be ignored. Assuming that each person uses a shoe sole pair within two years, 2 g of shoe sole fragments can enter the soil ecosystems annually (Ingre-Ingre-Khans et al., 2010;Saito et al., 2007). ...
... Two studies have been conducted to assess the toxicity of shoe soles (Ingre- Ingre-Khans et al., 2010;Kim et al., 2022). Both used the leachates of shoe soles to demonstrate shoe sole toxicity related to their leaching chemicals, such as benzothiazole, para-xylene, and zinc. ...
Shoe sole fragments are generated by sole abrasion, which is unavoidable. These fragments can enter the soil ecosystem. However, limited studies have evaluated their effects on soils and plants. Here, we aimed to evaluate the toxicity of shoe sole fragments on a crop plant, Vigna radiata (mung bean). Shoe sole fragments (size: 57–229 μm) were obtained from four shoe types (trekking shoes, slippers, sneakers, and running shoes) and plant toxicity assessments were performed. Additionally, the fragments were leached for 30 d, and potentially toxic leachates were identified. Shoe sole fragments exhibited adverse effects depending on the shoe type. The fragments of soles from sneakers increased the bulk density of the soil but reduced its water holding capacity. Moreover, the microplastic fragments and leachates directly affected plant growth and photosynthetic activities. The fragments of slippers and running shoes boosted plant growth but changed the flavonoid content and photosynthetic factors. Trekking shoe sole fragments did not exhibit plant photoinhibition; however, their leachate inhibited photosynthesis. Overall, it was concluded that shoe sole fragments can cause adverse effects in plants and impair soil environment. Our study findings indicate that it is necessary to develop shoe soles that have less harmful environmental effects.
... High concentrations of zinc were e.g. identified in shoe sole leachates in a study testing the ecotoxicity of three different shoe soles made of different types of rubber (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010). In the same study, zinc was suggested to constitute the main explanation for the toxic effects reported for the aquatic test organisms exposed to the shoe sole leachates (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010). ...
... identified in shoe sole leachates in a study testing the ecotoxicity of three different shoe soles made of different types of rubber (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010). In the same study, zinc was suggested to constitute the main explanation for the toxic effects reported for the aquatic test organisms exposed to the shoe sole leachates (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010). ...
... High concentrations of zinc were e.g. identified in shoe sole leachates in a study testing the ecotoxicity of three different shoe soles made of different types of rubber (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010). In the same study, zinc was suggested to constitute the main explanation for the toxic effects reported for the aquatic test organisms exposed to the shoe sole leachates (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010). ...
... identified in shoe sole leachates in a study testing the ecotoxicity of three different shoe soles made of different types of rubber (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010). In the same study, zinc was suggested to constitute the main explanation for the toxic effects reported for the aquatic test organisms exposed to the shoe sole leachates (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010). ...
It is widely acknowledged that the management of risks associated with chemicals in articles needs to be improved. The EU environmental policy states that environmental damage should be rectified at source. It is therefore motivated that the risk management of substances in articles also takes particular consideration to those substances identified as posing a risk in different environmental compartments. The primary aim of the present study was to empirically analyze to what extent the regulation of chemicals in articles under REACH is coherent with the rules concerning chemicals in the Sewage Sludge Directive (SSD) and the Water Framework Directive (WFD). We also analyzed the chemical variation of the organic substances regulated under these legislations in relation to the most heavily used chemicals. The results show that 16 of 24 substances used in or potentially present in articles and regulated by the SSD or the WFD are also identified under REACH either as a substance of very high concern (SVHC) or subject to some restrictions. However, for these substances we conclude that there is limited coherence between the legislations, since the identification as an SVHC does not in itself encompass any use restrictions, and the restrictions in REACH are in many cases limited to a particular use, and thus all other uses are allowed. Only a minor part of chemicals in commerce is regulated and these show a chemical variation that deviates from classical legacy pollutants. This warrants new tools to identify potentially hazardous chemicals in articles. We also noted that chemicals monitored in the environment under the WFD deviate in their chemistry from the ones regulated by REACH. In summary, we argue that to obtain improved resource efficiency and a sustainable development it is necessary to minimize the input of chemicals identified as hazardous to health or the environment into articles.
... Toxic effects have been reported for aquatic ☆ This paper has been recommended for acceptance by Eddy Y. Zeng. and terrestrial biota exposed to the same MP fragments and leachates, including inhibited growth and development in algae and crustaceans, and altered plant growth and polyphenolic composition in mung bean (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010;Lee et al., 2022). ...
Microplastics (MPs) from rubber outsoles of trail running shoes may contribute significantly to contamination in protected areas. In the natural environment, weathering processes can damage MP molecular structure and alter the mobility of inorganic and organic compounds used as additives in rubber. In this study, we characterised changes in the surface morphology, functional groups, and thermal stability of MPs weathered on and below the soil surface over 12 weeks, and analysed inorganic and organic additives in leachates (0.01M CaCl2) and bioaccessibility extracts (ethyl acetate). Weathering conditions included UVC irradiation at 25 °C and 80% soil moisture. Microplastics on the soil surface exhibited cracking, fragmentation, and increased extractability of zinc, sulphur, titanium and fatty acids. Microplastics below the soil surface were not significantly physically or chemically altered, however zinc leachability increased following extended weathering by up to 155%. Bioaccessibility of thiol, aromatic and cyclic organic additives decreased from both surface and sub-surface MPs over the 12 week weathering period, but there was evidence of an increase in transformation by-products. Microplastic toxicity may be significantly altered by environmental conditions and MP weathering. It is critical ecotoxicological studies use weathered MPs to assess impacts on rare and endemic species found in protected spaces.
... The elevated porosity of the Pic Saint-Loup soils may lead to migration and recharge of the karst aquifer by materials left on its surface [Viaroli et al., 2022]. Only four studies assessed the toxicity of shoe sole microplastics [Ingre-Khans et al., 2010, da Costa Araújo et al., 2022 and found that it is related to chemicals leached in aquatic organisms (algae, crustaceans, amphibians, and fish) and in bean plants. Fourneaux et al. [1989] experimentally traced (fluorescein) the connectivity of groundwater masses down the Pic Saint-Loup, and found that during the dry season, 95% of the marked flow was retrieved in the Lez spring (∼7.5 km south of the Pic Saint-Loup). ...
Outdoor recreational activities for leisure and for sport training have grown in popularity. Their environmental impacts remain little studied, especially the waste generated by over-frequentation. Our objective was to document how frequentation of a short mountain hiking trail can lead to significant quantities of waste. To this aim, all small objects found along a three-kilometer trail were collected and their origin determined. Polymers were predominant, and were mostly shoe sole fragments. This has never been documented and must be publicized due to the potential harmfulness to terrestrial and riparian ecosystems, and to increase the walkers' awareness.
... Gore-tex). Footwear has a complex make up, consisting of up to 250 different components (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010), and may include polyester and nylon fibers, Gore-tex, ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), a polyether block amide, and rubber (eg. carbon rubber, butyl rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR)) (Dahlberg, 2010). ...
... Based on the regulatory limits of the DoE, Ba is generally less toxic than other studied heavy metals (Breitholtz and Rude 2010). The maximum allowable limit of Ba is 100 mg/kg. ...
In civil engineering, many geotechnical and forensic projects employ polyurethane (PU) for ground improvement, and the results have shown to be effective in terms of time and cost savings. However, similar to many other chemical stabilisers, the use of PU for soil stabilisation may have environmental repercussions. Therefore, this paper utilised a toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) to investigate the potential for ground contamination resulting from the application of PU for the stabilisation of marine clay. Furthermore, the hazardousness of PU during the stabilisation of marine clay was investigated by testing its reactivity, ignitability, corrosivity and physical properties. The results reveal that the quantity of heavy metals present in PU is far below the regulatory limits. The results further confirm that PU is odourless and non-corrosive and that it is non-cyanide and nonsulphide-bearing. However, PU is capable of igniting. Overall, the potential application of PU for ground improvement is promising due to its environmental friendliness.
... Furthermore, many of the footwear inputs contain toxic materials. PVC gives off dioxins that bioaccumulate in the environment and human bodies, disrupting hormone levels (Cao et al., 2014); zinc oxide, often used in the vulcanization of rubber, is soluble in water and poisonous to aquatic life (Ingre-Khans, Ruden, & Breitholtz, 2010). Leather is tanned with the toxic substance chromium, and conventional rubber soles include lead and plastic, which enter the soil and air with use over time and end their lives in landfills where their nutrients are lost forever (McDonough & Braungart, 2002). ...
This research aims to reduce solid waste, resource depletion, and material toxicity in the footwear industry. Mycelium, the root structure of mushrooms, binds together substrate materials as it grows, offering opportunities for composite development. Mycelium composites were developed using edible mushroom species alongside other natural materials. The 4 × 2 experiment tested four mushroom species (reishi, oyster, king oyster, and yellow oyster) and two fabric levels (with or without a natural fabric mat). Scanning electron microscopy images confirmed mycelium growth within the composite and around the substrates. Two-way analysis of variance tests found that both species and fabric significantly affected the density, and the species significantly affected the compressive strength. A positive and significant linear relationship was found between density and compressive strength, with higher density leading to higher compressive strength. The compressive strength of the mycelium composites, especially those made from king oyster mycelium, provides opportunities for renewable and biodegradable footwear inputs.
... In addition to heavy metals, the activators and accelerators used in vulcanization of the NR during the composite manufacturing process must be considered. Indeed, several previous studies have attributed the toxicity of materials produced from NR latex to the compounds used for latex vulcanization (Campos et al., 1999;Ingre-Khans et al., 2010;Lönnroth, 2005;Roy et al., 2015). Using high-performance liquid chromatography, Abraham et al. (2005) found that the dithiocarbamate vulcanization accelerator was released from the vulcanized material into the physiologically simulated medium. ...
A novel composite material has been developed from natural rubber and leather waste, and a corresponding patent has been filed. This new material may be incorporated into textile and footwear products. However, as leather waste contains chromium, the biocompatibility of this new material and its safety for use in humans must be investigated. The aim of the present study was to investigate the presence of chromium in this new material, determine the amount of each form of chromium present (trivalent or hexavalent), and evaluate the potential cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of the novel composite in two cell lines. The cellular viability was quantified using the MTT3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide reduction method and neutral red uptake assay, and genotoxic damage was analyzed using the comet assay. Our findings indicated that the extracts obtained from the composite were severely cytotoxic to both cell lines tested, and additionally highly genotoxic to MRC-5 cells. These biological responses do not appear to be attributable to the presence of chromium, as the trivalent form was predominantly found to be present in the extracts, indicating that hexavalent chromium is not formed during the production of the novel composite. The incorporation of this new material in applications that do not involve direct contact with the human skin is thus indicated, and it is suggested that the chain of production of this material be studied in order to improve its biocompatibility so that it may safely be used in the textile and footwear industries.
... The LDR endpoint (i.e. the ratio between the number of copepodites and total number of living animals at the end of the test) is recorded, together with mortality, after 5-7 day when $ 50% of the control animals have reached a copepodite stage. The test has previously been used to characterize a number of complex pollution matrices, such as waste eluates (Stiernström et al., 2011), municipal sewage effluents (Lundström et al., 2010b), and leachates from consumer products (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010). ...
Increased attention is currently directed towards potential negative effects of pharmaceuticals and other micro-pollutants discharged into the aquatic environment via municipal sewage water. A number of additional treatment technologies, such as ozonation, have therefore been suggested as promising tools for improving the removal efficiency of pharmaceuticals in existing Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs). Constructed wetlands are also capable of removing a variety of micro-pollutants, including some pharmaceuticals, and could hence be a resource efficient complement to more advanced treatment technologies. The purpose of the present study was therefore to increase the knowledge base concerning the potential use of constructed wetlands as a treatment step to reduce emissions of organic micro-pollutants from municipal sewage effluents. Under cold winter conditions, incoming and outgoing waters from four Swedish free water surface wetlands, operated as final treatment steps of sewage effluent from municipal STPs, were sampled and analyzed for levels of a set of 92 pharmaceuticals and 22 inorganic components as well as assessed using subchronic ecotoxicity tests with a macro-alga and a crustacean.
... A mixture may give rise to a much larger fire hazard than any of its components, and synergistic effects can make a mixture more hazardous to human health than each of the substances contained in it. Furthermore, consumer products that have similar functionality may still differ in their environmental and health impact (Ingre-Khans et al., 2010). In such cases, substitution of the mixture, or even a product can be the appropriate measure. ...
According to the substitution principle, hazardous chemicals should be replaced by less hazardous alternatives. In this paper, the major issues concerning the more precise definition of the principle are analyzed, and a general purpose definition is proposed. It is claimed that the priority between reducing hazard, functionality and economical considerations in the application of the substitution principle is a matter for adjustment in each particular case that cannot be settled beforehand. None of these objectives can have absolute priority over the others, but the substitution principle is aimed at increasing the priority given to the reduction of hazards to human health and the environment. Major methods to promote and implement the principle are summarized, current legislative approaches are discussed, and proposals for efficient implementation are made. It is emphasized that the primary responsibility for avoiding hazardous substances and processes rests with industry.
This review covers selected 2010 articles on the biological, chemical and physical effects of natural and anthropogenic pollutants on marine and estuarine plants and animals. The review, based largely on journal articles, covers field and laboratory measurement activities (concentrations of contaminants, field surveys, toxicity testing and biomarkers). Reviewed papers focus further on pollution issues of current interest including endocrine disrupters, wastewater discharges, dredging and disposal, etc. Special emphasis is placed on oil spills due to the catastrophic Deepwater Horizon blowout in the Gulf of Mexico and ongoing cleanup. Several topical areas reviewed in the past were dropped this year due to circumstances beyond our control. Further, the focus is on effects, not on pollutant fate and transport. There is considerable overlap across subject areas (e.g. some bioaccumulation papers may be cited in other topical categories). as always, readers should only use this as a guide and must consult the original papers before citing them, including double-checking units.
The large global production of plastics and their presence everywhere in the society and the environment create a need for assessing chemical hazards and risks associated with plastic products. The aims of this study were to determine and compare the toxicity of leachates from plastic products made of five plastics types and to identify the class of compounds that is causing the toxicity.
Selected plastic types were those with the largest global annual production, that is, polypropylene, polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), or those composed of hazardous monomers (e.g., PVC, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene [ABS], and epoxy). Altogether 26 plastic products were leached in deionized water (3 days at 50°C), and the water phases were tested for acute toxicity to Daphnia magna. Initial Toxicity Identification Evaluations (C18 filtration and EDTA addition) were performed on six leachates.
For eleven leachates (42%) 48-h EC50s (i.e the concentration that causes effect in 50 percent of the test organisms) were below the highest test concentration, 250 g plastic/L. All leachates from plasticized PVC (5/5) and epoxy (5/5) products were toxic (48-h EC50s ranging from 2 to 235 g plastic/L). None of the leachates from polypropylene (5/5), ABS (5/5), and rigid PVC (1/1) products showed toxicity, but one of the five tested HDPE leachates was toxic (48-h EC50 17-24 g plastic/L). Toxicity Identification Evaluations indicated that mainly hydrophobic organics were causing the toxicity and that metals were the main cause for one leachate (metal release was also confirmed by chemical analysis).
Toxic chemicals leached even during the short-term leaching in water, mainly from plasticized PVC and epoxy products.
A new four-part artificial seawater called GP2 Medium is described. It provides a balanced solution for routine maintenance of fishes and invertebrates but is also suitable for axenic culture of phytoplankton. Mixing instructions for phytoplankton culture are given. Instructions for mixing large volumes for routine maintenance of animals are the same as those previously published. The formula is described chemically in terms of ionic and salt concentrations.
The paper reviews the trends in the footwear sector regarding the amount of end-of-life waste produced and ways in which it is tackled. Existing reuse and recycling activities in the footwear sector are examined, and the use of biodegradable materials is investigated. The paper presents an integrated waste management framework by combining a mix of design and material improvements as well as reuse, recycling and energy recovery activities. The paper also discusses the implications of using biodegradable materials as a means of reducing the amount of end-of-life waste in the footwear industry and how this proactive approach compared against traditional end-of-life management approaches. 1 INTRODUCTION Unsustainable consumption and production patterns in the developed world have led to an increased generation of waste over many decades. Although local and national authorities, governmental agencies, manufacturers and the general public have come to recognise the importance of controlling waste at source, total waste elimination is not possible. There will always be some waste that cannot be prevented at source and so need to be treated at the end of its functional life. Considering the amount of end-of-life (EoL) waste generated every year, understanding and developing methods for EoL management are a major part of the overall waste management concern. The footwear industry over the last years has placed significant effort in improving energy and material efficiency, as well as eliminating the use of hazardous materials during the production phase. However, the environmental gains and energy efficiency made in production are being overtaken by the considerable increase in the demand for footwear products, the so-called rebound effect [1]. Moreover, the useful life of shoes is relatively short and progressively decreasing as a result of rapid market changes and consumer fashion trends. This creates a large waste stream of worn and discarded shoes at the time their functional life has ended, and most of them are being disposed in landfills. Producer-responsibility issues and forthcoming environmental legislations, as well as increasingly environmental consumer demands, are expected to challenge the way the footwear industry deals with its EoL products.
Purpose
The main objective of the current study was to assess the impact of pleasure boat activities on harbour sediment quality in the Stockholm area. Sediment contamination is a growing ecological issue, and there is consequently a need to use sediment bioassays in combination with chemical analysis to determine the impact on the ecosystem. To generate sediment toxicity data relevant for the Baltic Sea, a secondary objective was to further develop and evaluate two well-established bioassays for saltwater, with the macroalga Ceramium tenuicorne and the crustacean Nitocra spinipes, to be useful also for toxicity testing of whole sediment. A major concern has been to minimize any manipulation of the sediments. A third objective was to assess whether a simple leaching procedure could be used to simulate sediment toxicity by comparing results from whole sediment and leachate tests.
Materials and methods
Surface sediments (0–2 cm) from five different types of pleasure boat harbours were collected. Chemical measurements of boat related compounds, i.e. tin organic substances (tributyltin (TBT), dibutyl tin, and monobutyl tin), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), copper, zinc, lead, tin and irgarol were conducted. The sediments were tested for toxic effects using the established Microtox® test as well as the developed sediment tests with C. tenuicorne and N. spinipes. The endpoints are growth inhibition for the algal test and for the crustacean test mortality of larvae and rate of development expressed as the ratio between nauplia and copepodites. Two different procedures have been compared with both organisms, i.e. exposure to whole sediment and to leachate. The duration of both tests is around 1 week.
Results and discussion
All harbour locations were more or less heavily contaminated with remnants from use of anti-fouling paints. The sediment in a smaller marina (ca. 250 boats) contained the highest levels of TBT (max 1,400 µg/kg dry weight (dw)), whereas the centre of Stockholm City had the highest concentrations of all measured metals (max values Cu 252, Pb 830, Sn 25 and Zn 600 µg/kg dw) as well as high concentrations of total PAH (18 mg/kg dw). All three organisms were well suited to test the toxicity of contaminated sediments and were able to discriminate between more or less polluted sediments. The sediments in the smaller marina were most toxic along with sediments adjacent to slipways and sediments from the centre of Stockholm. No significant difference was found between the two different procedures for the algal tests. The whole sediment test was significantly more toxic to N. spinipes than the test using leachate.
Conclusions
Our results show that in spite of prohibition for many years to use tin organic substances and copper, boat activities still contribute with high concentrations of these toxic substances from anti-fouling paints in the surface sediment and that these have effects on organisms normally living in this environment. The present study has also demonstrated an expansion of two well-established toxicity tests for the water phase to be practical also for sediment toxicity testing. This will further increase the usefulness of these test organisms and methods for hazard and risk assessment in a wide range of environments.
Background, aim, and scope
It is well known that contaminated sediments represent a potential long-term source of pollutants to the aquatic environment. To protect human and ecosystem health, it is becoming common to remediate contaminated sites. However, the great cost associated with, e.g., dredging in combination with the large numbers of contaminated sites makes it crucial to pinpoint those sites that are in greatest need of remediation. In most European countries, this prioritization process has almost exclusively been based on chemical analyses of known substances; only seldom toxicity data has been considered. The main objective of the current study was therefore to develop a tool for hazard identification of sediment by ranking potential toxicity of organic sediment extracts in a crustacean and a fish. A secondary objective was to investigate the difference in potential toxicity between compounds with different polarities.
Materials and methods
Early life stages of the crustacean Nitocra spinipes and the fish Oncorhynchus mykiss, which represent organisms from different trophic levels (primary and secondary consumer) and with different routes of exposure (i.e., ingestion through food, diffusive uptake, and maternal transfer), were exposed to hexane and acetone fractions (semi-polar compounds) of sediment from five locations, ranging from heavily to low contaminated. Preliminary tests showed that the extracts were non-bioavailable to the crustacean when exposed via water, and the extracts were therefore loaded on silica gel. Rainbow trout embryos were exposed using nano-injection technique.
Results and discussion
Clear concentration–response relationships of both mortality and larval development were observed in all tests with N. spinipes. Also for rainbow trout, the observed effects (e.g., abnormality, hemorrhage, asymmetric yolk sac) followed a dose-related pattern. Interestingly, our results indicate that some of the locations contained toxic semi-polar compounds, which are normally not considered in risk assessment of sediment since they are focused on compounds isolated in the hexane fraction.
Conclusions
The ranking of the five sediments followed the expected pattern of potential toxicity in both organisms, i.e., sediments with known pollution history caused major effects while reference sediments caused minor effects in the two test systems. Silica gel turned out to be an excellent carrier for exposure of N. spinipes to very hydrophobic and otherwise non-bioavailable sediment extracts.
Recommendations and perspectives
Since both test systems demonstrated that a substantial part of the potential toxicity was caused by semi-polar compounds in the acetone fractions, this study enlightens our poor understanding of which compounds are causing adverse effects in environmental samples. Therefore, by investigating potential toxicity (i.e., hazard identification) as a first screening step in prioritizing processes, these implications could be avoided. For proper sediment risk assessment, we however recommend whole sediment toxicity tests to be used for selected sites at following tiers.
Plastic products can contain chemicals that are hazardous to human health and the environment. In this study, it was investigated if various plastic products emit hazardous chemical substances to water. Two leaching methods (batch and diffusion tests) were used and the leachates were tested for acute toxicity to Daphnia magna. Nine out of 32 tested plastic product leachates had Daphnia 48-h EC(50)s ranging from 5 to 80 g plastic material L(-1). For the remaining 23 products no effect on mobility was seen even at the highest test concentrations (70-100 g plastic material L(-1)). A compact disc (recordable) was the most toxic plastic product, but the toxicity was traced to the silver layer not the polycarbonate plastic material. The other products that displayed toxicity were made of either plasticized PVC (artificial leather, bath tub toy, inflatable bathing ring and table cloth) or polyurethane (artificial leather, floor coating and children's handbag). While the Toxicity Identification Evaluation (TIE) for compact discs using sodium thiosulfate addition showed that silver was causing the toxicity, the TIE for artificial leather using C18 cartridges showed that hydrophobic compounds were causing the toxicity. Acute toxicity tests of plastic product leachates were found to be useful for screening purposes for differentiating between toxic and non-toxic products.
Sinking rates of several marine diatoms and flagellates from growing cultures, and from older cultures no longer growing, have been measured using a fluorometer to detect chlorophyll fluorescence of cells as they settled. Sinking rates were related to cell diameter, with cells from nongrowing cultures sinking about four times faster than cells from growing cultures. In Thalassiosira fluviatilis sinking rate was increased by the formation of cell aggregates, probably due to chitin fibers produced by the cells. Calculations of cell density were carried out using a modified Stokes equation that included effects of cell shape and orientation during sinking. The calculated density difference between cells from growing and non-growing cultures exceeded the differences expected if a breakdown of cell ionic regulation took place when growth ceased and may represent formation of aggregates. Composition of the culture media influenced sinking rate. In von Stosch's medium and, we suspect, in nature, a fraction of the cells are neutrally buoyant.The fluorometer method for measuring sinking rate appears to be suitable for use on board ship, but the high cell concentration required would restrict its use to phytoplankton blooms.
At the request of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), our laboratory has performed acute toxicity testing with 43 substances, for which insufficient or no data had been available for hazard rating concerning damage to marine living resources.
We have provided a hazard ranking for 19 classes of compounds representing many of the nearly 500 organic compounds identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) and walleye (Stizostedion vitreum vitreum) from the Great Lakes and Lake St. Clair. We initially made a provisional hazard ranking based on available published and unpublished information on aquatic toxicity, bioaccumulation, occurrence and sources. Acute toxicity tests with Daphnia pulex at 17°C in reconstituted hard water were performed with 30 compounds representative of the 19 classes that were highest in the provisional ranking. The resulting toxicity data, along with information on the compounds' occurrence in Great Lakes fish and their sources, were ranked and weighted and then used in calculating the revised hazard ranking. The 10 most hazardous classes, in descending order, are as follows (values shown are mean 48-h EC50s, in μg/ml): arene halides (e.g., polychlorinated biphenyls, DDT), 0.0011; phthalate esters, 0.133; chlorinated camphenes (toxaphene), 0.0082; polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs; e.g., dimethyl-naphthalene) and reduced derivatives, 1.01; chlorinated fused polycyclics (e.g., trwzs-nonachlor), 0.022; nitrogen-containing compounds (e.g., O-methylhydroxyl-amine), 1.35; alkyl halides (e.g., (bromomethyl)cyclohexene), 10.1; cyclic alkanes (e.g., cyclododecane), 20.9; silicon-containing compounds (e.g., dimethyldiethoxy silane), 1.25; and heterocyclic nitrogen compounds (e.g., nicotine), 2.48. We recommend that chronic bioassays be conducted with fish and invertebrates to determine the sublethal effects of the following classes of compounds, for which few toxicity data are available: PAHs, heterocyclic nitrogen compounds, other nitrogen-containing compounds, alkyl halides, cyclic alkanes and silicon-containing compounds. Information from these types of studies will aid researchers in determining the possible causal role these contaminants play in the decline and reproductive impairment of Great Lakes fish.
Since conventional treatment technologies may fail in removing many micro-pollutants, there is currently a focus on the potential of additional treatment technologies for improved sewage treatment. The aim of the present study was to evaluate six different effluents from Henriksdal Sewage Treatment Plant in Stockholm, Sweden. The effluents were; conventionally treated effluent (chemical phosphorous removal in combination with an activated sludge process, including biological nitrogen removal and a sand filter), with additional treatments individually added to the conventional treatment; active carbon filtration, ozonation at 5 mg l⁻¹, ozonation at 15 mg l⁻¹, ozonation at 5 mg l⁻¹ + moving bed biofilm reactor and irradiation with ultraviolet radiation + hydrogen peroxide. The evaluation was done by characterizing and comparing the effluents using a Lefkovitch matrix model based on a life cycle test with the harpacticoid copepod Nitocra spinipes, combined with analysis of juvenile development and survival over time.
Approximately 460,000 ton of rubber are dispersed annually along the European roads due to tire wear. Tire rubber is known to leach compounds that are toxic to aquatic organisms. However, the potential effects of tire wear material on aquatic organisms at environmental relevant concentrations, and over time have so far not been extensively studied. In this study, rubber from three different tires was abraded and the powder leached in deionised water. The rubber powder was leached six times sequentially. All leachates were tested for toxicity using standardized toxicity tests including green algae (Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata, 72h growth inhibition), crustaceans (Daphnia magna, 24 and 48h immobility and Ceriodaphnia dubia, 48h survival and 9d reproduction and survival), and zebra fish eggs (Danio rerio, 48h lethality). The reproduction of C. dubia was the most sensitive endpoint tested, with an EC50 of 0.013 g L(-1) up to the third leaching of the most toxic tire, which is similar to a predicted concentration in road runoffs. The toxicity of all tires was reduced by the sequential leachings and after the sixth leaching the EC50s were >0.1 g L(-1) for all endpoints. Toxicity identification evaluations indicated that the toxicity was caused by zinc and organic compounds.
This review summarizes the existing knowledge on the occurrence of tire wear particles in the environment, and their ecotoxicological effects. A meta-analysis on tire components in the environment revealed that tire wear particles are present in all environmental compartments, including air, water, soils/sediments, and biota. The maximum Predicted Environmental Concentrations (PECs) of tire wear particles in surface waters range from 0.03 to 56 mg l(-1) and the maximum PECs in sediments range from 0.3 to 155 g kg(-1) d.w. The results from our previous long-term studies with Ceriodaphnia dubia and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata were used to derive Predicted No Effect Concentrations (PNECs). The upper ranges for PEC/PNEC ratios in water and sediment were >1, meaning that tire wear particles present potential risks for aquatic organisms. We suggest that management should be directed towards development and production of more environmentally friendly tires and improved road runoff treatment.
In recent years, reports have described endocrine-disruptive effects of environmental oestrogens in fish, but little is known about similar effects in crustaceans. The objective of the present study was therefore to examine whether the oestrogens 17-beta-oestradiol, 17-alpha-ethynylestradiol and diethylstilbestrol (DES), could affect mortality, larval development rate, fecundity and sex ratio in the sexually reproducing harpacticoid copepod Nitocra spinipes. Newly released nauplii (<24-h old) were exposed to 1/1,000, 1/100 and 1/10 (nominal concentrations) of each oestrogen's 96 h-LC50 value for < or = 18 days at 22 +/- 1 degrees C. The percentage of gravid females and the number of developed copepodites were both reduced at 0.03 mg l(-1) DES, although the latter response was not significant. None of the other two oestrogens induced any measurable effects. Since the only observed significant response appeared at a DES concentration no more than 10 times below the 96 h-LC50 value, there is no evidence of endocrine-disruptive activity in N. spinipes exposed to oestrogens.
The current knowledge concerning effects of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) on aquatic organisms is very limited. A full life-cycle (< or =26 days exposure) ecotoxicity test with the particle-feeding copepod Nitocra spinipes was therefore used to study effects of BDE-47, -99 and -100 on larval development rate (LDR) and population growth rate (r(m)). LDR significantly decreased in copepods exposed for 6 days to nominal concentrations > or =0.013 mg/l BDE-47 and > or =0.03 mg/l BDE-99. Large concentration ratios (< or =338) between adult acute and juvenile subchronic endpoints were observed. Exposure over the full life cycle (< or =26 days) showed that r(m) in general was a less sensitive endpoint than LDR. Still, the r(m) in copepods exposed to 0.04 mg/l BDE-47 was significantly reduced compared to the controls (***P<0.001). Partitioning experiments with 14C-BDE-47 and 14C-BDE-99 in the test system showed that the major fractions (approximately 50-80%) were associated to particulate material. Our findings indicate that development and reproduction in N. spinipes are sensitive to the tested PBDEs and that ingestion of particle-adsorbed PBDEs most likely is the predominant route of exposure in N. spinipes. However, to further improve the usefulness of laboratory effect levels of PBDEs and other lipophilic substances for environmental risk assessment, it is important to develop ecotoxicological tools, which can evaluate and rate the toxic contribution from different matrices, such as suspended particles, sediment, food, water etc.
Two growth inhibition tests using the red marine macroalgae Ceramium strictum and the brackish water relative C. tenuicorne have been developed. Besides using phenol as a reference substance, the toxicity of a metal, a flame retardant and a complex effluent water were assayed. The two methods are reliable and repeatable bioassays for salinities between 4 and 30 per thousandth. The coefficients of variation (CV) for toxicity of the reference substance phenol were 15% for the Stereo Microscope Analysis test and between 24 and 51% for the Computer Image Analysis test (n=5). Ceramium spp. are common and important primary producers in temperate coastal waters and are thus relevant as test organisms. Both algae grow well in laboratorial conditions and tests can be performed all year around.
2-(Thiocyanomethylthio)benzothiazole (TCMTB) is a biocide used in the leather, pulp and paper, and water-treatment industries. TCMTB may enter aquatic ecosystems during its manufacture and use. TCMTB is environmentally unstable; therefore, it is important to evaluate the toxicity of the more persistent degradation products. This study compared the toxicity of TCMTB with its degradation products 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (2-MBT), 2-(methylthio)benzothiazole (MTBT), benzothiazole (BT), and 2-hydroxybenzothiazole (HOBT). Toxicity was determined using Ceriodaphnia dubia 48-hour acute and 7-day chronic test protocols. TCMTB was the most toxic compound evaluated in both the acute and chronic tests with EC50s of 15.3 and 9.64 microg/L, respectively. 2-MBT, the first degradation product, was the second most toxic compound with acute and chronic EC50s of 4.19 and 1.25 mg/L, respectively. The toxicity of MTBT and HOBT were similar with acute EC50s of 12.7 and 15.1 mg/L and chronic EC50s of 6.36 and 8.31 mg/L, respectively. The least toxic compound was BT with acute and chronic EC50s of 24.6 and 54.9 mg/L, respectively. TCMTB was orders of magnitude more toxic than its degradation products. Toxicity data on these benzothiazole degradation products is important because of concerns regarding their release, degradation, persistence, and non-target organism effects in aquatic ecosystems.
Data on the indicators of environmental impact of tire debris, originated from the tire abrasion on roads, are extremely scarce, while it is well known that tires may produce deleterious effects. Tire debris contains significant quantities of zinc (Zn) which may be released by tire rubber. We have used tire particles (TD) produced in laboratory from new rubber. Two sets of experiments were set up to obtain eluates. One set used 50 and 100 g/L TD to produce eluates at pH 3-7. The Zn quantity was measured with a Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry. The eluates at 1%,10%,50%,100% concentrations in culture media were tested on Raphidocelis subcapitata, Daphnia magna and Xenopus laevis embryos (FETAX test). The other set of experiments was performed putting 250 mg/L TD in a column with glass beads to control particle dispersion during the elution process. We demonstrate that factors such as pH, size and particles aggregation deeply influence the elution process, that the amount of Zn leached from particles is related to their aggregation rather than their quantity. These results, even though do not reflect the real environmental toxicity of the leachates, can be successfully used for comparative purposes allowing an initial assessment of the potential effect of tire derived particles.
The marine red macroalga Ceramium tenuicorne is cosmopolitan and naturally found in both brackish and marine waters. A growth inhibition test with this species can be carried out in salinities from 4 per thousand to 32 per thousand. The species is easily held in culture in the laboratory and the test can be performed in a completely defined medium. The robustness of the method is good with a CV of 14.6% of the controls. The EC calculations can be performed on linear regression on the length data. EC50 values of repetitive tests for zinc (20-33 microg Zn(2+)/l in 7 per thousand and 32-61 microg Zn(2+)/l in 20 per thousand) and copper (1.9-3.8 Cu(2+)/l in 7 per thousand and 7.9-13 Cu(2+)/l in 20 per thousand) show high sensitivity. This test is a good complement to any test battery with the purpose of estimating the hazard of substances to the brackish and marine environment.
For the evaluation and monitoring of the water quality, a series of methodologies, which have as basis an ample variety of bioindicators, may be applied. The aim of this research was to evaluate the use of ecotoxicity assays with Daphnia magna and Danio rerio as alert systems in water contaminated with toxic substances. Using two toxicity databases, the sensibility of those aquatic organisms to a wide variety of chemical products and elements and to some chemical categories was investigated. The relation between the reference dose for human oral chronic exposure (RfD) of all chemical products and the acute toxicity values for both bioindicators was also studied. Acute toxicity tests with D. magna respond to a larger variety of chemicals with a higher sensitivity than those with D. rerio. Although mammals, crustaceans and fish have different routes of exposure, target organs and toxic mechanisms, acute toxicity essays with fish and Daphnia may be used as an initial screening before mammal models are used.
Aquatic toxicity tests were originally developed for water-soluble substances. However, many substances are hydrophobic and thus poorly water-soluble, resulting in at least two major implications. Firstly, toxicity may not be reached within the range of water solubility of the tested compound(s), which may result in the formation of solids or droplets of the tested substance and consequently an uneven exposure. Secondly, because of multi-phase distribution of the tested substance it may be complicated to keep exposure concentrations constant. To overcome such problems, we have introduced silica gel as a particulate carrier in a toxicity test with the benthic copepod Nitocra spinipes. The main objective of the current study was to evaluate whether a controlled exposure could be achieved with the help of silica gel for testing single poorly water-soluble substances. A secondary objective was to evaluate whether an equilibrium mass balance model could predict internal concentrations that were consistent with the toxicity data and measured internal concentrations of two model hydrophobic substances, i.e., the polybrominated diphenyl ethers BDE-47 and BDE-99. Larval N. spinipes were exposed for 6 days to BDE-47 and BDE-99, respectively, in the silica gel test system and, for comparative reasons, in a similar and more traditional semi-static water test system. Via single initial amounts of the model substances administered on the silica gel, effects on both larval development and mortality resulted in higher and more concentration-related toxicity than in the water test system. We conclude that the silica gel test system enables a more controlled exposure of poorly water-soluble substances than the traditional water test system since the concentration-response relationship becomes distinct and there is no carrier solvent present during testing. Also, the single amount of added substance given in the silica gel test system limits the artefacts (e.g., increased chemical load in test system) that a semi-static renewal may introduce when testing substances that partition to non-water phases. However, measured and modelled internal concentrations did not match toxicity, which may indicate that chemical equilibrium was not reached during the test. Further experiments are thus needed to explain the processes behind the observed positive effects of silica gel and a kinetic model would likely also be more appropriate to describe the concentrations and distributions in the two test systems.
The Swedish Thermal Engineering Research Institute (Värmeforsk) initiated an applied research program "Environmentally friendly use of non-coal ashes", in 2002. The program aims at increasing knowledge on the by-products of energy production and their application. The goal of formulating technical and environmental guidelines and assessments is a major point of the program, which is supported by about forty authorities and private organisations. The programme has been divided into four areas: recycling of ashes to forests, geotechnical applications, use in landfilling, and environmental aspects and chemistry. Among all results obtained, the following progress is shown: *Evidence for the positive effects of spreading ashes on forest growth. *A proposal for environmental guidelines on the utilisation of ashes in construction. *A handbook for using non-coal fly ashes in unpaved roads. *Technical and environmental assessments of MSWI bottom ashes in road construction. *Development of the use of ashes with municipal wastewater sludge as a cover for landfills and mine tailings. *Use of ashes from bio-fuels in concrete and replacement of cement in stoop mining. *A method to classify those by-products from combustion that have mirror entries in the EWC as a hazardous or non-hazardous compound. The Ash Programme has also made it possible to increase knowledge on ashes as valuable materials, on quality assurance and on markets for recovered materials.
The Effects of Scrap Automobile Tires in Water. Waste management branch
- R M Kellough
Kellough, R.M., 1991. The Effects of Scrap Automobile Tires in Water. Waste management branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment.
The Aquatic Toxicity of Scrap Automobile Tires. Ministry of Environment and Energy Rubber compounding in footwear Rubber Technologist's Handbook
- S G Abernethy
- B P Montemayor
- J W Penders
Abernethy, S.G., Montemayor, B.P., Penders, J.W., 1996. The Aquatic Toxicity of Scrap Automobile Tires. Ministry of Environment and Energy, Ontario. Ames, K., 2001. Rubber compounding in footwear. In: White, J.R., De, S.K. (Eds.), Rubber Technologist's Handbook. Rapra Technology Limited, UK, pp. 431–492.
Hazard identification of antifouling paints and contaminated sediments by the use of biological tests in brackish water. Doctoral Thesis in Applied Environmental Science
- J Karlsson
Karlsson, J., 2009. Hazard identification of antifouling paints and contaminated sediments by the use of biological tests in brackish water. Doctoral Thesis in Applied Environmental Science. Department of Applied Environmental Science (ITM) at Stockholm University, Sweden.
Swedish Society for Nature Conservation Report: Bad Shoes Stink—product survey focusing on certain hazardous chemicals in leather shoes End-of-life management of shoes and the role of biodegradable materials
- T Staikos
- R Heath
- B Haworth
- S Rahimifard
KemI, 2009. Varor som inneh SSNC, 2009b. Swedish Society for Nature Conservation. Report: Bad Shoes Stink—product survey focusing on certain hazardous chemicals in leather shoes. Staikos, T., Heath, R., Haworth, B., Rahimifard, S., 2006. End-of-life management of shoes and the role of biodegradable materials. In: Proceedings of the 13th CIRP International Conference on Life Cycle Engineering. Stockholm Stad, 2000. Vattenprogram f ¨
Chemical analysis of organic compounds in footwear. Degree Project in Environmental Chemistry, 30 hp
- A.-K Dahlberg
Hur skor vi oss? En rapport om hur skoföretag på den svenska marknaden ser på socialt och miljömässigt ansvar i produktionen
- Rena Kläder
Allmänt faktaunderlag till strategi för Stockholms vattenarbete
- Stockholm Stad
Karaktärisering av lakvatten med Nitocra spinipes
- R V F Utveckling
Kemikaliespridning från produkter. Kemikalier i skor - en förstudie
- J Sjöblom
When the rubber meets the road. Ecotoxicological hazard and risk assessment of tire wear particles. Doctoral thesis. For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Environmental Science
- A Wik
Dagvattenstrategi för Stockholm Stad
- Stockholm Stad