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LETTERS
PUBLISHED ONLINE: 1 AUGUST 2010 | DOI: 10.1038/NGEO923
Phanerozoic concentrations of atmospheric
oxygen reconstructed from sedimentary charcoal
Ian J. Glasspool
1
*
and Andrew C. Scott
2
Variations of the Earth’s atmospheric oxygen concentration
(pO
2
) are thought to be closely tied to the evolution of
life, with strong feedbacks between uni- and multicellular life
and oxygen
1,2
. On the geologic timescale, pO
2
is regulated
by the burial of organic carbon and sulphur, as well as by
weathering
3
. Reconstructions of atmospheric O
2
for the past
400 million years have therefore been based on geochemical
models of carbon and sulphur cycling
4–6
. However, these
reconstructions vary widely
4–10
, particularly for the Mesozoic
and early Cenozoic eras. Here we show that the abundance
of charcoal in mire settings is controlled by pO
2
, and use
this proxy to reconstruct the concentration of atmospheric
oxygen for the past 400 million years. We estimate that pO
2
was continuously above 26% during the Carboniferous and
Permian periods, and that it declined abruptly around the time
of the Permian–Triassic mass extinction. During the Triassic
and Jurassic periods, pO
2
fluctuated cyclically, with amplitudes
up to 10% and a frequency of 20–30 million years. Atmospheric
oxygen concentrations have declined steadily from the middle
of the Cretaceous period to present-day values of about 21%.
We conclude, however, that variation in pO
2
was not the main
driver of the loss of faunal diversity during the Permo–Triassic
and Triassic–Jurassic mass extinction events.
Fire is an exothermic oxidation reaction dependent on the rapid
combination of fuel and oxygen in the presence of heat
11
. Charcoal
is a by-product of wildfire and is first documented in the latest
Silurian
12,13
, and has subsequently been recorded in all geological
periods from a range of sedimentary settings
14
. Calculation of fuel
flammability at varying oxygen concentrations enables past pO
2
to
be constrained within the range 15–35% (‘fire window’) whenever
charcoal is recovered from the fossil record
11,15,16
. To extrapolate
further and to predict a pO
2
curve from the geological abundance
of charcoal, both sources of heat and fuel must be decoupled
from this relationship.
Lightning is the pre-eminent source of heat for the ignition
of fossil wildfires
17
. Owing to its global frequency (44 ± 5
strikes/second
18
) and proven ‘fossil’ record as fulgurites
19
, it is
unlikely that a lack of lightning could ever have limited fire
initiation. However, through deep time, fuel availability will
have affected the frequency of ignition. All terrestrial vegetation
is potential fuel. As recorded by the occurrence of charcoal
throughout deep time, a source of fuel has been present for at least
419 million years
12
. However, in the fossil record the distribution
of biomass has varied both spatially and temporally. Peat-forming
environments are by definition regions of biomass accumulation. In
this environment, an absence of fire ignition cannot be attributed to
an absence of vegetation.
However, the presence of vegetation need not equate to the
presence of fuel, as vegetation may not be combustible under the
1
Department of Geology, Field Museum of Natural History, 1400 S. Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60605, USA,
2
Department of Earth Sciences, Royal
Holloway University of London, Egham TW20 0EX, UK. *e-mail: iglasspool@fieldmuseum.org.
prevailing environmental conditions. Vegetation is heterogeneous
in composition, where the most important heterogeneity affecting
potential flammability is moisture content
20
. For ignition, fuel must
be heated sufficiently to drive-off moisture and to liberate volatiles
that can be oxidized to generate a self-supporting exothermic
pyrolytic reaction (that is, fire). The greater the moisture content the
less flammable fuel becomes
2,20
. Peat-forming environments were
selected for this study as their formation requires that ‘groundwater
must remain throughout the whole year, above or close to the
ground surface’
21
. Therefore, these are high-moisture environments
that best minimize the potential role of climatic variation on
the accumulation of charcoal deposits through deep time. This
approach is confirmed by data from a range of modern peats
representing divergent ecological settings and vegetation types
(Supplementary Table S1). In these peats (modern–Pleistocene, 21
seams/81 samples), which include environments such as the Florida
Everglades and Kalimantan, where modern fires are frequently doc-
umented, charcoal abundance is consistently low with no sample
containing more than 11.1% (average 4.3%). Even extrapolating to
the past 50 million years, average charcoal abundance is still low
compared with earlier deposits. Of 139 seams (759 samples) from
this interval, only one contains >20% charcoal (26.5%: average
4.8%), 13 contain none and 23 contain <1.0%. Throughout this
interval, global climate and weather have fluctuated markedly,
whereas charcoal abundance demonstrably has not. Therefore,
it can be argued that, by examining charcoal abundance in
peat-forming environments, the impact of moisture content on fuel
ignition, although not eliminated, is greatly restricted.
In the fossil record, peats are preserved as lignites or coals
21
and
because of their economic importance are routinely studied by op-
tical reflectance microscopy. Using this technique, the organic con-
stituents are described in terms of macerals
21
. One maceral group
(inertinite) is almost exclusively considered the by-product of wild-
fires and is synonymous with charcoal
22
. The percentage (by vol-
ume) of inertinite is commonly reported and provides an extensive
record of charcoal abundance
23
. A database of percentage inertinite
abundance in coal (Inert%), calculated on a mineral-matter-free
basis of all ages and geographic distribution, has been compiled
from the literature (Fig. 1a, Supplementary Table S2). Data are
binned to 10-million-year intervals (Supplementary Table S3) to
match existing geochemical models for pO
2
(refs 5–7). The concept
of comparing inertinite with pO
2
is not novel, plots of fusinite and
semifusinite, two inertinite group macerals, having been made
24
.
However, this study did not include data on other, often abundant,
inertinite macerals and made no attempt to predict pO
2
.
To calculate pO
2
from Inert%, the generation of a calibration
curve is required (Fig. 1b). From experiments, wildfire is unsustain-
able at levels of pO
2
≤ 15% (ref. 16), and therefore charcoal will not
be generated (Inert% = 0%). However, as zero values preclude the
NATURE GEOSCIENCE | VOL 3 | SEPTEMBER 2010 | www.nature.com/naturegeoscience 627
© 2010 Macmillan Publishers Limited. All rights reserved.
LETTERS
NATURE GEOSCIENCE DOI: 10.1038/NGEO923
d
Inertinite %
a
c
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
(1)
(2)
(5)
(3)
(4)
b
1/1
5/8
3/26
7/9
3/10
8/18
383/1,196
30/36
27/135
64/144
118/547
47/91
45/87
25/85
1/1
31/31
22/48
5/5
25/29
9/35
12/12
41/90
34/91
52/244
9/47
4/68
17/74
1/4
9/77
70/246
18/53
12/53
62/216
19/20
17/220
42/280
31/133
19/85
300 200 100
Age (Myr)
400 0
100
50
0
30
25
20
pO
2
(%)
35
15
10 20 30 605040
Inert%
070
30
20
10
pO
2
(%)
40
0
300 200 100
Age (Myr)
400 0
300 200 100
Age (Myr)
400 0
30
20
10
pO
2
(%)
40
0
Figure 1 | Phanerozoic inertinite distribution and predictions of pO
2
. a, Inertinite abundance. Line; bin mean. Error bars 1 s.d. from mean. Lower axis;
seams/samples per bin. b, Power-law regressions for conversion of Inert% to pO
2
. Labels refer to equations in main text. c, Biogeochemical predictions of
Phanerozoic pO
2
published to 2009 (refs 4–10). Lines: publication references in key. d, Prediction of pO
2
from Inert%. Line; best estimate based on late
Palaeozoic pO
2
maxima of 30%. Error bars 1 s.d. from mean. Shaded area; estimate of maximum error assuming Phanerozoic pO
2
maxima of 35% + 1 s.d.
(upper margin) and 25% − 1 s.d. (lower margin).
application of most nonlinear trendlines, 0.2% inertinite is adopted,
based on typical coal petrographic counts of ≥500 points, for
maceral analyses
21
(that is one charcoal particle = 0.2%). Modern
pO
2
is 21% and, as discussed above, based on a range of ecolog-
ically, climatically and geographically differing peats, is calculated
to equate to 4.3% inertinite. These two points can be assigned
with some confidence. For calibration, Inert% data at the upper
limit of Phanerozoic pO
2
are required, but prediction of values
at above modern levels must be subjective. However, combustion
research suggests theoretical upper levels of pO
2
from 25% (ref. 2)
to 35% (refs 2,11). Previous research indicates that in the late
Palaeozoic pO
2
exceeded 25% (ref. 15), but owing to increased
plant flammability was less than 35% (refs 2,11). Inert% predictions
use the mean of these values for the late Palaeozoic (pO
2
= 30%).
Although a significant assumption, this value is in accord with other
predictions of the theoretical Phanerozoic maximum
25
.
Independent of fire, mass balance, biogeochemical and carbon
isotopic fractionation models predict maximal Phanerozoic pO
2
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NATURE GEOSCIENCE DOI: 10.1038/NGEO923
LETTERS
during the Permian at ∼30–35% (refs 5,7,26; Fig. 1c). The timing
of these maximal pO
2
data corresponds with the timing of maximal
inertinite abundance (that is Inert% = 44.4% (n = 547) in the
Early Permian (280 Myr)). On this basis we suggest an Inert% of
44.4% can be correlated to 30% pO
2
(derived from theoretical
calculations
25
). This datum is used as the uppermost value necessary
to enable calibration of inertinite abundance against pO
2
.
From these estimations, calibration of pO
2
from Inert% is based
on: 15% pO
2
= 0.2% inertinite, 21% pO
2
= 4.3% inertinite and
30% pO
2
= 44.4% inertinite. From these data, fire and pO
2
are
best described by a power relationship, this regression yielding
the highest R
2
values (30% pO
2
curve: 0.991). However, by using
nonlinear regression a diminished ability to predict variations in
pO
2
above 21% exists. The equation for the calibration curve is:
pO
2
= 18.113x(Inert%
0.1273
) or y = c
∗
(x
∧
b) (1)
where:
c = EXP(INDEX(LINEST(LN(y),LN(x),,),1,2))
b = INDEX(LINEST(LN(y),LN(x),,),1)
The error in the mean inertinite data is plotted to one standard
deviation (s.d.) (Fig. 1a). This error is fed-back into the calibration
to generate two further error curves for the 30% pO
2
assessment
(Fig. 1b, Supplementary Fig. S1).
pO
2
= 19.293x(Inert%
0.1376
) or y = c
∗
(x
∧
b) (2)
pO
2
= 17.723x(Inert%
0.1185
) or y = c
∗
(x
∧
b) (3)
Error bars in Fig. 1d (Supplementary Table S4) represent the
impact of these curves on pO
2
estimation. In addition, to provide
a crude assessment of the maximum variation in pO
2
predictions,
assuming late Palaeozoic pO
2
highs had fallen in the range 25% or
35%, two further calibration curves are plotted (Fig. 1b, shading in
Fig. 1d). The first is based on assumptions of a late Palaeozoic pO
2
high of 25% calibrated against Inert% − 1 s.d.
pO
2
= 18.633x(Inert%
0.0985
) or y = c
∗
(x
∧
b) (4)
where: late Palaeozoic pO
2
= 25%.
The second is based on a late Palaeozoic pO
2
high of 35%
calibrated against Inert% + 1 s.d.
pO
2
= 17.998x(Inert%
0.1427
) or y = c
∗
(x
∧
b)
(5)
where: late Palaeozoic pO
2
= 35%.
As with previous predictions
5,9
(Fig. 1c), our data indicate a
marked rise in pO
2
within a 30-million-year interval following the
growth of the Middle–Late Devonian forests. Following the Early
Mississippian, pO
2
remained at or above 26% until the Mesozoic,
data that are in accord with predictions based on floral carbon
isotopic fractionation
26
. The apparent Pennsylvanian decline is
considered an artefact resulting from the unique morphology of the
dominant arborescent lycopsid coal-forming vegetation and their
ecology. These lycopsids were morphologically distinct from plants
that subsequently dominated this setting and were both highly
fire resistant
27
and grew predominantly in rheotrophic settings
(that is, mires with flowing water) without significant litter layers.
Therefore, fires were probably constrained to the canopy and
produced comparatively little charcoal.
During the Early Permian pO
2
reached a Phanerozoic maximum
of ∼29%. Inert% predicts a bimodal pO
2
distribution in the
Permian, similar to previous modelling
9
. Although these data
suggest a Middle Permian decline in pO
2
they do not indicate
hypoxia as a contributing factor in the end Guadalupian
(∼260 Myr) mass-extinction event
28
. Similarly, examination of
Changhsingian (253.8–251 Myr) age coals indicates abundant
charcoal within the last 2.8 million years of the Permian
(average 38.9%; Supplementary Table S2). Therefore, irrespective
of the Changhsingian onset of the Early Triassic superanoxic
event
29
, pO
2
must have remained elevated until at least the very
end of the Permian. It is noteworthy that in using 10-million-year
binning, Late Permian data plot at 250 Myr immediately following
the Permo–Triassic mass-extinction.
During the Mesozoic, Inert% predicts greater pO
2
volatility than
other models
5,9
and indicates almost cyclic fluctuations until the
Late Cretaceous. As early as the Middle Triassic, pO
2
is indicated
to have declined to its lowest level throughout the Phanerozoic
(∼18.5%). However, the timing of this event is obscure, as no Early
Triassic coals exist
23
, and although the decline in this interval may
have been even more abrupt and extreme, no data exist to test
this hypothesis either.
Among the predicted fluctuations, it is worth highlighting
elevated pO
2
through the Triassic–Jurassic mass-extinction, an
abrupt decline during the Toarcian (183–175.6 Myr) and elevated
levels from the late Middle Jurassic into the earliest Cretaceous.
Analysis of Mist Mountain Formation (150.8–140.2 Myr) coals
(n = 56) shows those in the basal 250 m contain more than double
the inertinite (45.5%) of those above (23.0%) (Supplementary
Table S5). Inert% data from unequivocal Early Cretaceous (145.5 to
∼121 Myr) coals are sparse, but those from the Bickford Formation
(n = 37, Supplementary Table S6) in particular suggest depressed
pO
2
immediately following the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary, with
levels rising rapidly thereafter.
Late Early Cretaceous coals (late Aptian (∼121–112 Myr))
(Supplementary Table S2) indicate rising pO
2
, a trend that
continued through the Albian–Cenomanian (112–93.5 Myr), when
a Mesozoic maximum of 29% is predicted. This was the last interval
when pO
2
was at such elevated levels. It is noteworthy that many
charred flowers have been recovered from this interval, and it has
been speculated that fire, as an agent of environmental disturbance,
played a role in the early evolution of angiosperms
30
.
From the earliest Late Cretaceous, a gradual stepped decline in
pO
2
to ∼24% 50 Myr is predicted. This fundamental petrographic
difference between Cenozoic and older coals has been recognized
previously
21
, but no explanation has been given. Over the past
40 million years pO
2
seems to have been relatively constant at
∼21–22%, roughly equivalent to modern levels.
Charcoal abundance in mire settings documents the rise of
pO
2
following the diversification of early land plants and its
subsequent fluctuations throughout the Phanerozoic. From the
best estimate curve, these fluctuations are more frequent than
previously predicted, particularly during the Triassic and Jurassic,
when 20–30 million year cyclicity is detected. These data suggest an
important role for fire as a major Earth system process
13
but also
indicate that the governing feedbacks are not yet fully understood.
Although large amplitude shifts are calculated, fire activity indicates
that low pO
2
events did not drive catastrophic faunal diversity loss in
either the Permo–Triassic or the Triassic–Jurassic mass-extinction
events. Instead, charcoal indicates that pO
2
remained elevated until
at least the latest Permian, and declined precipitously only in the
Early Triassic. Similarly, earliest Jurassic charcoal data indicate
that pO
2
was not low but rather was elevated to levels among the
highest of the Phanerozoic.
Methods
For this study, two coal samples were collected and analysed for maceral
composition. The L’Anse-à-Brillant coal from Tar Point, Gaspé, Canada is of
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LETTERS
NATURE GEOSCIENCE DOI: 10.1038/NGEO923
Emsian age. The South Tancrediakløft coal from Jamesonland, Greenland is of
very basal Hettangian age. The coals were embedded in polyester resin and counted
following established protocols
20
. Maceral counts were assessed from 500 points of
data, including mineral matter.
Maceral data from the literature, used to determine Inert%, were included
in this analysis only where the inclusion/exclusion of mineral matter was clear.
All data were standardized to a mineral-matter-free basis. With three exceptions,
coals whose stratigraphic resolution was greater than 15 million years were
excluded (for example, Taiyuan formation = Kasimovian–Sakmarian). The
three samples included in the database derive from poorly sampled stratigraphic
intervals where they represent the only data: Givetian–Frasnian (Weatherall–Hecla
Bay–Beverley Inlet formations) and the Anisian-Carnian (Basin Creek and
Mungaroo formations).
Where not tabulated or stated in the text, data were measured from
graphics by pasting the image into CorelDRAW and overlaying guidelines to
obtain exact measurements of data point positions (data are highlighted in
Supplementary Table S2). Preference was given to literature citing named seams.
Where multiple references provide data from one seam, these data were averaged
and all references cited.
Received 10 February 2010; accepted 1 July 2010; published online
1 August 2010
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Acknowledgements
We thank the Grainger Fund at FMNH for financial support, and acknowledge R. A.
Berner, W. G. Chaloner and A. J. Watson for helpful discussions. The work of A.C.S. is
financially supported by private charitable donations.
Author contributions
I.J.G. and A.C.S. designed the research. I.J.G. gathered, compiled and interpreted data
and A.C.S. contributed data. I.J.G. wrote the paper with additions by A.C.S.
Additional information
The authors declare no competing financial interests. Supplementary information
accompanies this paper on www.nature.com/naturegeoscience. Reprints and permissions
information is available online at http://npg.nature.com/reprintsandpermissions.
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to I.J.G.
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