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Differences in Personality Attributions Toward Tattooed and Nontattooed Virtual Human Characters

Authors:
Silke Wohlrab
Silke Wohlrab
Silke Wohlrab
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Bernhard Fink at University of Vienna
Bernhard Fink
Peter Kappeler at German Primate Center
Peter Kappeler
Gayle Brewer at University of Liverpool
Gayle Brewer
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Abstract

Individuals with body modifications, such as tattoos, have been shown to differ from nonmodified individuals in sensation-seeking personality characteristics and sociosexuality. This study examined possible differences in people’s attributions of those characteristics toward virtual human characters varying in body modification. Some 287 participants rated tattooed and nontattooed bodies of avatars on aspects of sensation seeking and number of previous sexual partners. Tattooed stimuli were rated as more experience, thrill, and adventure seeking as well as more likely to have a high number of previous sexual partners and as less inhibited when compared to nontattooed stimuli, and this was particularly true for male stimuli. It was concluded that people with body modifications, such as tattoos, are perceived differently compared to nontattooed individuals in terms of sensation seeking and previous sexual partner number, this being particularly true for men. Findings are discussed with reference to the evolutionary model of human sexual selection.
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... Visible body art (VBA) has been used by authors when researching the practice of body decoration/tattoos (Jeffreys, 2000;Durkin, 2012;Swami, 2012;Armstrong et al, 2014;. Other terms in common usage are 'body modification' (Wohlrab et al, 2009a;Wohlrab et al, 2009b;Stirn et al, 2011), 'body ornamentation' (Carmen, Guitar and Dillon, 2012), 'body adornment' (Goulding et al, 2004;Taşğin and Mollica, 2017), 'body experience' (Colopelnic, 2011) and 'body practices' (Gonzalez Garcia, 2013). The term 'body modification' is most widely used in papers examining the medical aspects of tattooing and the negative perceptions associated with tattoos (Stirn et al, 2011), conversely, 'body art' is linked with a more positive approach to the practice of gaining a tattoo (Atkinson, 2003;Baumann, Timming and Gollan, 2016). ...
... Societal views of the tattooed body have changed over time, tattooed individuals are perceived to be more likely to be adventure seeking, more prone to boredom and to have more sexual partners (Burger and Finkel, 2002;Wohlrab et al, 2009b). In relation to adolescents, Roberts and Ryan (2008) performed a secondary analysis of the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health Public Use Dataset and concluded that there was a strong association between high-risk behaviours and adolescents with permanent tattoos. ...
... Also, to preserve the anonymity 53 of the nurses used in the photographs, it was felt necessary to not show their faces. In addition, it is acknowledged that facial expressions may lead to either positive or negative interactions and perceptions of individuals (Passer et al, 2009 (Banks and Zeitlyn, 2015) to give the appearance of a tattooed individual (Degelman and Price, 2002;Arndt and Glassman, 2012;Musambira, Raymond and Hastings, 2016;Ozanne, Tews and Mattila, 2018;Henle et al, 2021) or using 'avatars' (a made-up image) for use in the research process (Swami and Furnham, 2007;Wohlrab et al, 2009b). In addition, the focus has been on comparison between the tattooed and no-tattooed body rather than reaction to a specific professional wearing a tattoo (Resenhoeft, Villa and Wiseman, 2008;Ozanne, Tews and Mattila, 2018). ...
Does the presence of visible tattoos on nurses affect the therapeutic relationship?
Thesis
Full-text available
  • Feb 2024
This thesis explores the affect visible tattoos on nurses have on the therapeutic relationship. Using photo-elicitation interviews, data was collected and analysed using qualitative thematic analysis. In addition, a content analysis was carried out of almost 90% of dress codes and uniform policies from NHS Trusts in England to gain the organisation view of visible tattoos.
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... All other psychological studies seem to wrestle with the changing status of body modifications as an emerging or "new" normal. We identified what could be called a "general" category of social psychology studies of body modifications, seeking explanations for how modified people are perceived and how people with modifications are treated (e.g., Drews et al., 2000;Galbarczyk et al., 2020;Galbarczyk and Ziomkiewicz, 2017;Hawkes et al., 2004;Martino, 2008;Martino and Lester, 2011;Miłkowska et al., 2018;Resenhoeft et al., 2008;Wohlrab et al., 2009aWohlrab et al., , 2009b). An a priori assumption undergirding these studies is that body modifications have been historically stigmatised, and stigma may persist in interpersonal interactions. ...
... The evolutionary perspective suggests that well-healed modifications may function as external indicators of good underlying health. This hypothesis is tested by exploring how modifications are perceived by observers in terms of attractiveness and health as adaptive indicators of partner suitability (e.g., Galbarczyk et al., 2020;Galbarczyk and Ziomkiewicz, 2017;Miłkowska et al., 2018;Wohlrab et al., 2009aWohlrab et al., , 2009b. ...
Deviance as an historical artefact: a scoping review of psychological studies of body modification
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2023
Body modification is a blanket term for tattooing, piercing, scarring, cutting, and other forms of bodily alteration generally associated with fashion, identity, or cultural markings. Body modifications like tattooing and piercing have become so common in industrialised regions of the world that what were once viewed as marks of abnormality are now considered normal. However, the psychological motivations for body modification practices are still being investigated regarding deviance or risky behaviours, contributing to a sense in the academic literature that body modifications are both normal and deviant. We explored this inconsistency by conducting a scoping review of the psychological literature on body modifications under the assumption that the psychological and psychiatric disciplines set the standard for related research. We searched for articles in available online databases and retained those published in psychology journals or interdisciplinary journals where at least one author is affiliated with a Psychology or Psychiatry programme (N = 94). We coded and tabulated the articles thematically, identifying five categories and ten subcategories. The most common category frames body modifications in general terms of risk, but other categories include health, identity, credibility/employability, and fashion/attractiveness. Trends in psychology studies seem to follow the shifting emphasis in the discipline from a clinical orientation regarding normality and abnormality to more complex social psychological approaches.
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... This could explain why most of the participants possessed more than one tattoo. Furthermore, evidence suggests that tattooed females are more feminine and attractive than non-tattooed females and the increase of attractiveness could be the main motivator for females to possess tattoos (Wohlrab et al., 2009). Winston agrees with the physical appeal of tattoos, but feels tattoos aren't fully justified without meaning: "Yeah sure, some tattoos may look amazing but when they lack a meaning, I feel they lose a bit of credibility, in my opinion at least." (Transcript 5; lines 10-11). ...
... From an evolutionary perspective, attractiveness indicates a male's quality in the sense of pathogen resistance, which can interpreted as a display of dominance or masculinity (Wohlrab et al., 2009). Both traits are desirable and it has been suggested that males with these qualities are more disposed to tolerate the health risk of possessing tattoos, signifying their strength (Kozieł and Sitek, 2013). ...
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... The rates were significant higher for females: 40.8% and 33.3%, respectively [29]. Persons who have tattoos, show a wide range of externalizing problems such as tobacco, alcohol and drug use; a large number of sexual partners, unprotected sexual intercourse with strangers [30,[32][33][34][35]; academic difficulties, risky body health behavior [23,[36][37][38], "truancy" problems, pathological gambling, gang affiliatio [39] aggressive outbursts [27,40], a history of criminal arrest [30]. Jennings et al. [41] suggested that having tattoos can be considered as a developmental risk factor and an expression of personality traits. ...
... Some researchers suggested that tattooing behavior may represent a marker of personality maladjustment [43][44][45][46][47], or complicated self-esteem [48]. Numerous studies linked tattoos with adolescent psychopathology [29,31,49] and adult antisocial behavior [30,35]. Swami et al. [50] suggested that between-group differences in the personality traits of persons with tattoos have been grossly overstated. ...
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... However, for male avatars, wider faces were associated with reduced attractiveness. Wohlrab et al. (2009) conducted a comparative analysis of avatars with and without tattoos, revealing that tattooed avatars were perceived as more experienced, more adventurous and thrill-seeking, having had more sexual partners, and demonstrating less inhibition. Weibel et al. (2010) found that avatars with larger pupils and slower blinking rates were perceived as more sociable and more attractive. ...
Adolescent identity styles and avatar perception: examining the link between identity formation and virtual representation
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2024
Identity formation is a fundamental developmental task during adolescence, significantly influenced by how individuals are judged by others. In today’s digital age, such judgements increasingly occur in virtual settings, where the focus often shifts from the user to their virtual representation, or avatar. One of the most relevant frameworks for understanding the process of identity formation is Michael Berzonsky’s social-cognitive model of identity formation, which identifies three distinct identity processing styles: informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant. This study explores whether correlations exist between adolescent identity styles and external judgements of their avatars. The sample consisted of 130 adolescents (75 females, 55 males), aged between 15 to 17 years. The research participants were instructed to create their own avatars and subsequently control their movements within an arcade game. Following this, the participants completed the Identity Style Questionnaire to determine their identity processing style. Field experts then evaluated the adolescents’ avatars based on several dimensions: masculinity/femininity of the nickname, unconventionality of the nickname, masculinity/femininity of the character, style of clothing (extravagance), attractiveness, friendliness, intelligence, sociability, and trustworthiness of the character, as well as character’s activeness and openness to experience. The results revealed significant correlations between the informational and normative identity styles and the avatars’ physical and psychological attributes as evaluated by experts. These findings provide valuable insights from a developmental psychology perspective and hold practical implications for interdisciplinary collaborations between psychologists and developers, particularly in designing educational and therapeutic computer games.
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... Another, more extensive classification was proposed by Wohlrab et al. 30 It distinguishes the following types of motivation for tattooing: Table, which is still consistent with the emerging reports. 1. ...
Types of colourants used in tattoo and permanent make‐up techniques, legal regulations, health, and psychological aspects of tattooing
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2023
Background It is estimated that more than 60 million people in Europe, that is, around 12% of the European population, have at least one tattoo. However, there is still little information on the long‐term effects of tattoos. Inks used for tattooing are a mixture of chemicals, with pigments being the main components responsible for the visual effect. The pigments used are not produced specifically as ingredients for tattooing, but mainly/primarily for the needs of industry, where lower purity requirements and quality standards are acceptable. It is therefore necessary to understand the risks associated with tattoos, but also to implement appropriate legal regulations. The aim of this article was to collect and summarise the results of research conducted so far on the type of colourants used in tattoo ink and to analyze the impact of these on human health. In addition, as part of this work, the current legal acts regulating the concentration limits and composition of inks used in tattooing as well as the psychological aspects of tattooing were collected and presented. Methods Scientific reports and articles from renowned journals from 1994 to 2022, relevant review and research publications in PubMed, and Google Scholar were analyzed. To analyze the available research literature, the Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed databases were used. The following keywords were used to search for publications: tattoos, colourants used in tattoos, side effects of tattoos, legal acts, psychological aspects of tattoos. Results The result of the literature analysis indicates a risk to health and side effects associated with tattooing the body. There are still no standardised test methods to analyze tattoo inks and assess their safety. Although the art of tattooing has been known for millennia, European legal authorities have not yet implemented effective regulations. Currently, tattoo products in Europe are covered by the general REACH regulation (Resolution ResAP, 2008; EU regulation 2020/2081, 2020). on product safety. The new amendment in force since January 4, 2022 introduces concentration limits for certain substances used in tattoo and permanent makeup inks. However, these provisions do not sufficiently protect either the consumer or the tattoo industry. Conclusions The results of the research indicate a potentially harmful effect on skin health. A more stringent safety assessment of the colourants used for tattooing is recommended, supported by studies and applicable legislation.
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... This association was robust, as avatar warmth and competence both remained unique predictors of preference after accounting for several control variables (i.e., familiarity with the avatar, avatar attractiveness, anthropomorphization, femininity, avatar gender, perceiver gender, and whether the perceiver's gender matched the avatar's gender). These results support our hypothesis and are consistent with previous research showing that avatars are evaluated in a similar fashion to humans are evaluated (Nass & Moon, 2000;Wohlrab et al., 2009). The intercorrelations between avatar ratings also indicate that avatars are evaluated in ways similar to how we evaluate other humans (Fiske et al., 2002). ...
Select Your Character: Individual Needs and Avatar Choice
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2022
Avatars represent the self in virtual spaces, such as videogames, but little is known about how we choose them. Here, we propose that avatars might help to satisfy psychological needs, in addition to serving other functions, with choice influenced by whether an avatar can fulfill these needs. Those higher in Need for Warmth should be drawn to avatars perceived as warm, and the same might be true for those high in Need for Competence and the perceived competence of avatars. We asked 287 university students to rate videogame avatars on a variety of dimensions, including warmth and competence, and to also report on their needs. Using multilevel models, we demonstrated that avatars that were perceived as warmer were more likely to be selected than those that were not, and, as predicted, this relationship was stronger for individuals higher in Need for Warmth. Avatars perceived as more competent were also more likely to be chosen than those that were not, but this was not moderated by Need for Competence. Choice of videogame characters is thus partly based on an alignment with some, but not all, psychological needs.
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... Studies have found that tattooed individuals are rated more negatively on several traits (i.e. competence, credibility, creativeness, determination, motivation and trustworthiness; Broussard & Harton, 2018;Degelman & Price, 2002;Seiter & Hatch, 2005) and are also perceived to be more thrill-seeking, more prone to boredom, less inhibited (Wohlrab et al., 2009) and more threatening (Johnson & King, 2017). However, in recent years, studies have shown that not all tattoos are perceived equally. ...
Juror Perceptions of the Stereotypical Violent Crime Defendant
Article
  • Nov 2020
  • PSYCHIAT PSYCHOL LAW
Stereotypes and prejudice have been shown to bias information processing and decision-making. There are physical traits that are stereotypically associated with criminals (i.e. tattoos, dark skin-tone, facial untrustworthiness) and have been shown to influence juror decision-making. The current research aimed to investigate the effects of tattoos, facial trustworthiness and skin tone on juror case judgments and criminal appearance ratings, while also investigating and accounting for prejudice and motivation to respond without prejudice. Participants (n = 426) were asked to act as mock jurors in a hypothetical assault case by making case judgments and responding to appearance and attitude measures. Criminal appearance ratings indirectly mediated the relationship between physical traits and verdict decisions. Additionally, a significant interaction emerged between skin tone and racial prejudice on criminal appearance ratings, suggesting that the effects of physical traits may depend on individual attitudes. Implications and future directions are discussed.
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An Integrative Review of Body Art in Nursing
Article
  • Feb 2022
Background: Schools of nursing and health care facilities frequently have policies prohibiting the visibility of body art (tattoos and piercings). The authors sought to understand literature specific to nursing regarding such policies. Purpose: This integrative review examined literature regarding body art in nursing. Methods: A systematic electronic database search was conducted for publications between 2010 and 2021. Thematic analysis of both empirical studies and nonresearch articles was completed. Results: Thirty articles were analyzed, revealing 3 themes and 8 subthemes related to body art in nursing practice: level of acceptability (subthemes were positive perception, stigmatizing, and personal meaning); professional image (subthemes were appearance matters, policy, and trust and confidence); and infection concern (subthemes were hygiene and contamination). Conclusions: Current understanding from literature regarding body art in nursing was summarized.
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Interweaving of Unique Stories Nested in Flesh: A Perspective Analysis
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2021
The purpose of this study is to critically analyze unique stories nested in flesh to exhaustively help readers and future researchers expand their appreciation and understanding on the expansive value of tattoos, its importance more than the symbols and images shown, and the recurring themes that can often tell you something about the person wearing the tattoo. Moreover, it seeks to understand how those without tattoos think towards those who have one. In this study, the researcher has used the qualitative method among 20 tattooed and 20 non-tattooed students in Talisay City College who were selected randomly. The results of the study show that non-tattooed respondents perceive as less acceptable than those students with tattoos. Most of the tattooed respondents’ motives for having tattoos are for self-identity that tattoos can never be taken away from them as it permanently inked on the skin. Other students see it as self-expression, making them unique in shapes, sizes, and colors. The researcher recommends an orientation-seminar on acceptance and tolerance in order to remove typecasting and value the stories inscribed in flesh.
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Adaptive Significance of Female Physical Attractiveness: Role of Waist-to-Hip Ratio
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 1993
Evidence is presented showing that body fat distribution as measured by waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) is correlated with youthfulness, reproductive endocrinologic status, and long-term health risk in women. Three studies show that men judge women with low WHR as attractive. Study 1 documents that minor changes in WHRs of Miss America winners and Playboy playmates have occurred over the past 30-60 years. Study 2 shows that college-age men find female figures with low WHR more attractive, healthier, and of greater reproductive value than figures with a higher WHR. In Study 3, 25- to 85-year-old men were found to prefer female figures with lower WHR and assign them higher ratings of attractiveness and reproductive potential. It is suggested that WHR represents an important bodily feature associated with physical attractiveness as well as with health and reproductive potential. A hypothesis is proposed to explain how WHR influences female attractiveness and its role in mate selection.
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Buss, David M. 1989. “Sex Differences in Human Mate Preferences: Evolutionary Hypotheses Tested in 37 Cultures.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 1989
  • BEHAV BRAIN SCI
Contemporary mate preferences can provide important clues to human reproductive history. Little is known about which characteristics people value in potential mates. Five predictions were made about sex differences in human mate preferences based on evolutionary conceptions of parental investment, sexual selection, human reproductive capacity, and sexual asymmetries regarding certainty of paternity versus maternity. The predictions centered on how each sex valued earning capacity, ambition— industriousness, youth, physical attractiveness, and chastity. Predictions were tested in data from 37 samples drawn from 33 countries located on six continents and five islands (total N = 10,047). For 27 countries, demographic data on actual age at marriage provided a validity check on questionnaire data. Females were found to value cues to resource acquisition in potential mates more highly than males. Characteristics signaling reproductive capacity were valued more by males than by females. These sex differences may reflect different evolutionary selection pressures on human males and females; they provide powerful cross-cultural evidence of current sex differences in reproductive strategies. Discussion focuses on proximate mechanisms underlying mate preferences, consequences for human intrasexual competition, and the limitations of this study.
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Children's and adolescents' stereotypes of tattooed people as delinquent
Article
  • Jan 2000
Purpose. Tattoos traditionally have been associated with criminality. This study investigates the possibility that children and adolescents may be more likely to associate tattooed than non-tattooed individuals with delinquent attributes. Method. Children aged 6 to 16 years were presented with a series of illustrations of three men (one of whom was tattooed), and in each case were requested to decide which individual best fitted a negative (delinquent), positive (prosocial) or neutral description. Results. Participants revealed a strong bias to associate the tattooed individuals with the negative attributes, but little tendency to associate them with the positive or neutral attributes. There was some evidence of an increase in the bias during middle childhood. Conclusions. Children appear to acquire by at least age 6 strong negative stereotypes of persons with tattoos. This has implications for children's performance as witnesses in certain contexts; it also indicates that young people electing to obtain tattoos are aware of the criminal stigma attached to this form of body marking.
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Bodies of Inscription: A Cultural History of the Modern Tattoo Community
Book
  • Jan 2000
Since the 1980s, tattooing has emerged anew in the United States as a widely appealing cultural, artistic, and social form. In Bodies of Inscription Margo DeMello explains how elite tattooists, magazine editors, and leaders of tattoo organizations have downplayed the working-class roots of tattooing in order to make it more palatable for middle-class consumption. She shows how a completely new set of meanings derived primarily from non-Western cultures has been created to give tattoos an exotic, primitive flavor. Community publications, tattoo conventions, articles in popular magazines, and DeMello's numerous interviews illustrate the interplay between class, culture, and history that orchestrated a shift from traditional Americana and biker tattoos to new forms using Celtic, tribal, and Japanese images. DeMello's extensive interviews reveal the divergent yet overlapping communities formed by this class-based, American-style repackaging of the tattoo. After describing how the tattoo has moved from a mark of patriotism or rebellion to a symbol of exploration and status, the author returns to the predominantly middle-class movement that celebrates its skin art as spiritual, poetic, and self-empowering. Recognizing that the term “community” cannot capture the variations and class conflict that continue to thrive within the larger tattoo culture, DeMello finds in the discourse of tattooed people and their artists a new and particular sense of community and explores the unexpected relationship between this discourse and that of other social movements. This ethnography of tattooing in America makes a substantive contribution to the history of tattooing in addition to relating how communities form around particular traditions and how the traditions themselves change with the introduction of new participants. Bodies of Inscription will have broad appeal and will be enjoyed by readers interested in cultural studies, American studies, sociology, popular culture, and body art.
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Psychometrische Eigenschaften und Normen einer deutschsprachigen Fassung der Sensation-seeking Skalen Form V. [Psychometric Features and Norms of the German Sensation-Seeking Scales, Form V]
Article
  • Apr 2003
Zusammenfassung. Die Sensation Seeking-Skalen, Form V (SSS-V) sind eines der am haufigsten eingesetzten Inventare zur Erfassung von Sensation Seeking. Allerdings wurden immer wieder geringe interne Konsistenzen und Probleme bei der Replikation der Faktorenstruktur, insbesondere fur die Subskalen Experience Seeking und Boredom Susceptibility berichtet. Im Vergleich zu Alternativen hat die SSS-V allerdings den Vorteil einer differenzierteren Erfassung des Konstrukts, weshalb die neueren Inventare sich nicht durchsetzen konnten. Vor dem Hintergrund dieser Situation bestanden die Ziele der vorliegenden Arbeit in der Untersuchung der psychometrischen Eigenschaften einer von Marvin Zuckerman autorisierten deutschsprachigen SSS-V, der Gewinnung von Normen sowie optimierter Personenkennwerte anhand von Faktorwerten. Dazu wurde eine Stichprobe von 1526 Probanden (823 weiblich) im Alter von 16 bis 68 Jahren mit der SSS-V untersucht. Die vierfaktorielle Struktur der SSS-V konnte anhand einer exploratorischen Faktore...
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Demographic influences in sensation seeking and expressions of sensation seeking in religion, smoking and driving habits
Article
  • Dec 1980
  • PERS INDIV DIFFER
A large sample of readers of a popular psychology magazine took the Sensation Seeking Scale (form V) and filled out a personal data form. The information in the data form was used to examine the relationship between SSS scores and demographic and experience variables. Sex and age showed strong relationships with the SSS. Education and occupation of the subjects and their parents showed lesser relationships with the SSS and primarily in females. Non-believers in conventional religion and infrequent church-goers had higher SSS scores than those who identify with such religions and attend church regularly. Smokers had higher scores than non-smokers although the relationship with amount of smoking was not a linear one. Driving habits of speeding related strongly to sensation seeking in a linear fashion.
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Sensation seeking and gonadal hormones
Article
  • Oct 1978
  • J BIOSOC SCI
Two samples of male students (N = 25, and N = 51) and a small sample of female students (N = 7) were administered the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS), and blood samples were drawn on two occasions to determine plasma levels of androgens and oestrogens. Reliable and significant simple and partial correlations were found between the sex hormones and the SSS subscale, Disinhibition. Partial correlations simultaneously controlled for height, weight, age, and recency of orgasm.
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Bodies of Inscription: A Cultural History of the Modern Tattoo Community
Article
  • Jan 2008
  • Vis Anthropol Rev
Bodies of Inscription:. Cultural History of the Modern Tattoo Community. Margo DeMello. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 2000.
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