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Dirty Money: An Investigation into the Hygiene Status of Some of the World's Currencies as Obtained from Food Outlets
Abstract
A total of 1280 banknotes were obtained from food outlets in 10 different countries (Australia, Burkina Faso, China, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Mexico, the United Kingdom, and the United States), and their bacterial content was enumerated. The presence of bacteria on banknotes was found to be influenced by the material of the notes, and there was a strong correlation between the number of bacteria per square centimeter and a series of indicators of economic prosperity of the various countries. The strongest correlation was found with the "index of economic freedom," indicating that the lower the index value, the higher the typical bacterial content on the banknotes in circulation. Other factors that appear to influence the number of bacteria on banknotes were the age of the banknotes and the material used to produce the notes (polymer-based vs. cotton-based). The banknotes were also screened for the presence of a range of pathogens. It was found that pathogens could only be isolated after enrichment and their mere presence does not appear to be alarming. In light of our international findings, it is recommended that current guidelines as they apply in most countries with regard to the concurrent hygienic handling of foods and money should be universally adopted. This includes that, in some instances, the handling of food and money have to be physically separated by employing separate individuals to carry out one task each; whereas in other instances, it could be advantageous to handle food only with a gloved hand and money with the other hand. If neither of these precautions can be effectively implemented, it is highly recommended that food service personnel practice proper hand washing procedures after handling money and before handling food.
... Surface charge, surface roughness, stiffness, and hydrophobic characteristics are elements that affect how well bacteria and other microorganisms adhere to surfaces like paper money (Vriesekoop et al., 2010) [10]. Microbial contamination can spread either directly through hand-to-hand contact or indirectly through food or other inanimate things like cars that have been used to transport the contamination (Rote et al., 2010) [12]. ...
... Surface charge, surface roughness, stiffness, and hydrophobic characteristics are elements that affect how well bacteria and other microorganisms adhere to surfaces like paper money (Vriesekoop et al., 2010) [10]. Microbial contamination can spread either directly through hand-to-hand contact or indirectly through food or other inanimate things like cars that have been used to transport the contamination (Rote et al., 2010) [12]. ...
... been proposed as age(Vriesekoop et al., 2010;Al-Ghamdi et al., 2011) [7,10].The highest levels of bacteria isolate contamination were found on currency taken from filing cabinets, restaurants, and pubs. Food, whether cooked or raw, may include bacteria that can be transmitted through money either directly or indirectly. ...
The bacteriological quality of some Nigerian currencies in circulation was investigated for total bacterial count and kinds of bacterial species present. The currency notes studied had high bacterial counts: ranging from 1.5×10 4 to 3.0×10 4 cfu/ml. Five bacterial species were isolated: Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus mirabilis, Streptococcus sp. and Klebsiella sp. Escherichia coli and Streptococcus spp were had the highest prevalence in the study (22.5%) while Proteus mirabilis was the least prevalent of the bacterial isolates (15%). The Antibiotic susceptibility pattern suggests that some of the isolates were multiple antibiotic resistant. The health effects of the found organisms are described, and recommendations are given to ensure safe management of the notes. The naira notes are not cleaned or disinfected before being passed from person to person. Therefore, they could serve as channels for the spread of infectious diseases (that is, acts as formites). As a result, there is a high risk of contracting an infection after coming into touch with soiled naira notes. The bacteria's reported multi-drug resistance serves to further highlight the importance of the notes for public health. Our research has demonstrated that the currency in use in Ekpoma may be contributing to the proliferation of bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics. We therefore advise against engaging in behaviors that increase the risk of contracting an infection from handling currency or contamination, and we urge against sloppy hygiene standards when handling currency or immediately after.
... Previously reported results show that the bacterial load on banknotes is dependent on the polymer content; therefore, a lower bacterial load was observed on polymer banknotes compared to cotton-based banknotes [25,26]. Samples analyzed in the present study are represented by British pounds (5£, 10£ and 20£), Romanian lei (1 leu, 5 lei and 10 lei), U.S. dollars (1$, 5$ and 10$), and euro (5€, 10€ and 20€). ...
... By comparison, the survival rate of selected microorganisms (at 37 °C ) is dependent on substrate composition (Figure 4), results consistent with previous research [25,26]. Therefore, for polymer-based banknotes, we observed a lower rate of bacterial survival, especially for Salmonella enterica, Listeria monocytogenes and Enterococcus sp. ...
... On the other hand, for cotton-based banknotes, higher survival rates were determined. Similar results were found [25] while studying Australian and New Zeeland currency that are polymerbased compared with Mexico currency, which is cotton-linen-based. The bacterial adherence pattern on the currency ( Figure 6) indicates a high recovery rate of bacteria after the banknotes were washed in PBS after drying and then vigorously shaken in a saline buffer, using a vortex. ...
In the COVID-19 pandemic context, numerous concerns have been raised regarding the hygienic status of certain objects we interact with on a daily basis, and especially cash money and their potential to harbor and transmit pathogenic bacteria. Therefore, in the present study, we analyzed different currency bills represented by British pounds (5£, 10£ and 20£), Romanian lei (1 leu, 5 lei and 10 lei), U.S. dollars (1 and 10$) and Euros (5€, 10€ and 20€) in order to evaluate the bacterial survival rate and bacterial adherence. We used five reference microorganisms by American Type Culture Collection (ATCC, Manassas, VA, USA): Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538, Escherichia coli ATCC 8739, Enterococcus sp. ATCC 19952, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi ATCC 6539, and Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 7644. Microorganisms were selected in accordance with the criteria of prevalence, pathogenicity, opportunism, and incidence. However, Maldi-TOF analysis from samples taken from the banknotes revealed only a few of the common pathogens that are traditionally thought to be found on banknotes. Some of the most important factors for the survival of pathogenic agents on surfaces are the presence of organic matter, temperature and humidity. Our data showed that Salmonella enterica survived 72 h on every banknote tested, while L. monocytogenes tended to improve persistence in humid conditions. Survival rate is also influenced by the substrate composition, being lower for polymer-based banknotes especially for Salmonella enterica, Listeria monocytogenes and Enterococcus sp. The adherence of bacterial strains was lower for polymer-based banknotes British pounds and Romanian Leu, in contrast to the cotton-based U.S dollars and Euro banknotes. The risk of bacterial contamination from the banknote bills is high as indicated by both a strong survival capacity and low adherence of tested bacteria with differences between the two types of materials used for the tested banknotes.
... Even though banknotes and coins both offer surface area to shelter microorganisms, it has been demonstrated that copper contained in coins acts as a limiting factor for their survival (Espírito Santo et al. 2010;Vriesekoop et al. 2010). On the contrary, banknotes are usually made of cotton, linen, or other textile fibers that can absorb humidity and provide fertile ground for microorganisms to adhere, develop, and persist. ...
... On the contrary, banknotes are usually made of cotton, linen, or other textile fibers that can absorb humidity and provide fertile ground for microorganisms to adhere, develop, and persist. For instance, it has been reported that pathogenic bacteria like Staphylococcus spp., Salmonella spp., or Escheri chia coli can persist on cotton-based banknotes for as long as 20 days (Vriesekoop et al. 2010), whereas the 4 492 influenza virus was found to survive for up to 17 days (Thomas et al. 2008). ...
... However, some countries have replaced paper banknotes with plastic polymer banknotes, which appear to be cleaner and to contain less microbial contamination (Vriesekoop et al. 2010). ...
Currency is one of the most exchanged items in human communities as it is used daily in exchange for goods and services. It is handled by persons with different hygiene standards and can transit in different environments. Hence, money can constitute a reservoir for different types of human pathogens. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of Algerian banknotes to shelter opportunistic pathogenic and multiresistant bacteria. To that end, 200 circulating notes of four different denominations were collected from various places and analyzed for their bacterial loads and contents. Besides, predominant strains were identified and characterized by biochemical and molecular methods, and their resistance profiles against 34 antibiotics were determined. Our results indicated that 100% of the studied banknotes were contaminated with bacteria. The total bacterial concentrations were relatively high, and different bacterial groups were grown, showing important diversity. In total, 48 predominant strains were identified as belonging to 17 genera. Staphylococcus and Micrococcus were the most prevalent genera, followed by Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and Acinetobacter. Antibiotic susceptibility testing showed that all the isolates harbored resistance to at least two molecules, and worrying resistance levels were observed. These findings prove that Algerian currency harbors opportunistic multiresistant bacteria and could potentially act as a vehicle for the spread of bacterial diseases and as a reservoir for antibiotic resistance genes among the community. Therefore, no cash payment systems should be developed and generalized to minimize cash handling and subsequent potential health risks.
... These samples were aseptically obtained using sterile stomacher bags and transported to the Pathogenic Bacteriology laboratory for immediate processing. Samples were processed as previously described (Vriesekoop et al., 2010). In brief, 40 ml of extraction buffer [(g/L) NaCl (10); K2HPO4 (2)], was added into the stomacher bags and samples stomached twice for 5 mins using the Stomacher Lab-Blender 400 (BA 6021, Seward, UK) with a 30 min incubation in between. ...
... The hundred naira is made from paper, while the fifty naira is polymer (Uko et al., 2017). Polymer has been found to be more resistant to bacterial contamination than paper (Vriesekoop et al., 2010). ...
Currency serves as a global tool for commerce but is notorious for its association with potentially pathogenic bacteria. This has been further complicated by the growing evolution and emergence of drug resistance among bacteria, with various currencies associated with multidrug resistant (MDR) strains. This could be a silent factor in the current scourge of multidrug resistance. This study therefore set out to explore the presence of multidrug resistance Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus in specific denominations of Naira, the Nigerian currency in Rivers State, Nigeria. A total of 50 naira notes comprised of two commonly used denominations (₦50 and ₦100) made up of two different materials (polymer and paper) were analyzed for microbial load, presence of key bacteria and drug resistance using standard tests. Results of the study revealed high bacterial loads with Log10 values ranging from 4.52 to 5.39 for the ₦100 notes and 4.52 to 5.31 for ₦50 notes. Samples had a higher occurrence of S. aureus (26) than E. coli (8). These isolates were associated with very high rates of resistance though the Gram-positive organisms were more resistant. Both S. aureus and E. coli had high rates of MDR (96.2% and 100% respectively). This study reveals an association of the Nigerian currency, Naira, with a variety of drug resistant bacteria and high levels of multidrug resistance in key pathogens and primarily underscores the need for continuous hand washing as the first key step in disease prevention
... Because of their higher turnover, lower denomination currency notes have higher contamination levels than higher denomination currency notes 12 . Bacterial contamination is also affected by the age of the currency and the material used in its production 13 . Currency, for example, plays an important role in the indirect transmission of infections such as trachoma, diphtheria, gastroenteritis, whooping cough, and diarrhea 14 . ...
... Many methods exist for reintroducing Coliform and Staphylococcus aureus into food. During vending operations, it was observed that the same hand alternately served and held food and money 8,13 . Another risk factor for street food contamination is money handling 33 . ...
... As studies have shown, those paper currencies that are made of a mixture of cotton and linen usually offer a surface area for microorganisms to reside on both sides [8]. However, polymer-based paper currencies presented lower bacterial counts than cotton-based paper currencies [9]. Further, the longer the paper currencies remain in circulation, the more chance there is for them to become contaminated, and lower-denomination notes receive the most handling because they are exchanged more frequently [8][9]. ...
... However, polymer-based paper currencies presented lower bacterial counts than cotton-based paper currencies [9]. Further, the longer the paper currencies remain in circulation, the more chance there is for them to become contaminated, and lower-denomination notes receive the most handling because they are exchanged more frequently [8][9]. ...
Background: Staphylococcus infections remains a global problem and cause significant morbidity and mortality both in animals and humans. Contaminated meat and paper currency surfaces play a key role in the spread of bacterial infections with antibiotic resistance.
Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with the objective of isolation and identification of Staphylococcus species from Ethiopian paper currency notes and raw meat handled by the butcher, restaurant and abattoir workers and to determine antimicrobial susceptibility test. A total of 243 samples (135 raw types of meat and 108 paper currency) were examined by biochemical tests for the presence of Staphylococcus species.
Results: From a total of 243 collected samples, 26.7% and 64.8 % were found positive isolates of raw meats and paper currency notes respectively. An overall prevalence of 43.6%(106) was recorded. The highest prevalence was observed 39(72.2%) in Hermata merkato kebele whereas the lowest was 3 (11.1%) in Ifabula. Variation within the source of the sample was statistically significant (P<0.05). Of these isolates, 30 selected isolates were tested for antibiotic susceptibility test. Thirty(100%) isolates were susceptible to chloramphenicol. There is no isolate that was sensitive to all four selected antimicrobials (Penicillin G, Gentamycin, chloramphenicol, and Tetracycline). Six isolates of meat (50%) were resistant to penicillin G. which indicates its emerging animal and public health problem.
Conclusions: The finding indicated the presence of antibiotics resistance Staphylococcus species contamination of meat and paper currency birr. Awareness creation is paramount important for people working on the food chain to reduce cross contamination of food and prevent foodborne intoxication.
... There is a growing apprehension about handling cash, and some central banks have taken preventive steps, including sanitizing banknotes, to lower the risk of disease transmission. While some studies show that the fibrous surfaces of banknotes can become contaminated with disease-causing bacteria and viruses (Pope and others, 2002;Thomas and others, 2008;Vriesekoop and others, 2010;Angelakis and others, 2014;Chin and others, 2020), others argue that handling cash is not necessarily a greater source of health risk (Panetta, 2020;van Doremalen and others, 2020). Preliminary data present conflicting signals: physical cash held by the public appears to have increased in some countries during the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic (Chen and others, 2020;Goodhart and Ashworth, 2020), while there is a decline in the withdrawal volume from automated teller machines (ATMs) and a significant increase in the use of mobile applications for financial transactions in most countries (Auer, Cornelli, and Frost, 2020;Carvalho and others, 2020;Fu and Mishra, 2020). ...
... The objective of this paper is to empirically investigate the impact of infectious diseases on demand for cash. Since some studies indicate that the prevalence of cash use may also influence the spread of infectious diseases (Pope and others, 2002;Vriesekoop and others, 2010;Angelakis and others, 2014), it is necessary to address omitted variable bias and account for potential endogeneity (or reverse causality) in an econometric analysis of this nature. The challenge is to find a robust time-varying IV, which needs to be correlated with infectious diseases, but have no contemporaneous effect on currency-in-circulation. Accordingly, this paper uses the 2SLS-IV approach and instruments the contemporaneous measure of infectious disease with its own lags and alternatively with health spending as a share of GDP. ...
The coronavirus pandemic is a global crisis like no other in modern times, and there is a growing apprehension about handling potentially contaminated cash. This paper is the first empirical attempt in the literature to investigate whether the risk of infectious diseases affects demand for physical cash. Since the intensity of cash use may influence the spread of infectious diseases, this paper utilizes two-stage least squares (2SLS) methodology with instrumental variable (IV) to address omitted variable bias and account for potential endogeneity. The analysis indicates that the spread of infectious diseases lowers demand for physical cash, after controlling for macroeconomic, financial, and technological factors. While the transactional constraints imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic could become a catalyst for the use of digital technologies around the world, electronic payment methods may not be universally available in every country owing to financial and technological bottlenecks.
... Unfortunately, only a limited number of such cfu/cm 2 values are available for health care units (Table 1) (Shams et al. 2016;Souli et al. 2017;Casini et al. 2018;Costa et al. 2019;Eichner et al. 2020). The presence and transmission of MoV play a role also in other fields like food processing (Gogliettino et al. 2019;Ma et al. 2019;Xing et al. 2019) and highly frequented public areas, in which many people alternately touch surfaces like door handles (Shams et al. 2016;Thapaliya et al. 2017), mobile phones (Kirkby and Biggs 2016;Katsuse Kanayama et al. 2017), banknotes (Vriesekoop et al. 2010;Angelakis et al. 2014), and other items (Table 1) (Ijaz et al. 2016;Carrascosa et al. 2019;Qi et al. 2019;Zou et al. 2019). ...
... Critical surfaces are surfaces, which are frequently touched by patients and/or staff especially patient-near surfaces as well as clinical equipment like electrocardiogram machines, blood pressure cuffs, or stethoscopes (Hong et al. 2009). Outside health care settings, inanimate surfaces may play a role for MoV transmission like frequently touched surfaces in any public areas (Vriesekoop et al. 2010;Sirsat et al. 2013;Patel et al. 2018;Carrascosa et al. 2019). ...
Recent reports provide evidence that contaminated healthcare environments represent major sources for the acquisition and transmission of pathogens. Antimicrobial coatings (AMC) may permanently and autonomously reduce the contamination of such environmental surfaces complementing standard hygiene procedures. This review provides an overview of the current status of AMC and the demands to enable a rational application of AMC in health care settings. Firstly, a suitable laboratory test norm is required that adequately quantifies the efficacy of AMC. In particular, the frequently used wet testing (e.g. ISO 22196) must be replaced by testing under realistic, dry surface conditions. Secondly, field studies should be mandatory to provide evidence for antimicrobial efficacy under real-life conditions. The antimicrobial efficacy should be correlated to the rate of nosocomial transmission at least. Thirdly, the respective AMC technology should not add additional bacterial resistance development induced by the biocidal agents and co- or cross-resistance with antibiotic substances. Lastly, the biocidal substances used in AMC should be safe for humans and the environment. These measures should help to achieve a broader acceptance for AMC in healthcare settings and beyond. Technologies like the photodynamic approach already fulfil most of these AMC requirements.
... Globally, the currency is one of the items most frequently passed from hand-to-hand in the world. A paper currency that is transferred from one hand to another may be contaminated with many microorganisms causing diseases, especially dealing with not cleaned hands, or that kept in unclean surroundings [1]. ...
... Currency may be hurt too many various environments at a relatively high frequency. The Microbial contamination may be inherited either directly (hand-to-hand contact) or indirectly by food or other objects [1]. The results of this study revealed that the four pathogenic types of bacteria under study as shown in Figure 2 which were survive on current currency paper for 7 days intervals with differences in length of survival depending on environmental room condition and the type of bacteria, but were stable on currency paper and still cultivable after 7 days with different rates as shown in Figure 3. ...
Currency is one of the most frequently passed items in the world. It used every day and every way, and it could act as an important vehicle for cross-contamination. This research was aimed to determine how long pathogenic bacteria can survive on currency paper, four pathogenic bacteria including E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis were provided according to laboratory standard methods. Sterile pieces of currency paper were inoculated with the pathogenic bacteria and the survival of bacteria was tested over seven days. The results showed that all tested bacteria differed in time of survival and this survives according to environmental conditions, the type of bacteria and the mode of its resistance, but they were stable and still cultivable after seven days. The second part of this research was to design a simple experimental model to check the efficacy of germicidal and attempted to use ultraviolet light radiation to evaluate the inhibitory effect of most pathogenic microorganisms on currency as a disinfectant. The results revealed that UV is an effective tool, so we recommend using it as a disinfectant for currency.
... There is a growing apprehension about handling cash, and some central banks have taken preventive steps, including sanitizing banknotes, to lower the risk of disease transmission. While some studies show that the fibrous surfaces of banknotes can become contaminated with disease-causing bacteria and viruses (Pope and others, 2002;Thomas and others, 2008;Vriesekoop and others, 2010;Angelakis and others, 2014;Chin and others, 2020), others argue that handling cash is not necessarily a greater source of health risk (Panetta, 2020;van Doremalen and others, 2020). Preliminary data present conflicting signals: physical cash held by the public appears to have increased in some countries during the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic (Chen and others, 2020;Goodhart and Ashworth, 2020), while there is a decline in the withdrawal volume from automated teller machines (ATMs) and a significant increase in the use of mobile applications for financial transactions in most countries (Auer, Cornelli, and Frost, 2020;Carvalho and others, 2020;Fu and Mishra, 2020). ...
... The objective of this paper is to empirically investigate the impact of infectious diseases on demand for cash. Since some studies indicate that the prevalence of cash use may also influence the spread of infectious diseases (Pope and others, 2002;Vriesekoop and others, 2010;Angelakis and others, 2014), it is necessary to address omitted variable bias and account for potential endogeneity (or reverse causality) in an econometric analysis of this nature. The challenge is to find a robust time-varying IV, which needs to be correlated with infectious diseases, but have no contemporaneous effect on currency-in-circulation. Accordingly, this paper uses the 2SLS-IV approach and instruments the contemporaneous measure of infectious disease with its own lags and alternatively with health spending as a share of GDP. ...
The coronavirus pandemic is a global crisis like no other in modern times, and there is a growing apprehension about handling potentially contaminated cash. This paper is the first empirical attempt in the literature to investigate whether the risk of infectious diseases affects demand for physical cash. Since the intensity of cash use may influence the spread of infectious diseases, this paper utilizes two-stage least squares (2SLS) methodology with instrumental variable (IV) to address omitted variable bias and account for potential endogeneity. The analysis indicates that the spread of infectious diseases lowers demand for physical cash, after controlling for macroeconomic, financial, and technological factors. While the transactional constraints imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic could become a catalyst for the use of digital technologies around the world, electronic payment methods may not be universally available in every country owing to financial and technological bottlenecks.
... There is a growing apprehension about handling cash, and some central banks have taken preventive steps, including sanitizing banknotes, to lower the risk of disease transmission. While some studies show that the fibrous surfaces of banknotes can become contaminated with disease-causing bacteria and viruses (Angelakis et al., 2014;Chin et al., 2020;Pope et al., 2002;Thomas et al., 2008;Vriesekoop et al., 2010), others argue that handling cash is not necessarily a greater source of health risk (Panetta, 2020; van Doremalen et al., 2020). Preliminary data present conflicting signals: currency-in-circulation appears to have increased in some countries during the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic (Chen et al., 2020;, while there is a decline in the withdrawal volume from automated teller machines (ATMs) and a significant increase in the use of mobile applications for financial transactions in some countries Carvalho et al., 2020;Fu & Mishra, 2020). ...
... The objective of this paper is to empirically investigate the impact of infectious diseases on demand for cash. Since some studies indicate that the prevalence of cash use may also influence the spread of infectious diseases (Angelakis et al., 2014;Pope et al., 2002;Vriesekoop et al., 2010), it is necessary to address omitted variable bias and account for potential endogeneity (or reverse causality) in an econometric analysis of this nature. The challenge is to find a robust time-varying IV, which needs to be correlated with infectious diseases, but have no contemporaneous effect on currency-in-circulation. Accordingly, this paper uses the 2SLS-IV approach and instruments the contemporaneous measure of infectious disease with its own lags and alternatively with health spending as a share of GDP. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic is a global crisis like no other in modern times, and there is a growing apprehension about handling potentially contaminated cash. This paper is the first empirical attempt in the literature to investigate whether the risk of infectious diseases affects demand for physical cash. Since the intensity of cash use may influence the spread of infectious diseases , this paper utilizes two-stage least squares methodology with instrumental variable to address omitted variable bias and account for potential endogeneity. The empirical analysis indicates that the spread of infectious diseases lowers demand for physical cash, after controlling for macroeconomic, financial, and technological factors. This effect, withstanding several robustness checks, is economically and statistically significant. While the transactional constraints imposed by the coronavirus pandemic could become a catalyst for the use of digital technologies around the world, electronic payment methods may not be universally available in every country owing to financial and technological bottlenecks.
... Although the primary purpose for the increase of this plastic polymer's substrate was to enhance security, it has been explained that this material provides other advantages i.e., it has a higher tear support paper, more resistant to folding and soiling, it is nonporous and it does not swallow water or sweat. Given these characteristics, polymer banknotes may be cleaner than paper currency (Vriesekoop et al., 2010;Ahlers et al., 2010). Studies have shown that polymer-based banknotes often have a relatively low bacterial count compared with the cotton-based 'paper' banknotes. ...
... Studies have shown that polymer-based banknotes often have a relatively low bacterial count compared with the cotton-based 'paper' banknotes. This may be due to various physicochemical parameters of polymers (Vriesekoop et al., 2010;Prasai et al., 2008). ...
... The quantity and quality of pathogens transfer by currency papers are influenced by many factors, for example; currency notes of lower denominations exhibit higher contamination level comparing to currency notes of higher denominations due to their more rapid turnover. Bacterial contaminations also depends upon the age of currency and the materials used in the production of the currency notes (Basavarajappa et al., 2005;Vriesekoop et al., 2010;Firoozeh et al., 2017;Ejaz et al., 2018). ...
This cross sectional study was carried out during 2020-2021 on Yemeni currency papers to determine the prevalence rate of bacterial contamination and associated risk factors. Anti-microbial sensitivity patterns of the common pathogens contaminated Yemeni currency papers were also investigated. A total of 324 currency papers were collected randomly from different areas of Dhamar city and examined. The samples were collected from different categories of community people such as health care workers, butcher’s shops, vegetable vendors, restaurants waiters, public transport conductors, Berbers and Bankers. The currency papers were transferred to microbiology laboratory and tested for bacterial contamination using standard microbiological methods. Antibiotic resistance patterns of isolated bacteria were determined by disk diffusion method. The results revealed that, out of 324 samples examined, 315 samples were positive for bacterial contamination with over all prevalence rate as 97.22%. The results of bacterial culture revealed that, 14 bacterial species were identified. The species identified were Escherichia coli (E. coli) with the highest prevalence rate (23.81%) followed by Citrobacter spp. (18.73%), Staphylococcus epidermidis (14.6 %), Klebsiella. (9.52%), Staphylococcus aureus (8.57%), Pseudomonas spp. (6.03%), Proteus spp. (5.4%), Shigella spp (3.17%), Streptococcus pyogens (3.17%), Salmonella spp (2.86%), Streptococcus pneumonia (2.54%), Enterobacter spp. (0.95%) and Enterococcus (o.63%). There were significant differences (P<0.05) on the prevalence rates among isolates species. There were no association (P<0.05) between contamination rate of currency papers and source of samples. All isolated bacteria were resistant to Methicillin and Ceftazidime; whereas, sensitive to others antibiotics in particular Piperacillin/ Tazobactam. In conclusion, the Yemeni currency papers circulating among community people were contaminated with verity range of bacterial species and some of them multi-drug resistant to common antibiotics. The decontamination of currency paper with disinfections in the banks and markets is recommended to reduce the transmission of pathogens to human.
... (4) Furthermore, the level of bacterial contamination is influenced by currency circulation duration and the materials used in its production. (5) The presence of pathogenic microorganisms on banknotes is a matter of great concern as they could play a role in the transmission and spread of diseases. (6) Banknotes can be heavily contaminated with various species of bacteria, especially when handled by bus conductors and fish or meat sellers. ...
Background: Banknotes are among the objects frequently exchanged between people and can serve as a vehicle for the transmission of infectious agents. Therefore, the present study aimed to isolate and identify potentially pathogenic bacteria on Yemeni banknotes collected from various municipal sources in Aden city, south of Yemen. In addition, the susceptibility of the isolated bacterial species to commonly used antibiotics was tested. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted on 240 Yemeni banknotes of various denominations randomly collected from people from different places in Aden city between November 2019 and February 2020. Swabs from the surfaces of banknotes were streaked onto blood agar, chocolate agar, mannitol salt agar and MacConkey agar and incubated at 37 °C for 48 hours. After isolation, bacterial species were identified and tested for their susceptibility to commonly used antibiotics using established techniques. Results: Out of 240 banknotes examined, 98.3% were found to be contaminated with bacteria, with a 95% confidence interval (CI) ranging from 96 to 99. Among the isolated bacteria, 17.4% were Gram-positive cocci, 33% were Gram-negative bacilli and 49.6% were a combination of both. The mean plate counts of bacterial colonies ranged from 163.6±51.0 colony-forming units (CFU)/ml (95% CI: 147.3–179.9) for banknotes with a denomination of 100 Yemeni rials (YRIs) to 257.1±52.0 CFU/ml (95% CI: 240.5–273.7) for banknotes with a denomination of 50 YRIs. Staphylococcus aureus was the most frequently isolated bacterial species, detected on 66.9% of contaminated banknotes, followed by Escherichia coli (60.6%) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (42.8%). Regarding antibiotic resistance, most S. aureus isolates showed resistance to ceftazidime (80.1%), followed by ceftriaxone (78.2%), ampicillin (77.6%) and co-trimoxazole (69.3%). On the other hand, most E. coli isolates showed resistance to amoxicillin/clavulanate (84.6%), followed by ceftriaxone (79.7%), ceftazidime (76.9%), ampicillin (58.3%) and ciprofloxacin (58.1%), while most P. aeruginosa isolates showed resistance to ceftriaxone (83.5%), followed by ceftazidime (80.2%) and ciprofloxacin (54.9%). Conclusion: Most banknotes in circulation in Aden city are contaminated with bacteria, predominantly S. aureus and E. coli, with lower denomination banknotes tending to have higher contamination levels. The high contamination rate of banknotes raises concerns about their potential in transmitting infectious diseases and emphasizes the advantages of transitioning to cashless payments. A substantial proportion of bacterial species isolated from banknotes exhibit resistance to commonly used antibiotics, raising concerns about the possible transmission of multidrug-resistant bacteria through the exchange of banknotes. Therefore, it is necessary to raise awareness and improve hygiene practices to minimize the transmission of bacteria and antibiotic resistance through the exchange of banknotes.
... El -Dars and Hassan [2], in Egypt noted that those paper currencies that are made of mixture of cotton and linen usually offer surface area for microorganisms to reside on both sides. Meanwhile, it was also reported that polymer-based paper currencies presented lower bacterial counts than cotton/linen-based paper currencies [3]. The later investigators showed that the longer the paper currencies remain in circulation, the more chances that there are for them to become contaminated, and that lower denomination currency notes receive the most handling because they are exchanged more frequently [4]. ...
Introduction: Fungi-associated respiratory Infections are serious health challenges that have become inextricably linked with the handling of paper currencies in some countries of the world Dermici et al., [1]. Given the quantity of old-worn-out and mutilated Naira notes in circulation, and other prevailing circumstances in Nigerian banking halls, the study was undertaken to evaluate the incidence and spread of fungi-associated respiratory infections among tellers from selected commercial Banks in SouthEastern Nigeria. 50 Methods: A total of 504 Cash Bank Tellers; 196 Males and 308 females aged 25-48years (mean age 32.4 years) were evaluated for Fungi-associated infections using Sputum and Nasal secretions-smear Microscopy and Culture simultaneously. Twenty-seven bacterial strains; Staphylococcus aureus (12), Streptococcus Pneumonia (7), and Klebsiella pneumonia (8) were tested for their antibiogram Results: One hundred and fifty-nine (31.5%) of the 504 Bank Cash Tellers were diagnosed of respiratory infections due to Aspergillus Sp. (13.5%), Candida albicans (5.8%), Candida tropicalis 6(.4%), Staphylococcus aureus (2.4%), Streptococcus pneumoniae (1.4%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (1.6%), and Nocardia Sp. (0.6%). The yield of micro-pathogens appeared to rise from 18.8% to 55.6% as the duration of currency note handling increased from ≤ 6 months to 43-48 months respectively. Analysis of the differences of the Micro-Pathogens isolated among tellers from Bulk Rooms (42.9%) and those from open Halls (20.2%) was statistically significant (X2cal=68.3) P < 0.05. Forty-eight (88.9%), 26(123.8%), 41(44.6%), and 43(113.2%) Strains of micro-pathogens were isolated from Tellers who indicated with history of respiratory infections, smoking only, alcohol consumption only, and smoking/alcohol consumption respectively. The proportions of the micro-pathogens isolated are shown in Table 1, with Aspergillus sp. yield appearing highest. The antibiogram of the 27 strains of bacteria isolated in the study appeared relatively high; 92.6% for Ofloxacin and 66.7% for Gentamycin, while Streptomycin, Erythromycin, Cephalexin, Ampiclox, and Chloramphenicol responded poorly. Conclusion: The micro-pathogens isolated from this study are important agents of respiratory infections. The relatively high proportions (31.6%) of micro-pathogens isolated may serve as a relevant indication that most Nigerian Currency notes in circulation are old, worn-out, mutilated, and contaminated with micro-pathogens commonly linked with serious public health problems.
... Encountering money when serving drinks can cause contamination (56). Bacterial contamination of banknotes is very high, with E. coli, Salmonella sp., and Staphylococcus aureus present on banknotes in food outlets from 10 countries (57). Public knowledge of the transmission of these enteric bacteria through hands, surfaces, and soil is more effective in preventing their spread (47), one of which is washing hands before starting activities, especially in making Thai tea drinks. ...
Introduction: Thai tea is one of the aromatic drinks widely sold around the Institut Teknologi Sumatera (ITERA), Lampung, Indonesia. Bacteria often contaminate this drink due to unhygienic handling. The number and types of contaminating bacteria have yet to be widely reported, especially in Lampung province. This study aimed to detect various bacterial contaminants in Thai tea beverages sold on the road in the ITERA region and their relationship with the hygiene behavior of Thai tea sellers. Methods: The sampling technique used in this study involved accidental sampling by detecting microbes using the most probable number method and the specific medium. The number and types of bacteria were analyzed for diversity and correlated with the behavior of Thai tea sellers. Results and Discussion: Of the 50 Thai tea samples, coliform bacteria, and Pseudomonas sp. in all samples (100%), Aeromonas sp. (36%), Shigella sp. (68%), Escherichia coli (76%), and Salmonella sp. (8%). The highest concentration of pollution occurred in Sukarame District (SK). SK10 had the highest number of contaminants, namely, Pseudomonas sp. (2.96x103±165 CFU ml-1), E. coli (7.2x103±190 CFU ml-1), Shigella sp. (3.35x103±350 CFU ml-1) and Salmonella sp. (9.65x103±50 CFU ml-1). The poor quality of Thai tea is caused by unhygienic tea raw materials and the habits of the seller, who does not perform hygienic tasks during the preparation and use of Thai tea. Conclusion: All samples did not meet the requirements for the presence of bacteria in drinking water, based on regulation No.492/MENKES/Per/IV/2010 and World Health Organization.
... Globally, the contamination of currency notes with pathogenic microorganisms has been reported. A multinational study involving 1,280 currency notes obtained from ten countries showed that bacterial contamination of currency notes is greatly influenced by age of the notes and the nature of the material used to produce the notes [7]. In the United States, 94% contamination of circulating one-dollar bills was reported in 2002 [8]. ...
Background: Currency notes are exchangeable fomites handled by many persons daily and can potentially carry enteric pathogens on their surfaces. Infections caused by these pathogens have a global impact on public health. This study aimed to analyse the Nigerian currency notes Naira for the presence of enteric bacteria, particularly drug-resistant strains. Methods: Sixty-four Nigerian currency notes were randomly collected from various sources. Using the spread plate technique, an aliquot of 0.1ml of 10-6 dilution of each sample suspension was inoculated onto Eosin Methylene Blue agar and Hektoen Enteric agar plates. Following incubation, colonies were counted and recorded in colony-forming units per milliliter, and morphologic features were observed. Bacterial isolates were then Gram-stained, tested for motility and characterized using standard biochemical techniques. Antimicrobial profiles of bacterial isolates were determined using the Kirby-Bauer modified disc diffusion method. Results: Preliminary analysis showed that 67.2% of currency notes were contaminated. The 100 Naira notes had the highest contamination rates with bacterial mean counts of 1.22×1010 cfu/ml. Three different species of enteric bacteria were isolated. The predominant pathogens were Escherichia coli (44.2%) and Salmonella spp. (44.2%). All isolates recovered were 100% susceptible to amikacin, gentamicin, and ciprofloxacin, while 97.7% were resistant to penicillin. Escherichia coli was resistant to ampicillin (100%) and trime-thoprim-sulfamethoxazole (89.5%). Conclusion: This study showed that the Nigerian currency notes harbour enteric pathogens capable of causing serious infections to handlers. Therefore, improved hygiene practices, especially after handling currency notes, should be encouraged to prevent the spread of these pathogens.
... Outro elemento a ser questionado e que exerce influência no desenvolvimento de agentes patogênicos e no resultado encontrado é o tipo de material que é utilizado na confecção das cédulas, pois segundo Vriesekoop et al. (2010) e Sudré et. al. (2012, materiais com características mais porosas e até mesmo absorventes, assim como os da cédulas em circulação, facilitam de forma significativa o crescimento de agentes e, consequentemente, a transmissão de diversos tipos de bactérias. ...
RESUMO Objetos de uso comum e com intensa circulação, assim como as cédulas e moedas, podem albergar uma grande variedade de agentes patogênicos e também transmiti-los de forma fácil e eficiente. Dessa maneira o presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a presença de bactérias, existentes em cédulas e moedas circulantes em uma das cantinas do Centro Universitário de Volta Redonda. Para tanto, as cédulas e moedas foram acondicionadas em um saco plástico e encaminhadas para análise no laboratório. Com auxilio de um swab foram extraídos das mesmas o material a ser analisado, seguindo de diluições decimais, as quais foram plaqueadas em placas de Petri com ágar Mueller Hinton e mantidas a 37ºC por 24 horas. Nas moedas as maiores médias encontradas foram n os exemplares de R 0,05 com a média de 166,6 UFC/moeda, as menores médias foram encontradas nas moedas de R 0,25 com 10 UFC/moeda e nos exemplares de R 50,00 com 4.873 UFC/cédula e R20,00 com 213,3 UFC/cédula; R 2,00 146,6 UFC/cédula. Com base nos resultados, pode-se concluir que cédulas e moedas apresentaram-se contaminadas e que este tipo de contaminação representa risco a saúde pública principalmente se seus manipuladores portarem algum grau de imunodeficiência. Palavras-chave: Cédulas, Moedas, Contaminação bacteriana.
... In our study, among the 160 isolates, 57.5% were Gram-negative bacteria, while 42.5% were Gram-positive bacteria, similar to the results of [17]. Based on culture-based identification, the 160 strains isolated belong to five genera, namely Pseudomonas spp. ...
Bangladeshi banknotes, like other world currencies, are passed through the hands of many people and are involved in the transmission of microorganisms, some of which are potentially harmful to health. This study aims to identify the bacterial pathogen on circulating Bangladeshi banknotes in Dhaka city and their antibiotic resistance. A total of 160 bacteria belonging to five genera such as Pseudomonas spp., Klebsiella spp., Enterococcus spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus were isolated from 110 banknote samples collected from different commercial areas in Dhaka city. The highest bacteria was found in 20 taka notes on the fish vendor's site. Most of the isolates were found to be highly resistant to commonly used antibiotics. Among the coagulase-negative Staphylococcus strains, the highest resistance was found against gentamycin (60%), followed by azithromycin (40%) and clindamycin (40%), among the Klebsiella spp. Isolated in this investigation, the highest resistance was found against clindamycin (60%), followed by ampicillin (50%). Such multi-antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the Bangladeshi banknote is a potential public health threat, and this long-overlooked concern should be dealt with a coordinated approach.
... In our study, among the 160 isolates, 57.5% were Gram-negative bacteria, while 42.5% were Gram-positive bacteria, similar to the results of [17]. Based on culture-based identification, the 160 strains isolated belong to five genera, namely Pseudomonas spp. ...
Bangladeshi banknotes, like other world currencies, are passed through the hands of many people and are involved in the transmission of microorganisms, some of which are potentially harmful to health. This study aims to identify the bacterial pathogen on circulating Bangladeshi banknotes in Dhaka city and their antibiotic resistance. A total of 160 bacteria belonging to five genera such as Pseudomonas spp., Klebsiella spp., Enterococcus spp., Staphylococcus aureus, Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus were isolated from 110 banknote samples collected from different commercial areas in Dhaka city. The highest bacteria was found in 20 taka notes on the fish vendor's site. Most of the isolates were found to be highly resistant to commonly used antibiotics. Among the coagulase-negative Staphylococcus strains, the highest resistance was found against gentamycin (60%), followed by azithromycin (40%) and clindamycin (40%), among the Klebsiella spp. Isolated in this investigation, the highest resistance was found against clindamycin (60%), followed by ampicillin (50%). Such multi-antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the Bangladeshi banknote is a potential public health threat, and this long-overlooked concern should be dealt with a coordinated approach.
... In our study, among the 160 isolates, 57.5% were Gram-negative bacteria, while 42.5% were Gram-positive bacteria, similar to the results of [17]. Based on culture-based identification, the 160 strains isolated belong to five genera, namely Pseudomonas spp. ...
... Presumptive E. coli and S. aureus isolates were obtained from specific Nigerian currency (Naira) denominations by culturing to selective media Eosin methylene blue (EMB) and Mannitol salt agar (MSA) respectively following sample processing as described by Vriesekoop et al., (2010). Characteristic colonies were then purified and stored. ...
Potentially pathogenic bacteria are routinely linked with different currencies worldwide. Not much focus has been on the actual pathogenic potential of these bacteria. This is essential as the risk would depend on whether the bacteria associated with the currency is a commensal or pathogen. This study was therefore aimed at exploring the virulence potential of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus isolated from specific Nigerian currency denominations. Presumptive E. coli and S. aureus isolates were obtained from the samples and their identities confirmed genotypically. A total of seven virulence and resistance genes were tested for (aggR, eae, ast, van, cat, pvl, icaA). Three of these were E. coli virulence genes (aggR, eae, ast), two S. aureus virulence (pvl, icaA) and two S. aureus resistance (van, cat). Sixty presumptive E. coli and S. aureus (30 each) were isolated and purified. Of these, 9 (30%) were confirmed as E. coli following genotypic identification and 7 (23%) as S. aureus. An assessment of the virulence potential of E. coli showed 100% detection of the ast gene, 55.6% detection of aggR and 44.4% detection of eae. For S. aureus, a much lower frequency of test genes was found with rates of 41.7%, 16.7%, 16.7% and 8.3% for pvl, icaA, van and cat respectively. This study therefore reports a low frequency of S. aureus virulence genes. The E. coli strains however, rather than being innocuous carry virulence factors. Furthermore, some of these have a known association with mobile genetic elements and hence a capacity to transform harmless commensal strains to pathogens.
... According to the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), an Indian note uses 100 percent cotton. Cotton-based currency notes contained three times higher bacterial counts than polymer-based ones concluding that the spaces between the cotton fibers provide favourable anchor for the bacteria (Vriesekoop et al., 2010). ...
In the modern era, currency is the primary medium for exchange of goods and services. The material of Indian currency notes makes it a hub for microorganism to thrive. Taxi drivers exchange currency with customers for different regions and backgrounds and meat sellers
are known to use bare hands for butchering of the meat and exchanging currency with customers without washing or sanitizing. This paper highlights the presence of multitude of bacteria which have the potential to cause diseases as well as being antibiotic resistant. 20 different strains were isolated, 10 each from currency notes obtained from a local taxi driver and meat seller. Biochemical tests for identification of these bacteria were performed which suggests presence of bacteria such as Vibrio gazogenes, Chrysomonas luteola, Vibrio cincinnatienses, Vibrio metschnikovii, Staphylococcus intermedius, Vibrio gazogenes,
Flavimonas oryzihabitans, Vibrio gazogenes, Micrococcus mucilaginous, Salomonella sp., Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus simulans, E. coli, Photobacterium angustum, Streptococcus sp., Pseudomonas mallei, Salmonella paratyphi and Pseudomonas malle.The isolated bacteria were resistant to Penicillin, Ceftizoxime and Gentamycin with some
Gram-positive bacterium being resistant to vancomycin, ceftizoxime and penicillin with gentamycin showing little to no effect.
... Money is one of the commonest substances that circulate readily among the general public. This implies that once money is contaminated with pathogens, it can spread these disease-causing organisms from one person to another [22]. The paper currency may serve as a vehicle to spread pathogenic infections which could be resistant to antibiotics. ...
Aims: This study examined the microbial flora contamination of the Ghanaian paper currency notes and its antibiotic-resistance in Ejura Municipal, Ashanti Region, Ghana. Study Design: This is a descriptive cross-sectional study designed to assess the profile of microflora contamination of the Ghanaian paper currency notes and its antibiotic-resistance in the Ejura Municipality. Place and Duration of Study: The research was conducted in Ejura, a town in the Ejura Sekyeredumase Municipal District of the Ashanti region of Ghana, from January to May 2019 Methodology: A total of 70 GH¢ notes, 15 each of GH ¢1, GH ¢2, and GH ¢5, 10 each of GH ¢10 and GH ¢20, and 5 of GH ¢50, were randomly sampled from people in various shops, canteens, and commercial drivers. The surfaces of each GH¢ note were gently swabbed, and tenfold serial dilution was inoculated on plate count agar (PCA), MacConkey agar, mannitol salt agar, and deoxycholate citrate agar. PCA, MCA, DCA, and MSA were the media used for the total viable count, Gram-Original Research Article Nyarko et al.; JAMB, 22(5): 5-15, 2022; Article no.JAMB.85917 6 negative rods, Gram-negative enteric bacilli, and Staphylococcus isolation in that order. For bacterial identification, the study used appropriate laboratory and biochemical tests. The data was analyzed using SPSS-IBM version 20.0. Results: It was found that 95.2 % of the 70 GH¢ notes tested positive for one or more bacterial isolates. On each GH¢ note, mean counts on PCA ranged from 3.0 cfu/ml ×10 5 to 4.8 cfu/ml ×10 5. Of 124 bacteria isolated. 36 (29.03 %), 32 (25.81%), 16 (12.90 %), 20 (16.13%), 13 (10.48 %), and 7 (5.66 %) were from GH¢1, GH¢2, GH¢10, GH¢5, GH¢20, and GH¢50, respectively. Bacterial isolates were Escherichia coli (25.81%), Staphylococcus aureus (18.55%), coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (15.32%), Klebsiella species (12.10%), Salmonella species (9.68%), Shigella species (8.06%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (7.26%), and Proteus species (3.23%). Meat shops, commercial drivers, canteens, grocery stores, and vegetable shops contributed 25.81 %, 20.16 %, 19.35 %, 17.74 %, and 16.94 % of GH¢ notes respectively. There was 100% resistance of the isolates to Erythromycin (ERY), and Cotrimoxazole (COT). Amikacin (AMK) was the most effective among the antibiotics as 75% of the isolates were susceptible to it. Conclusion: This study has demonstrated that the GH¢ notes are heavily contaminated with potentially pathogenic bacteria that are highly resistant to the most widely used antibiotics and are a threat to public health.
... Fears of pathogenic diseases spreading via banknotes are nothing new. [29][30][31] Indeed, these studies have demonstrated that currency can act as a means to spread viruses and bacteria between transacting individuals, especially in developing countries. So, when the World Health Organization (WHO) stated that the coronavirus could spread through hard surfaces, 32 the fear of cash being a potential disease vector was used to motivate people into switching to contactless, mobile-based transactions. ...
This paper uses an interrupted time-series approach to study the demand for mobile wallet payments in India following the imposition of social distancing measures to contain the spread of COVID-19. The study finds that although the value and volume of mobile wallet payments initially dipped once the restrictions were in place, the rate of increase in both value and volume sub-sequently rose above pre-pandemic levels. Various factors are likely to have influenced this trend, including inter alia convenience and society’s new-found aversion to transacting in cash. This paper argues that to continue to benefit from the work carried out by banks and FinTechs to simplify the process of sending and receiving payments, and encourage the sustained use of mobile wallets, policymakers need to provide the right incentives, infrastructure, regulation and strategies.
Published by Henry Stewart Publications. Available at: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/contentone/hsp/jpss/2022/00000016/00000001/art00002
... The virus was much more stable at 4˚C. However, the stability of SARS-CoV-2 on credit card or coin has not been reported, and there has been a lack of environmental testing outside of the laboratory, with the exception of a study in Bangledesh reporting detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA on approximately 7% of circulating banknotes [38,39]. In order to better understand the risk of paper money versus credit cards as fomites for SARS-CoV-2 in the U.S.A., the stability of the virus on U.S.A $1 banknotes, coin and money cards in the laboratory is studied herein. ...
The highly contagious nature of SARS-CoV-2 has led to several studies on the transmission of the virus. A little studied potential fomite of great concern in the community is currency, which has been shown to harbor microbial pathogens in several studies. Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, many businesses in the United States have limited the use of banknotes in favor of credit cards. However, SARS-CoV-2 has shown greater stability on plastic in several studies. Herein, the stability of SARS-CoV-2 at room temperature on banknotes, money cards and coins was investigated. In vitro studies with live virus suggested SARS-CoV-2 was highly unstable on banknotes, showing an initial rapid reduction in viable virus and no viral detection by 24 hours. In contrast, SARS-CoV-2 displayed increased stability on money cards with live virus detected after 48 hours. Environmental swabbing of currency and money cards on and near the campus of Brigham Young University supported these results, with no detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA on banknotes, and a low level on money cards. However, no viable virus was detected on either. These preliminary results suggest that the use of money cards over banknotes in order to slow the spread of this virus may be ill-advised. These findings should be investigated further through larger environmental studies involving more locations.
... The crude materials that are utilized for making these paper currency has been reported to play significant roles in harboring of microorganisms [4]. Earlier studies have associated paper money with transfer of various microorganisms [5]. ...
The study was done to determine burden of fiat currencies. A total of Six hundred and twenty four pieces of different denominations of naira notes obtained from banks in Enugu metropolis and samples of nose swabs aseptically collected from fifty two note counters from those banks were examined for similar bacterial and fungal contaminants. All sequences were identified using the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) on National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) website. While the fungi amplicons yielded DNA bands of approximately 650 base pair, that of the bacterial isolates were approximately 850 base pair. Proteus mirabilis (NR11449.1) and Escherichia coli (LN831043.1) were identical and selected from the bacterial category while Aspergillus fumigatus (MK910068), Aspergillus flavus (JQ860302) and Aspergillus niger (MK461093) were identical and selected from the fungal category. Rats inoculated orally with Original Research Article Anyanwu et al.; JAMMR, 33(22): 180-188, 2021; Article no.JAMMR.67847 181 Escherichia coli and Proteus mirabilis presented with watery stool and reduction of weight by 16 + 0.4g after two weeks of commencement of inoculation. They showed reduction in activity and reduced locomotion when compared with the control. There were no physically observable changes in the other test groups. In the hematological investigation, the mean PCV in % were 39±1.0 for the E. coli, 40±0.4 for P. mirabilis, 35±0.2 for A. niger, 40±0.7 for A. fumigatus and 37±0.1 for A .flavus. These varied significantly at p<0.05 with the control which has mean PCV of 45±0.3. The differential leucocyte count showed a marked increase in the % neutrophil (E. coli 73±0.1, P. mirabilis 70±0.1, A. niger 78±1.1, A. fumigatus 59±0.3 and A. flavus 62±1.0) when compared with the control rats with percentage neutrophil of 20±0.2. There was also an increase in the white blood cell count of the test groups when compared with the control. Histopathological study of the lungs of the rats inoculated nasally with Aspergillus niger showed necrosis of the alveolar epithelium. This study has shown that naira notes could be a reservoir of microorganisms of medical importance which in turn could become vectors for the transmission of diseases in the society.
... [11] Over the last two decades, the observed data indicated that simultaneous handling indeed was a cause of sporadic foodborne illness and survival of pathogens. [12] Items that are passed from hand to hand are likely to be contaminated with disease-causing bacteria particularly if carried with unclear hands or kept in a dirty environment. [13] Keeping all this view in mind, the study was conducted in Mathura city to assess microbial contamination of Indian currency notes in circulation. ...
Assessment of Microbial Contamination of Indian Currency Notes in Mathura City, India
... Paper currency is the most common medium for exchange of goods and services all over the world [19]. The crude materials that are utilized for making these paper currency have been reported to play significant roles in harboring of microorganisms[4], [23]. Earlier studies have associated paper money with transfer of various microorganisms. ...
Six hundred and twenty four pieces of different denominations of naira notes obtained from thirteen different banks in Enugu metropolis were examined for bacterial and fungal contamination using the swab-rinse technique. The isolates were first characterized using their morphological and biochemical properties. Identification of the Genomic DNA sequences successfully extracted were carried out using the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) on National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) website. Statistical analysis was done using IBM SPSS statistical package. The bacteria amplicons yielded DNA bands of approximately 850 base pair while the fungi amplicons were approximately 650 base pair in length. Bacterial contaminants formed 65% of the total isolates while the fungal contaminants accounted for 35% of the isolates. Proteus mirabilis was the most isolated contaminant in the bacterial genera 64(9.6%) while Streptococcus pyogenes had the least frequency of isolation 10(1.5%). Other bacteria isolated included Escherichia coli 45(6.7%), Klebsiella pneumonia 14(2.1%), Bacillus subtilis 39(5.8%), Pseudomonas aeroginosa 45(6.7%). Alcaligenes feacalis 49(7.3%), Providentiastuartii 40(5.9%), Bacillus amyloliquefaciens 14(2.1%) and Staphylococcus epidermidis 59(8.8%). In the fungal genera, Aspergillus niger had the highest frequency of 11.7% while Sporothrixschenkii had the lowest frequency of occurrence of 1.3%. Other fungi isolated were Penicillinchrysogenum 13(1.9%), Candida albicans 50(7.5%), Fusarium solanii 14(2.1%), Aspergillus flavus 24(3.6%), Aspergillus fumigatus 25(3.7%) and Geotrichumcandidum 21(3.1%).The 100 naira notes showed the highest mean viable count of 54+ 0.1 x 10 4 CFU/M) and the 20 naira notes had the least 18+0.3 X 10 4 CFU/ML. Statistical significant difference was established between the means of the colony counts of isolates on the various naira notes at p<0.05.P. mirabilis showed high resistance to Cefatzidine 22(85%) and Cefriazone 20 (77%). E. coli was 24(92%) resistant to Cefriazone and 69% resistant to Ceftazidine. A.fumigatus was 56% resistant to Miconazole while A. flavus was 55% resistant to Miconazole. This study has shown that naira notes could be a reservoir of microorganisms of medical importance which in turn become vectors for the transmission of diseases in the society. Considering these findings, adequate measures should be put in place to reduce contamination of naira notes and ensure safety of handlers.
... However, few countries decontaminate their paper notes at regular intervals and assess the microbial contamination, which is seemingly not possible for many nations. The reasons behind microbial contamination in paper notes are material composition, specifically moisture absorbing and dust retaining capacity, and high frequency of exchange (Vriesekoop et al., 2010). Paper-based banknotes' rough surface also provides the necessary support for microbes to settle down and be accumulated. ...
Originating in December 2019 in China, SARS-CoV-2 has emerged as the deadliest pandemic in humankind's history. Along with direct contact and droplet contaminations, the possibility of infections through contaminated surfaces and fomites is investigating. This study aims to assess SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA's prevalence by real-time one-step reverse transcriptase PCR on banknotes circulating in Bangladesh. We also evaluated the persistence of the virus on banknotes spiked with SARS-CoV-2 positive diluted human nasopharyngeal samples. Among the 425 banknote samples collected from different entities, 7.29% (n=31) were tested positive for targeted genes. Twenty-four positive representative samples were assessed for n gene fragments by conventional PCR and sequenced. All the samples that carry viral RNA belonged to the GR clade, the predominantly circulating clade in Bangladesh. In the stability test, the n gene was detected for up to 72 h on banknotes spiked with nasopharyngeal samples, and CT values increase significantly with time (p<0.05). orf1b gene was observed to be less stable, especially on old banknotes, and usually went beyond detectable limit within 8 to 10 h. The stability of virus RNA well fitted by the Weibull model and concave curve for new banknotes and convex curve for old banknotes revealed. Handling banknotes is unavoidable; hence, these findings imply that proper hygiene practice is needed to limit SARS-CoV-2 transmission through banknotes.
... The wavelength of UVA, UVB and UVC are respectively 315-400, 280-315, 100-280nm. So UVC has highest frequency and power than other two UV rays [15]. The harmful UVC ray damages the DNA as well as RNA of a cell or virus. ...
Currency notes and coins play an important role in daily needs for the human being across the world. These currency notes take a major role for spreading the Corona virus infection and circulation of the currency notes enhance some infectious disease like COVID-19. A new prototype is introducing here to prevent the problem that is spreading of corona virus by hand to hand money transfer across the world. This paper is about preventing the spreading of corona-virus through currency by developing automatic, portable alcohol-based money disinfector. The prototype disinfects both currency notes and coins by ethyl alcohol.
... The conclusion was that great care should be taken during the handling of money and food to avoid crosscontamination. A similar conclusion was drawn in a paper entitled 'Dirty Money -An Investigation into the Hygiene Status of Some of the World's Currencies as Obtained from Food Outlets' [35] by the Institute of Crop and Food Science, the University of Ballarat, Victoria, Australia, A total of 1,280 banknotes were obtained from food outlets in 10 different countries (Australia, Burkina Faso, China, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Mexico, the UK and US) were examined for their bacterial content. Other study reported that S. Aureus contaminating paper currencies, which were collected from a wide variety of places, including shops, hospitals and restaurants and showed that the bacteria could survive for up to eight days on the money [30]. ...
... Article municipal health infrastructure, and the average life of the banknotes. 35 The type and number of microorganisms on the banknote are the result of the combined effects of the above factors. It is true that pathogens need to reach a certain amount and have certain virulence to infect humans and animals. ...
Banknotes have long been suspected to be biologically “dirty” due to their frequent human contact, which may transmit human microbial pathogens. Still, it is an unsettled issue whether the microbes on banknotes pose a real threat to human health. In several previous studies, metagenomic sequencing was used to reveal the diversities of microbes on banknotes but live microorganism culture and functional verification were lacking. In this study, we collected banknotes of RMB in China as well as dollar bills in the United States and analyzed the microbial biodiversity and drug resistance genes carried by the identified microbes by metagenomic sequencing and in vitro culture methods. We identified eight major genera of drug-resistant bacteria through screening of 30 antibiotics, and the blood agar plate culture uncovered six pathogenic fungal species. Numerous phage and six dangerous viral sequences were also found. These results should substantiate our concern about the potential risk of banknotes to human health.
... In Europe, Mändar et al. (2016) studied microbial contamination of euro money, whereas in the USA, Michaels (2002) reported on handling money and serving ready-to-eat food, which considered the same gloved hands or without hygiene intervention, and provided in food service establishments, would introduce the risk of cross-contamination to foods. In the global front, Vriesekoop et al. (2010) performed the hygiene status of some world's currencies by capturing food outlets in 10 different countries (Australia, Burkina Faso, China, Ireland, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Mexico, the United Kingdom, and the United States). By assessing the public health risks associated with the simultaneous handling of food and money, Brady & Kelly (2000) showed that coagulase-positive Staphylococci could be present on the currency note surfaces. ...
Microbial transmission, on the surface of any currency note, can either be through
direct (hand-to-hand contact) or indirect (food or other inanimate objects) means.
To ascertain the degree of bacterial load enumerated during the handling of
money and food items, particularly on currency note by denominations, should be
of public health importance. Despite the available literature regarding microbial
contamination of Nigerian currency notes, there is still paucity of information about
how microbial contamination/load differ across the denominations specific to
different food vendors. In this context, therefore, the current study investigated
bacterial contamination of Nigerian currency notes via a comparative study of
different denominations (N¼ 1,000, N¼ 500, N¼ 200, N¼ 100, N¼ 50, N¼ 20, and N¼ 5) recovered
from local food vendors. Specifically, the different food handlers/vendors included fruit,
meat, vegetable, fish, and grain/cereal sellers. All emergent data from 8 × 5 factorial
design of experiment were of duplicate measurements. To consider the currency
denominations and food vendor type, a one-factor-at-a-time analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was conducted. Results showed that about 81.7% of currency notes were
contaminated with either Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp. or Staphylococcus spp. in
varying degrees. The higher denominations of N¼ 500, N¼ 200, and N¼ 100 note, with
the exception of N¼ 1,000 note, recorded increased degree of contamination over the
lower denominations ofN¼ 50,N¼ 20,N¼ 10, andN¼ 5 note. Based on the total viable count
(TVC), the N¼ 100 currency note appeared the most contaminated (1.32 × 105 cfu/ml)
whereas N¼ 5 note appeared the least contaminated (1.46 × 104 cfu/ml). The frequency
of isolated bacteria on currency notes from vegetable, meat, and fish sellers were
significantly higher (p < 0.05) compared to other food vendors. The degree of bacterial
contamination of the current work appears chiefly dependent on the food vendor
type and currency denomination(s). This work calls for increased awareness and
education among food vendors and ready-to-eat food sellers. Doing this would
help mitigate the possible cross-contamination between currency notes and
foodstuff. Through this, consumers would know more about the potential health
risks such simultaneous activities (of handling currency notes and foodstuff) do
pose on food safety.
... The persistence of virus on both paper and polymer currency is of particular significance, considering the frequency of circulation and the potential for transfer of viable virus both between individuals and geographic locations. While other studies have shown that paper notes harbour more pathogens than polymer notes [38], this data demonstrates that SARS-CoV-2 persists on both paper notes and polymer notes to at least 28 days at 20 °C, albeit with a faster rate of inactivation on polymer notes. Data presented in this study for banknotes is significantly longer than reported for other respiratory viruses such as Influenza A (H3N2) which demonstrated survival up to 17 days at room temperature [39]. ...
Background:
The rate at which COVID-19 has spread throughout the globe has been alarming. While the role of fomite transmission is not yet fully understood, precise data on the environmental stability of SARS-CoV-2 is required to determine the risks of fomite transmission from contaminated surfaces.
Methods:
This study measured the survival rates of infectious SARS-CoV-2, suspended in a standard ASTM E2197 matrix, on several common surface types. All experiments were carried out in the dark, to negate any effects of UV light. Inoculated surfaces were incubated at 20 °C, 30 °C and 40 °C and sampled at various time points.
Results:
Survival rates of SARS-CoV-2 were determined at different temperatures and D-values, Z-values and half-life were calculated. We obtained half lives of between 1.7 and 2.7 days at 20 °C, reducing to a few hours when temperature was elevated to 40 °C. With initial viral loads broadly equivalent to the highest titres excreted by infectious patients, viable virus was isolated for up to 28 days at 20 °C from common surfaces such as glass, stainless steel and both paper and polymer banknotes. Conversely, infectious virus survived less than 24 h at 40 °C on some surfaces.
Conclusion:
These findings demonstrate SARS-CoV-2 can remain infectious for significantly longer time periods than generally considered possible. These results could be used to inform improved risk mitigation procedures to prevent the fomite spread of COVID-19.
... Among other micro-organisms, E. coli was found most abundant which is correlated with the findings of our study (Moosavy et al. 2013). Vriesekoop et al. (2010) conducted a study on banknotes collected from 10 different countries. They found that E. coli is commonly isolated from the banknotes of China and USA; and Salmonella sp. was only isolated from China, USA and Ireland. ...
Aims:
Current study was designed to analyze the prevalence of class 1 and class 2 integron integrase genes among antibiotic resistant coliform bacteria isolated from paper currency circulating in Pakistan.
Methods and results:
500 individual currency notes were collected from different food vending sites at Lahore, Pakistan. Bacterial population were identified by biochemical and PCR techniques. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed by disc diffusion assay. Highest bacterial population on currency was found from street vendors and butcher shops. E. coli was found to be the most prevalent coliform bacteria followed by Klebsiella sp. and Enterobacter sp. PCR amplification of antimicrobial resistance gene showed the presence of ampC, blaTEM , blaNDM-1 , qnrA, tet(A) and tet(B) genes among coliform isolates. A total of 47 integron integrase bearing strains of coliform bacteria were analyzed. Sequence analysis showed the presence of dfrA1-aadA1, dfrA1, dfrA5, dfrA7, aadA1, aadA4 cassette arrays in class 1 integron and dfrA1-sat2-aadA1 in class 2 integrase genes.
Conclusion:
Circulating currency was heavily contaminated with antimicrobial resistant coliform bacteria bearing class 1 and class 2 integron integrase genes.
Significance and impact of study:
This study describes a potential threat of severe bacterial infections due to improper hand hygiene and community sanitation when dealing with the currency notes.
... Handling the money while serving RTE food can potentially result in contamination of these foods. In a study carried out to determine the microbial contaminants in banknotes obtained from food outlets sampled from 10 different countries, Vriesekoop et al. (2010) reported the presence of Escherichia coli, which is indicative of fecal contamination of the money. Furthermore, Salmonella and S. aureus were also isolated. ...
The safety of street foods remains a public health concern especially in developing countries like
Kenya where foodborne illnesses associated with these foods have often been reported. This study
determined the food hygiene and safety knowledge and practices of 345 street food vendors (SFVs) in
selected locations within Kiambu County, Kenya. Data collection was accomplished through face-toface interviews using structured questionnaires and extensive observation using an assessment tool
for observation of personal hygiene and food handling practices of SFVs and the condition of the
vending environment. The results indicated that the majority of the SFVs were male (63.2%) with 38.1%
of them having attained secondary school education. About 93% of the SFVs had not received any
formal training on food hygiene and safety. Majority of SFVs handled food with bare hands (96.8%) or
handled money while serving food without washing hands (86.1%). Few also practiced preservation
with 78.3% storing foodstuff that required refrigeration at ambient temperatures while 22.3% stored
leftovers without any form of preservation and sold them the following day. Whereas public health
officers’ visits were found to significantly (P<0.0001) motivate SFVs to obtain a food handler's medical
certificate, only about 27% had obtained it. These findings suggest that street vended foods sold in this
study area may pose a significant potential hazard to public health due to the poor hygiene and
handling practices reported.
... 2 In the early 1970s, investigators suggested dirty money as a possible subject for the transmission of pathogenic microorganisms. 3 Handling money can introduce the risk of cross contamination in food provided in food supply and distribution centers. 4 In addition, wetting of fingers with saliva or water while counting banknotes and eating food with unwashed hands after handling money are some of the unhealthy behaviors contributing to the ease of transmission of pathogens via these subjects. ...
Objective
This study was conducted to determine the presence, type, and rate of parasitic contamination in Iranian currencies.
Study design
This was a cross-sectional study.
Methods
Coins and banknotes of different denominations were randomly collected from sellers and markets in Tabriz, Northwest of Iran, for examining parasitic contamination.
Results
Entamoeba coli and Giardia intestinalis were the most identified species of parasites in this study. Other parasites detected were Cryptosporidium parvum, Ascaris lumbricoides, Entamoeba histolytica, Fasciola hepatica, and Toxocara cati. A high rate of parasitic contamination was found in banknotes compared with coins, and a statistically significant association was found between parasitic contamination and the apparent condition of the currencies. The notes of lower denominations showed the highest contamination rates. The highest parasitic contamination was found in coins and banknotes obtained from public toilet services, butchers, and beggars.
Conclusions
The findings emphasize the role of circulating coins and banknotes in the risk of pathogenic parasite transmission.
... See, e.g.,[Abrams and Waterman, 1972],[Angelakis et al, 2014],[Jenkins, 2001],[Maron, 2017],[Oyler, Darwin and Cone, 1996],[Pope et al, 2002],[Tanglao, 2014],[Thomas et al, 2008],[Vriesekoop et al, 2010]. ...
We discuss the pros of adopting government-issued digital currencies as well as a supranational digital iCurrency. One such pro is to get rid of paper money (and coinage), a ubiquitous medium for spreading germs, as highlighted by the recent coronavirus outbreak. We set forth three policy recommendations for adapting mobile devices as new digital wallets, regulatory oversight of sovereign digital currencies and user data protection, and a supranational digital iCurrency for facilitating international digital monetary linkages.
This study aims to determine the presence of bacterial contamination associated with currency as obtained from hospital’s food outlet. Samples were randomly collected from cafeteria’s of Benghazi Medical Center Hospital, Benghazi Children's Hospital, and Al Jalaa Hospital. Bacteria isolates belonged to gram negative and gram positive were used to perform antibiotic sensitivity testing. Total count of bacteria from currency found 10 type of bacteria, the highest type of bacteria, Lactobacillus 50%, followed by Acinetobacter 20.3%, Klebsiella 7.4%, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli 3.7%, while the lowest Staphylococcus epidermas, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Rhizobium radiobacter were 1.8% and no growth 22.8%, the sensitivity of the isolated bacteria showed the Acinetobacter baumanni highest resistant to Augmantine (78%) and lowest to both Ceftazidimde and Aztronam with (11%), the Klebsiella pneumonia shows (100%) resistant to Erythromycin and Oxcilin. While the two sample of Escherichia coli were resistant to Augmantine and Ceftazidime. In addition, the two samples of Staphylococcus aureus were resistant to Erythromycin and Oxcilin (100%), two samples of Staphylococcu epidermidis were resistant to Erythromycin and Oxcilin (100%), while the one sample Pseudomonas spp was resistant to Colastin (100%), the Pantoea spp sample was resistant to both Ceftriaxone and Colastin (100%), while the only sample of Staphylococcus Haemolyticus was resistant (100%) to Erythromycin. Confirming that the contaminated currency spread in the hospital cafeteria was contaminated with disease-causing bacteria.
For the prevention of infectious diseases, knowledge about potential transmission routes is essential. Pathogens can be transmitted directly (i.e. respiratory droplets, hand‐to‐hand contact) or indirectly via contaminated surfaces (fomites). In particular, frequently touched objects/surfaces may serve as transmission vehicles for different clinically relevant bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens. Banknotes and coins offer ample surface area and are frequently exchanged between individuals. Consequently, many concerns have been raised in the recent past, that banknotes and coins could serve as vectors for the transmission of disease‐causing microorganisms. This review summarizes the latest research on the potential of paper currency and coins to serve as sources of pathogenic viral, bacterial, and fungal agents. In contrast to the current perception of banknotes and coins as important transmission vehicles, current evidence suggests, that banknotes and coins do not pose a particular risk of pathogen infection for the public.
Currency notes could play a signicant role in transmitting pathogenic microorganisms amongst individuals in the society. This study was aimed to determine the microbial prole and Antibiotic susceptibility of bacterial pathogens isolated from Ethiopian paper notes in circulation. 64 currency paper notes of different denomination were tested for bacterial contamination using standard microbiological methods. Antibiotic susceptibility proles of the isolates were determined with approved methods. Results were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Overall mean AMBC was 4.08 log units, with the highest 6.58 log units recorded from denomination 5 followed by 4.50, 3.03, 2.20 log units from denominations 10, 50 and 100 respectively. Total Coliforms (TC) displayed the same pattern with the highest mean counts of 6.52 log units, from denomination 5 and lowest counts of 2.19 log units from denomination 100. Out of 64 currency notes, 35 (54.7%) were contaminated with bacteria. The predominant bacteria isolates were E. coli (60.5%), Salmonella spp. (23.6%) and Shigella spp. (13.2%). Each isolate was resistant to four or more antibiotics tested. All isolates were resistant against Cefepime and Tetracycline and sensitive to Ceftriaxone. This study revealed that currency notes are contaminated with pathogenic bacteria and in most cases these bacterial isolates were resistant to commonly prescribed antibiotics. There fore, contaminated notes are identied as potential public health threat, because pathogens can be spread by circulating the notes and become source of infection. Awareness creation is important among public in this regard.
The aim of this study was to determine the dynamics of the residual infectious activity of the SARSCoV-2 virus on various types of surfaces, including banknotes and coins, in samples of drinking dechlorinated water and samples imitating seawater, with a concentration of sodium chloride salts of 0.9 and 3.5 % at a temperature of 24–28 ºC.
Materials and methods . The studies were carried out using the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus strain nCoV/Victoria/1/2020, from the collection of the SSC VB “Vector”, the initial titer being (6.0±0.2) lg TCD50/ml. We used a Vero E6 cell culture from the collection of the SSC VB “Vector” in the form of a 2-day monolayer with a confluence of 95–100 %, grown in 96-well culture plates.
Results and conclusions . The SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus is viable in both fresh and sea water, regardless of its salinity, for at least 48 hours, and the degree of preservation of the residual infectious activity of the virus depends on the water temperature: the lower it is, the better the virus is preserved. It was found that at a temperature of 24–28 C, the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus is able to maintain infectious activity on all types of test surfaces studied for at least 48 hours, while the degree of the residual infectious activity of the virus depends on the type of surface. The virus is best preserved on stainless steel, plastic and glass. It is demonstrated that SARS-CoV-2 virus activity is retained on the surface of paper money and coins for longer than 24 hours. The conducted studies have confirmed the ability of the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus to maintain its infectious activity in the environment under favorable conditions and, accordingly, to pose an epidemiological threat to the population.
Background: Globally, contamination of banknotes with various microbial species is increasingly being reported. This usually results from improper handling during exchange of goods and services. In the present study, we aimed to determine the microbial load, prevalence and the presence of Extended Spectrum Beta Lactamase (ESBL) among bacteria isolated from the Nigerian Naira notes circulating in Bauchi metropolis. Methodology: A total of 400 Naira notes of various denominations were randomly collected aseptically, cultured and total viable counts determined. The isolated microbial species were identified using standard microbiological techniques. Antibiotic susceptibility of the isolates and detection of ESBL were determined by Kirby-Bauer's disc diffusion method and Double Disc Synergy Test (DDST), respectively. Results: All the 400 samples collected were contaminated with various microbial species. The highest mean colony count was detected in 20 Naira notes (28.5%), while the least was observed in 1000 Naira note (3.3%). Fourteen different microbial species were isolated from the contaminated currency notes, predominantly Escherichia coli (25.0%), and Staphylococcus aureus (12.0%). Some fungal species mainly Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger were also isolated. Majority of the bacteria isolates resistant to the third generation cephalosporins (72.1%) were ESBL positive. Conclusion: The study shows that Naira notes circulating in Bauchi metropolis were heavily contaminated with various microbial species, and a high proportion of the isolated Gram-negative bacteria were ESBL producers. Efforts should thus be made to improve hygiene practices in the study area. Importantly, businesses should be encouraged to adopt the use of electronic transactions.
Agricultural productivity is the synthetic reection of agricultural efciency in which different inputs are
being used and it helps to recognize the regional inequalities in agriculture. The main focus of the
present study is on the district wise variation of trends in agricultural productivity in West Bengal from
1991 to 2011 as well as its relation to agricultural inputs like rainfall, percentage of cropped area,
irrigation and fertilizer consumption. Therefore, trend analysis has been done by Mann-Kendall
testtogether with the Sen's Slope Estimator for the determination of trend and slope magnitude.Alsoa
regression analysis is done in between productivity and various inputs for answering the causes
behind positive and negative trends. Most of the districts have facing negative trend in productivity
since 1990. In Hooghly, Burdwan and Nadia districts,agricultural productivity is well enough in
comparison to Purulia, Bankura, Darjeeling districts.
For several years, the Economic Freedom of the World (EFW) annual reports large set of nations around the world. 1 This index is designed to measure the degree to which a nation's policies and institutions protect its citizens' economic freedom. In this article, we explain the basic methodology employed in constructing the index and summarize the study's findings. What Is Economic Freedom? Any attempt to quantify economic freedom must begin with a solid theoretical under-standing of the concept. The EFW report holds the key ingredients of economic freedom to be personal choice, voluntary exchange, freedom to compete, and protection of person and property. Institutions and policies are consistent with economic freedom when they provide an infrastructure for voluntary exchange and protect individuals and their property from aggressors who seek to use violence, coercion, and fraud to seize things that do not belong to them. Legal and monetary arrangements are especially important: governments promote economic freedom when they provide a legal structure and a law-enforcement system that protect the property rights of owners and enforce contracts in an even-handed manner. They also enhance economic freedom when they facilitate access to sound money. In some cases, the government itself may provide a currency of stable value. In other instances, it may simply remove obstacles that retard the use of sound money that is 1 The most recent report is Gwartney and Lawson 2004. In this article, we draw heavily from the first chapter of that report.
During investigations on street food vendors' materials, seventy samples of three types of dish washing water (E1, E2, E3), eighty-five pieces of money, eighty utensils were collected for microbiological assessment. Hands microbiological status of one hundred twenty-five consumers and seventy sellers were also assessed. The analysis revealed that 100% of E1 washing waters were very impure, while, 44.5% of second washing water (E2) were impure, 44.5% very impure and 11% acceptable. 45.45% of E3 washing water were acceptable, 27.27% impure and 27.27% very impure. The spoons and the dinner plates were sometimes contaminated with unacceptable levels (above 102) of different bacteria such as, coliforms and Staphylococcus aureus (P ≤ 0.05). Knives microbiological examination revealed presence of numerous bacteria (8.6 x 105 cfu/knife) such as coliforms, S. Aureus, Salmonella and Shigella . Pieces of money analysis revealed presence of coliforms and S. aureus. These data showing pathogen bacteria in food vending sites indicates hygiene monitoring failure.
Eighteen bacteria isolates from the Nigeria Currency belonging to 5 different species were selected for antibiotic susceptibility test using commercially available drugs. The antibiotics used are Tetracycline, Cetrimoxazole, Augumentin, Gentamicin, Amoxycillin, Ofloxacin and Nalidixic acid. The disc diffusion technique was employed and inhibition observed as clear zones around the antibiotics. Inhibition zones were measured using meter rule and measurement greater than 0.5 cm was regarded as susceptibility. Bacillus species was found to be resistant to all drugs except Ofloxacin. Proteus species was susceptible to all antibiotics except Nalidixic acid. Enterobacter species was found to be resistant to Amoxycillin, Cotrimoxazole, Augumentin and Tetracycline while it was susceptible to Gentamicin, Nalidixic acid and Ofloxacin. Citrobacter species was found to be resistant to Cotrimoxazole, Nalidixic acid and Tetracycline but susceptible to Amoxycillin, Gentamicin, Ofloxacin and Augumentin. Staphylococcus species was resistant to Amoxycillin, Cotrimoxazole, Nalidixic acid and Augumentin and Tetracycline but susceptible to Ofloxazole and Gentamicin. The general resistance was exhibited against the cheap, easily available and accessible antibiotics while susceptibility was to very expensive antibiotics, thus making the treatment of infections caused by money very expensive. The minimum inhibitory concentration of Ceftriazone on Enterobacter sp. Citrobacter sp. and Staphylococcus sp. are 0.5, 0.29 and 0.29 µg mL-1 while for Gentamicin it was 0.3, 0.07 and 5 µg mL-1 . This reveals that infection or disease resulting from contaminated currency will be expensive to treat as common and affordable antibiotics may not be effective.
To determine the degree of contamination of taka notes, samples of the notes circulating in different local markets and people of different professions in Khulna region of Bangladesh were collected. Coliforms, the indicator organisms in taka notes were determined by multiple tube method and identified with differential media and data were analyzed. About 80±5% of old two-taka notes were contaminated with total coliforms and 16±4% of notes were found contaminated with fecal coliforms. But comparatively newer two-taka notes showed that 43±3% were contaminated with total coliforms and 5±2% were with fecal coliforms, suggesting the notion that more handled taka notes were contaminated more intensely even by fecal coliforms. Ten taka notes also represented the same pattern of results as two-taka notes, indicating that taka notes may carry enteric pathogens. This study also revealed that porsaline paper notes were easily vulnerable to coliforms contamination whereas polymer paper notes were almost free from coliforms suggesting that polymer paper notes are safer to use than porsaline paper notes.
Infection with Staphylococcus aureus was initially considered a major problem in hospitals, but over the last few decades the incidence of community-acquired infection has also increased. Paper currency has recently been identified as another mode of spread by which community-acquired S. aureus infection may be transmitted, since paper currency is frequently transferred from one person to another. In the present study, S. aureus strains were isolated from paper currency and screened to detect virulence-associated genes.
Paper currency was collected randomly from operators in mutton shops, vegetable shops, hospitals, medical stores, snacks corners, and restaurants in the two cities of India, Dehradun and Delhi. Samples were screened for pathogenic S. aureus by various biochemical assays. Three isolates were used to study the survival of S. aureus on paper currency. Virulence genes were amplified by PCR. Antibiotic susceptibility was determined against nine antibiotics by the disk diffusion method.
Sixty-seven isolates of Staphylococcus aureus were isolated from paper currency from the two Indian cities. The maximum number of isolates was recovered from hospitals, followed by mutton shops, and the minimum from restaurants. The test isolates could survive on paper currency for eight days under in vitro conditions (27 degrees C temperature and 30% relative humidity). A set of four virulence genes viz. cna (16 isolates), icaA (19 isolates), hlg (21 isolates), and sdrE (18 isolates) was amplified using gene-specific primers. Only eight isolates possessed all four virulence genes. Antimicrobial susceptibility tests showed that those isolates having all the tested virulence genes were more resistant.
This study clearly suggests that paper currency can serve as a carrier for the spread of resistant bacterial pathogens.
The objective of this study was to investigate the extent of contamination of some of the most used paper denominations of the Egyptian currency (25 PT). Sixty-nine bills in circulation were collected from November 2003 through January 2004. A swab from each bill was cultured on nutrient agar and incubated at 37 degrees C for 48 h. Results showed that over 65% of these bills had a bacterial count above 5.0 cm2. A preliminary identification of organisms present on these paper notes was done using selected Petri dishes with well-defined colonies.
The authors examined the bacteriological state of notes (n = 115) and coins (n = 71) taken directly from domestic and foreign money circulation with impression and washing methods. The number of bacteria was always significantly higher on the notes than on the coins. The difference was even higher in case of moulds. Germs belonging to Enterobacteriaceae family, enterococci and B. cereus were found only on the notes. Antimicrobial effect of the recently printed notes was observed, similarly to that of German notes. In spite that no harm to health confirmed to be in connection with money contaminated with bacteria is known from food-market and general money circulation, it is advisable to separate the selling and money-collecting activities and the risk of contamination of money-vector should be minimised with frequent hand-washing and use of devices.
Cultures of random samples of both coin and paper money revealed that 13% of the coins and 42% of the paper money were contaminated by potential pathogens. The implications lead to the conclusion that no abrupt departure from our present monetary habit is imminent.
THE recent researches of Paul Reinsch of Erlangen have shown the occurrence of different schizomycetes and of two new minute algæ (Chroocaccus monetarum, Pleurococcus monetarum, Paul Reinsch) on the surfaces of the coins of many nations, living in the thin incrustations of organic detritus (composed especially of starch grains, fibres, &c.) deposited upon their surfaces in the course of long circulation. This extremely thin incrustation renders the coins very suitable for this micro-vegetation, but the same phenomenon is also exhibited in the case of paper money, and indeed by notes of clean and, to the unassisted vision of a quite unaltered appearance.
Handling money and ready-to-eat food with the same gloved hands or without hygiene intervention between these activities can introduce the risk of cross-contamination to foods provided in food service establishments. Accumulated data obtained over the last 20 years on the microbial status and survival of pathogens on coins and currency notes indicates that this could represent a potential cause of sporadic cases of food borne illness. Survival of various microorganisms of concern on money is such that it could serve as a vehicle for transmission of disease and represents an often overlooked enteric disease reservoir. With low infectious doses capable of causing illness noted for a number of different infectious intestinal diseases, failure to adequately sanitize hands, or use food handling tools (tongs, spoons, utensils or bakery/serving papers) between handling money and serving food, could put patrons at risk.
Abstract Australian outdoor activities are often accompanied by a barbeque (BBQ) with family, friends, and guests, which are often interrupted by uninvited guests in the form of the Australian bush fly, Musca vetustissima. We investigated the bacterial loading associated with the Australian bush in three different environments: on a cattle farm, in a typical urban area (shopping center car park), and at a BBQ. The highest bacterial populations per fly were found to occur in a farm environment ( approximately 9.1 x 10(4) CFU per fly), whereas the bacterial population was lowest on flies caught in an urban environment ( approximately 1.9 x 10(4) CFU per fly). The median CFU per fly caught near a BBQ was approximately 5.0 x 10(4). Escherichia coli was the most commonly isolated potential pathogen, whereas Shigella sp. was the least common bacterial isolate that was screened. All isolated foodborne pathogens or indicator bacteria were screened for antibiotic resistance against commonly prescribed antibiotics. This revealed a very high prevalence of multidrug resistance, especially among the Salmonella and Shigella isolates of 94% and 87% resistance, respectively, against amoxicillin, roxythromycin and cefaclor.
Bacteriological survey of one hundred twenty currency notes was done. Aerobic spore-forming bacilli (91%), Staphylococcus epidermidis (63.3%), Staphylococcus aureus (4.2%), Enterococcus (24.1%), alpha-hem. streptococcus (4.1%), Streptococcus pneumoniae (1.7%), Corynebacterium (7.5%), Lactobacilli (10.8%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (31.7%), Enterobacter (19.2%), E. coli (17.5%), Proteus (1.7%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (0.8%), Shigella flexneri (0.8%) were isolated from paper money samples. Currency notes in general were bacteriologically contaminated especially with enteric pathogens and potentially pathogens, it was thought that some measures have to be taken to reduce these ill effects.
To determine the degree of faecal contamination of currency notes, samples of the notes that were in circulation in a local market in Rangoon were collected and examined bacteriologically to count the number of the total bacteria and faecal coliforms (TC, FC) using standard methods. TC and FC ranged from 0 to 2.9 X 10(7)/sq cm of currency notes and the isolation rates of pathogens increased during the hot wet season. Enteric pathogens, such as enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Vibrio, and Salmonella were isolated from paper-money samples obtained from butchers and fish mongers. The study suggests that currency notes may carry enteric pathogens.
Health as a basic human value is particularly important to people in the developing world. Rates of economic development lower
than had been hoped for and ever more steeply rising population growth have precipitated a reaction against public health
programs. Among economists, agriculturalists, and even health professionals the philosophy arose that one should "hold back"
on using modern weapons against disease because they are "too effective." To satisfy the recognized popular demand, simple
and relatively ineffective measures of curative medicine could be substituted. It was said that the emphasis should be, instead,
on agriculture, community development, education, and industrialization and that family planning should be pushed as a separate
program. Documentation presented here sharply challenges such a point of view. No segment of the total development process
can be effective without the other sectors.
A total of 100 currency notes of various denominations in circulation were randomly studied for bacterial, fungal and protozoal contamination. All except four notes yielded one or more bacteria. Bacterial culture yielded single isolate in 33 notes, two in 44 notes, three in 12 notes and four in 7 notes. The predominant bacterial isolate was Bacillus sps followed by Coagulase negative Staphylococci and Micrococcus sps. Other bacteria that are either potential or confirmed pathogens included K. pneumoniae, E. coli, S. aureus, Pseudomonas sps and S. typhi. Only two notes were positive for Acid fast bacilli. 28 samples did not yield any fungal growth. Overall 118 fungal isolates were isolated, of which 34 could not be identified. All the fungi isolated were saprophytes. Saline and Iodine wet mount did not reveal any parasitic forms. We recommend that currency notes must be handled with caution.
The authors assessed the potential of Nigerian currency notes to act as environmental vehicles for the transmission of pathogenic parasites and bacteria. Currency notes obtained from four major cities in Nigeria were evaluated according to standard techniques. Fifty-four (21.6 percent [95 percent CI: 16.50-26.70]) of the first batch of 250 notes, which underwent parasitological analysis, were contaminated with enteric parasites; 133 (53.2 percent [95 percent CI: 47.02-59.39]) of the second batch of 250 notes, which underwent bacteriological analysis, were found to be contaminated with bacteria. Parasites that were isolated from the notes included Ascaris lumbricoides (8.0 percent), Enterobius vermicularis (6.8 percent), Trichuris trichiura (2.8 percent), and Taenia species (4.0 percent). Bacteria that were isolated were Streptococcus species (21.6 percent), Staphylococcus species (12.8 percent), Escherichia coli (13.2 percent), and Bacillus species (5.6 percent). Among dirty/mutilated currency notes, parasite contamination and bacterial contamination were both significantly (p < .05) more pervasive (30.6 percent and 73.8 percent, respectively) than they were among clean and mint currency notes. Lower-denomination notes were more likely to be contaminated than were higher-denomination notes, although the difference was not statistically significant (p > .05). Parasite contamination and bacteria contamination were both most frequent in notes obtained from butchers and beggars. These results suggest that currency notes may be contaminated, especially with bacteria and enteric parasites, and may serve as sources of infection. Personal hygiene to reduce risk of infection is recommended.
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