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Original Article
Effects of Brief and Sham Mindfulness Meditation
on Mood and Cardiovascular Variables
Fadel Zeidan, PhD,
1
Susan K. Johnson, PhD,
2
Nakia S. Gordon, PhD,
2
and Paula Goolkasian, PhD
2
Abstract
Objectives: Although long-term meditation has been found to reduce negative mood and cardiovascular vari-
ables, the effects of a brief mindfulness meditation intervention when compared to a sham mindfulness meditation
intervention are relatively unknown. This experiment examined whether a 3-day (1-hour total) mindfulness or
sham mindfulness meditation intervention would improve mood and cardiovascular variables when compared to
a control group.
Methods: Eighty-two (82) undergraduate students (34 males, 48 females), with no prior meditation experience,
participated in three sessions that involved training in either mindfulness meditation, sham mindfulness
meditation, or a control group. Heart rate, blood pressure, and psychologic variables (Profile of Mood States,
State Anxiety Inventory) were assessed before and after the intervention.
Results: The meditation intervention was more effective at reducing negative mood, depression, fatigue, con-
fusion, and heart rate, when compared to the sham and control groups.
Conclusions: These results indicate that brief meditation training has beneficial effects on mood and cardio-
vascular variables that go beyond the demand characteristics of a sham meditation intervention.
Introduction
Meditation training has been associated with positive
effects on health and cognition.
1–12
Mindfulness med-
itation, specifically, is based on focusing on the flow of the
breath, while allowing discursive thoughts to ‘‘simply pass.’’
13
Mindfulness meditation teaches the individual to appraise
everyday life events in a manner that does not initiate nega-
tive stress responses.
14
The majority of meditation research examines individuals
with extensive training or participants in Mindfulness Based
Stress Reduction (MBSR) programs.
5
MBSR requires con-
siderable expense, a trained facilitator, a day of silent retreat,
and takes approximately 8 weeks to complete. Researchers
have also examined adept meditators.
1,2,4
Studying adept
meditators has contributed immensely to understanding
changes in attention, emotion regulation, and the concomi-
tant neural activity in the brain. However, the current liter-
ature does not speak directly to those who do not have the
time or ability for such commitments. If brief training could
promote well-being, then the benefits of meditation may
reach a wider audience.
The few studies that have examined brief meditation
training report positive results on a variety of outcomes.
15–17
Lane and colleagues
15
utilized a mantra-based meditation in
four 1-hour sessions, and found reductions on negative
mood and stress. Research in our laboratory has found that 3
days of mindfulness meditation training significantly re-
duced pain ratings and sensitivity when compared to other
cognitive manipulations.
17
Tang and colleagues
16
found that
five training sessions on integrative body-mind training was
effective in improving cognitive functioning, and in de-
creasing negative mood and stress-related cortisol levels.
Research suggests that mindfulness meditation’s benefits
may be associated with stress reduction,
18,19
enhanced cog-
nitive control,
1
and/or emotion regulation.
4
However,
meditation’s positive effects may also be associated with
time spent with the facilitator, and/or with demand char-
acteristics. By including an intervention that resembles
meditation and labeling such training as a mindfulness
meditation intervention, we attempted to distinguish the
effects of anxiety ratings, facilitator attention, and expecta-
tions from the cognitive focus of mindfulness.
It is well established that elevated blood pressure (BP) is
associated with cardiovascular disease.
19,20
Interestingly,
long-term meditation practice has been shown to reduce heart
rate (HR) and BP.
18–23
The hypothesized mechanism by which
meditation has this effect is by inducing a feeling of relaxation,
1
Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC.
2
Department of Psychology, The University of North Carolina, Charlotte, NC.
THE JOURNAL OF ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY MEDICINE
Volume 16, Number 8, 2010, pp. 1–7
ªMary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/acm.2009.0321
1
which decreases physiological arousal.
18–23
To this extent, we
examined whether 3 days of mindfulness meditation training
would improve cardiovascular variables. We were also in-
terested in whether this brief mindfulness training would
improve mood, since meditation training is associated with
decreased negative mood.
24,25
We did not expect that 3 days
of mindfulness training would decrease reports of depression,
fatigue, or vigor. We expected that improvements in depres-
sion would require longer meditative practice.
26
We hypoth-
esized that both the mindfulness and sham meditation group
would exhibit decreases in state anxiety, because breathing
exercises have been found to reduce anxiety.
5,27
Methods
Participants
Participants were student volunteers recruited through the
Psychology Department subject pool. The students responded
to a study that requested volunteers who were interested in
learning how to meditate and who did not have any prior
experience with meditation. Eighty-eight (88) students vo-
lunteered for the study, and 82 (sham ¼27; meditation ¼29;
control ¼26) completed all three sessions of their respective
interventions. Data from the 6 students who did not complete
all three sessions were not included. The median age for the
participants was 19 years. Forty-eight (48) women and 34 men
(white ¼60%, African American ¼23%, Hispanic ¼4%,
other ¼3%, Asian ¼3%, Native American ¼3%) completed
the study. The protocol was approved by the University in-
stitutional review board. Table 1 compares the participants in
each of the three groups on demographic variables and all of
the baseline measures collected in the study.
Interventions
The three groups underwent 3 consecutive days of train-
ing for 20 minutes a day. All of the groups included 5–8
participants and met in the same room at approximately the
same time of day.
Mindfulness meditation. Mindfulness training was mod-
eled on basic Vipassana meditation skills.
13
Training was
conducted by a facilitator with 8 years of training in mind-
fulness meditation interventions. Meditators were not asked
to complete meditation homework, or practice outside of the
intervention setting, contrary to the standard practice in
MBSR. Participants were told that the mindfulness inter-
vention had no religious teachings associated with it.
In session 1, small groups of 5–8 participants sat in chairs,
and were instructed to close their eyes and relax. They were
then instructed to focus on the flow of their breath.
13
If a
random thought arose, they were told to passively notice
and acknowledge the thought and to simply let ‘‘it’’ go, by
bringing the attention back to the sensations of the breath.
The last 7 minutes of session 1 were held in silence, so that
the participants could effectively practice mindfulness med-
itation. In session 2, the facilitator instructed participants to
focus on the ‘‘full breath,’’ (sensations in the nostrils and
abdomen); the last 7 minutes of session 2 were held in si-
lence. Session 3 was an extension of sessions 1 and 2. As a
manipulation check, each subject was asked, individually, ‘‘if
they felt that they were truly meditating’’ after each medi-
tation session. Every subject responded with a ‘‘yes’’ to this
question across all sessions.
Sham mindfulness meditation. The main purpose of the
sham mindfulness meditation group was to examine whether
breathing exercises and believing that one is meditating would
affect outcome variables. The same facilitator conducted both
the sham and the mindfulness meditation intervention. The
sham group was introduced to mindfulness meditation in the
same manner as the meditation group. Sham meditation in-
struction was based on breathing exercises and reiterating the
notion that they were meditating. In each session, the partici-
pants were told, approximately every 2–3 minutes, to ‘‘take
deep breaths as we sit in meditation.’’ We matched time spent
giving instructions in the sham meditation intervention to the
mindfulness intervention. The last 7 minutes of each session
were held in silence to replicate the meditation group’s ses-
sions. This intervention differed notably from the mindfulness
training because participants were not given the guided in-
structions (e.g., focusing on the flow of the breath) imperative
for mindfulness meditation. As a manipulation check, after
each session, participants were asked, individually, if they felt
that they were truly meditating. Every subject in this group
answered ‘‘yes’’ to this question.
Table 1. Group Comparison on Baseline Scores for Each of the Measured Variables
Sham Meditation Controls F/w
2*
p
Baseline mean (SD)
Age 20 (2.54) 21 (5.64) 21 (3.71) 0.25* 0.78
White 67% 72% 39% 18.18* 0.11
Female 56% 72% 56% 4.04* 0.13
SBP 119.04 (16.33)
a
134.14 (22.44)
b
127.81 (22.74)
b
3.73 0.03
DBP 62.93 (9.27)
a
67.89 (11.49)
b
71.81 (12.74)
b
4.16 0.02
HR 77.44 (12.25) 73.90 (15.52) 68.96 (10.94) 2.78 0.07
SAI 40.19 (10.80) 40.93 (8.42) 35.19 (10.46) 2.65 0.08
POMS 32.56 (28.22) 35.55 (29.46) 23.69 (32.71) 1.13 0.33
*Chi-square.
a,b
Means having the same superscript are not significantly different at p<0.05.
df, 2,64.
SD, standard deviation; SBP, systolic blood pressure; DBP, diastolic blood pressure; HR, heart rate; SAI, State Anxiety Inventory; POMS,
Profile of Mood States (total).
2 ZEIDAN ET AL.
Control group. The purpose of the control group was to
compare the mindfulness and sham meditation groups to a
nonmanipulated group that met for the same time period.
Control group participants also believed that they were
registering for a mindfulness intervention. However, the
participants met for 3 consecutive days and were told to sit
in a chair for 20 minutes each session. They were allowed to
speak to each other, but not permitted to do homework or
fall asleep.
Materials
The Profile of Mood States (POMS)
The POMS
28
is a 65-item inventory that measures psy-
chologic distress by rating adjective like statements (e.g., I
feel calm) on a Likert scale (0–4). The POMS consists of six
subscales: tension, depression, confusion, fatigue, anger, and
vigor. The POMS was used to compare group differences
from baseline.
The State/Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)
The State Anxiety Inventory (SAI)
29
is a 20-item subscale
of the STAI. The SAI has been reported to exhibit high
internal consistency (Cronbach aof 0.73). We adminis-
tered the SAI because previous research found that both
meditation practice and relaxation training decrease state
anxiety.
8,14
Cardiovascular ratings
The Dinamap 5000 was used to measure changes in HR
and BP. An arm cuff was placed around each participant’s
nondominant arm. Cardiovascular variables were assessed
before and immediately after sessions 1 and 3. Arm cuffs
were left on during each session’s respective intervention, in
order to reduce disruption.
Procedure
The experiment was run in 12 weeks across two college
semesters. Students were assigned to groups based on the
week that they signed up for the study, but each student
expected to be engaged in meditation. Each week a different
intervention was run and interventions were randomly as-
signed to weeks. Each of the interventions met on the same
days of the week at the same time of day. In session 1, the
participants completed the SAI, POMS, and cardiovascular
assessments, followed by a 20-minute intervention. After the
intervention, participants completed the SAI and cardiovas-
cular assessments to conclude session 1. In session 2, par-
ticipants completed the SAI prior to and following the
intervention. In session 3, the participants completed the SAI,
cardiovascular assessments before the intervention, and all of
the measures after the intervention. Sham and control group
participants were also invited to participate in a meditation
training following the completion of the experiment, but they
all declined.
Statistical Analyses
Statistical Package for Social Sciences was used to conduct
all statistical analyses. Scores from each of the participants on
the POMS, SAI, and cardiovascular measures were analyzed
with separate mixed analysis of variances (ANOVA) to test
for the between-group effect of intervention training and the
within-group effect of baseline/postintervention training.
Because of the unequal group sizes, type III sums of squares
were used to calculate the Fvalues. Significant interaction
terms were examined with simple effects tests to determine
the source of the interaction. A significance level of 0.05 was
used for all statistical tests.
Results
Demographic information and baseline scores for all
measured variables are presented for each group in Table 1.
Significant group differences were not apparent on any of the
demographic (age, gender, ethnicity), or baseline measures
except for systolic and diastolic BP. The sham mindfulness
meditation group exhibited lower systolic and diastolic BP at
baseline, when compared to the other groups.
POMS
The total POMS scores for each of the groups are pre-
sented in Figure 1. To assess hypothesized differences be-
tween groups on total negative mood, total POMS scores
were analyzed with a mixed ANOVA. There was a signifi-
cant decline in total POMS scores across session,
F(1,79) ¼35.19, p<0.01, Z
2
¼0.31, and the session effect
varied by group, F(2,79) ¼5.62, p<0.01, Z
2
¼0.13. In order to
examine which intervention was more effective in improving
overall mood, a simple effects test measured pre/post dif-
ferences in each group. The tests showed a significant decline
in total negative mood for all of the groups. However, ex-
amination of the effect sizes revealed that the meditation
intervention, F(1, 28) ¼29.81, p<0.01, Z
2
¼0.52, had the
strongest effect on reducing negative mood when compared
to the sham, F(1, 26) ¼5.06, p¼0.03, Z
2
¼0.16, and control
groups, F(1, 25) ¼5.21, p¼0.03, Z
2
¼0.17.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Three
Total POMS
Sham
Meditation
Control
One
Session
FIG. 1. Mean scores on the total Profile of Mood States
(POMS) with 95% confidence scales for the meditation
(n¼29), sham meditation (n¼27), and control (n¼26)
groups on baseline and postintervention measurements.
EFFECTS OF BRIEF AND SHAM MEDITATION ON MOOD 3
An ANOVA was also conducted to assess differences
across groups on each subscale of the POMS from before and
after the interventions. The ANOVA included the POMS
subscale scores as an additional repeated-measures variable.
The subscale scores showed a significant decline after inter-
vention training when compared to baseline scores, F(1,
79) ¼48.03, p<0.01, Z
2
¼0.38; and the baseline/post-
intervention differences interacted with group, F(2,
79) ¼7.61, p<0.01, Z
2
¼0.16; and with the subscale scores,
F(5, 395) ¼7.13, p<0.01, Z
2
¼0.08. There was also a main
effect of the subscale scores, F(5, 395) ¼43.81, p<0.01,
Z
2
¼0.38. There was not a significant subscale by session by
group interaction, F(10,395) ¼1.28, p¼0.24. To understand
the interaction effects and to answer the primary questions
for this experiment, follow-up analyses were conducted
separately on each of the POMS subscales. For these analy-
ses, we were interested in whether the group with medita-
tion training would show a greater change in mood state in
comparison to the other two groups.
For four of the subscales (tension, depression, fatigue, and
confusion), the analyses showed significant intervention
group by baseline/postintervention interactions: tension,
F(2,79) ¼3.07, p¼0.05, Z
2
¼0.07, depression, F(2, 79) ¼4.35,
p¼0.02, Z
2
¼0.10, fatigue, F(2, 79) ¼6.82, p<0.01, Z
2
¼0.15,
and confusion, F(2, 79) ¼4.93, p<0.01, Z
2
¼0.11. Figure 2
plots these interactions together with 95% confidence inter-
vals. It is clear from this figure that the meditation group, in
comparison to the other two groups, showed the largest drop
in scores on each of these negative mood subscales. It is also
evident from Figure 2 that sham group performance on each
of these POMS subscales was similar to the control group
rather than the meditation group. For the remaining two
subscales, the intervention group by testing interaction was
not significant: anger F(2, 79) ¼2.91, p¼0.06, Z
2
¼0.07, and
vigor, F<1.
SAI
Group SAI scores were taken before and after the inter-
vention training, in each session, to measure changes in state
anxiety for the meditation and sham meditation groups
(Table 2). Four (4) cases are missing due to procedural errors
(1 from the meditation group, and 3 from the controls). An
ANOVA revealed that each session’s pre- and post-SAI
scores significantly decreased, F(1,75) ¼113.97, p<0.01,
Z
2
¼0.60, and the pre/post effect interacted with group, F(2,
75) ¼18.44, p<0.01, Z
2
¼0.33. The meditation and sham
meditation SAI scores significantly decreased for each ses-
sion. The control group did not show any pre/post change.
There was no main effect of group, F<1, or session, F<1,
but group interacted with session, F(4,150) ¼4.79, p<0.01,
Z
2
¼0.11 and in a three-way effect with pre/post interven-
tion, F(4,150) ¼2.98, p¼0.02, Z
2
¼0.07. This finding was due
to no change in the control group on state anxiety on any of
the sessions.
HR and BP
During sessions 1 and 3, HR and BP scores were taken at
the beginning and the end of the session. Those data are
summarized in Figure 3 (HR) and Tables 3 (systolic BP) and
4 (diastolic BP) (data from 2 of the control participants
are missing because of procedural errors). HR was found
to decrease significantly at the end of each session,
F(1,77) ¼42.08, p<0.01, Z
2
¼0.35, and the before/after dif-
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
One
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Control
Meditation
Sham
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Tension Score
Depression Score
Fatigue Score
Confusion
Three One Three
One Three One Three
Session Session
Control
Meditation
Sham
Control
Meditation
Sham
Control
Meditation
Sham
FIG. 2. Mean scores on the subscales of the Profile of Mood States with 95% confidence intervals for the meditation (n¼29),
sham meditation (n¼27), and control (n¼26) groups on baseline and postintervention measurements.
4 ZEIDAN ET AL.
ference in HR varied by group, F(2, 77) ¼3.57, p¼0.03,
Z
2
¼0.09. Follow-up simple effect tests found that the
mindfulness meditation group showed the strongest effect
size in assessing the before/after difference, F(1,28) ¼29.87,
p<0.01, Z
2
¼0.52, when compared to sham mindfulness,
F(1,26) ¼14.87, p<0.01, Z
2
¼0.36, and controls,
F(1,25) ¼7.64, p¼0.01, Z
2
¼0.23. Before/after difference also
varied by session, F(1, 77) ¼7.29, p<0.01, Z
2
¼0.09, because
of an unexpected increase in HR when participants were
tested before session 3. This effect was also demonstrated by
an increase in average HR for session 3 when compared to
session 1, F(1,77) ¼16.53, p<0.01, Z
2
¼0.18.
Systolic BP (Table 3) was also found to decrease from the
beginning to the end of the session, F(1,77) ¼40.58, p<0.01,
Z
2
¼0.35; and across sessions, F(1,77) ¼6.64, p¼0.01,
Z
2
¼0.08. There was also a significant main effect of group,
F(2,77) ¼4.86, p¼0.01, Z
2
¼0.11. Post hoc (least significant
difference [LSD]) tests ( p<0.05) show that systolic BP is
higher in the meditation group than in the other 2 groups.
Means for the sham, meditation, and control groups are as
follows; 113, 126, and 119. The initial group differences in
systolic BP were maintained throughout the sessions. There
was no session by group interaction, or a pre/post by session
effect, Fs<1. There was also no pre/post by session by
group interaction, F(2, 77) ¼1.77, p¼0.18.
The analysis on diastolic BP (Table 4) also found a main
effect for group, F(2,77) ¼4.85, p ¼0.01, Z
2
¼0.11. Post hoc
(LSD) tests ( p<0.05) show that diastolic BP was lower for
the sham group in comparison to the controls and the
meditators. Means for the sham, meditation, and control
groups are as follows; 63, 68, and 73. However, the group
difference was not found to interact with any of the other
variables and there were no other main effects found in the
analysis on diastolic BP.
Discussion
This study compared the efficacy of a brief mindfulness
meditation intervention to a sham meditation intervention
and control group on mood and cardiovascular variables.
Greater changes were found in distressed mood and HR for
the brief meditation intervention when compared to the
sham meditation and control interventions. This study sug-
gests that brief mindfulness meditation training is effective in
promoting self-regulation and improving heart rate, results
consistently found in long-term practitioners.
3–5
The meditation group showed an 88% drop in negative
mood compared to the 32% drop shown by the sham group
and 34% by the control group. Additionally, both meditation
and sham meditation reduced tension, although mindfulness
meditation was more effective. In an unexpected finding,
mindfulness meditation training alone reduced depression
ratings; a finding consistent with studies involving extensive
meditation training.
19
Mindfulness meditation also de-
creased fatigue ratings, suggesting that the immediate effects
of mindfulness meditation promote feelings of rest. The
meditation group was also the only condition to reliably
reduce reports on the confusion subscale. Other studies have
reported enhanced attention and information processing in
meditators,
16
but not after such a brief intervention. These
improvements on the POMS may be associated with the
ability to objectively appraise negative feelings. Overall, the
results provide evidence that brief mental training is effective
at promoting changes in acute mood states.
The reduction in HR from before to after the interven-
tion for the mindfulness meditation group suggests that
brief meditation practice may also promote cardiovascular
Table 2. Means and Standard Deviations for Control, Mindfulness,
and Sham Meditation Groups on State Anxiety Inventory
Control Meditation Sham
Pre
a
Post
a
Pre
b
Post
b
Pre
c
Post
c
M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
Session 1 35.19 10.47 36.0 12.41 40.93 8.47 31.66 7.25 40.19 10.80 29.41 6.34
Session 2 35.88 10.37 33.48 10.49 40.34 8.71 28.89 7.45 38.41 7.49 31.04 6.13
Session 3 33.15 8.52 32.32 9.27 37.14 9.00 29.28 6.72 42.81 9.58 35.85 9.17
Session 1, State Anxiety Inventory session 1; Session 2, State Anxiety Inventory session 2; Session 3, State Anxiety Inventory session 3.
a
n¼26.
b
n¼29.
c
n¼27.
M, mean; SD, standard deviation.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Before After
Control
Meditation
Sham
Heart Rate
FIG. 3. Mean heart rate scores with 95% confidence intervals
for the interaction of group by before/after the intervention.
EFFECTS OF BRIEF AND SHAM MEDITATION ON MOOD 5
improvement. Although there were group differences in BP,
there was no evidence they were a result of the interventions
that were under study. Researchers have found improve-
ments in cardiovascular variables for long-term mindfulness
practice.
5
Our findings suggest that the effects on BP are not
realized after brief training, or perhaps the effects of brief
training are evidenced only when participants are placed
under stress in an experimental paradigm.
These findings also demonstrated the necessity of com-
paring meditation training to a sham meditation interven-
tion. Such a comparison allowed us to tease apart the
components of meditation, including the belief in medita-
tion’s palliative effects. For example, tension and state anxi-
ety levels improved for both the sham and meditation
groups. However, greater improvements in overall mood
and HR demonstrate the effects of brief mindfulness training
beyond the effects of a sham mindfulness intervention.
Therefore, the inclusion of a sham mindfulness meditation
group helps distinguish between the effects of relaxed
breathing and the belief that one is meditating with the
cognitive practice of mindfulness. We suggest that incorpo-
rating sham meditation interventions provides a reliable
comparison to meditation training.
Our results with respect to changes in cardiovascular
variables were modest and limited to changes in HR. A
possible reason for that may be because there was not a
stress manipulation in the experiment. It is possible that brief
training effects require high levels of stress in order to show
benefits. The interpretation of these findings also needs to be
tempered because of the group differences on ethnicity. Al-
though not statistically significant, there were fewer whites
in the control group, when compared to the other groups.
Another limitation of these findings is that they are only
generalizable to a healthy undergraduate population inter-
ested in meditation, which may also have contributed to the
lack of changes in BP for the meditation group. However, all
groups were exposed to the same instructions upon regis-
tering for the experiment, and groups were randomly as-
signed to interventions. Moreover, the fact that the same
facilitator ran both sham and mindfulness meditation groups
raises possibility of experimenter bias. However, the goal of
the sham meditation group was to promote the feeling that
they were actually meditating, without teaching mindfulness
skills. The reductions in anxiety ratings for the meditation
and sham meditation group, but not the controls, as well as
our manipulation check suggest that we met this goal.
Baseline group differences in BP are a limiting factor. Al-
though not significant, there were fewer whites in the control
group, and higher HR and anxiety in the mindfulness group,
when compared to the other groups. These differences are
puzzling and will be a subject for future research projects.
Conclusions
A brief meditation intervention was effective in reducing
overall negative mood including depression, tension, fatigue,
confusion, anxiety, and lowering HR when compared to the
sham meditation and control groups. Sham meditation was
effective in significantly reducing state anxiety and tension.
Comparisons with a sham meditation group are an effective
way of controlling for the demand characteristics associated
with meditation practice in experimental trials. This study
demonstrated the efficacy of brief mindful training above
and beyond the demand characteristics of a sham meditation
condition. Moreover, our findings suggest that the benefits
of the mindfulness meditation technique can be realized
immediately after a brief training regimen. However, it is still
unclear whether brief mindfulness meditation intervention
Table 3. Means and Standard Deviations for Control, Mindfulness,
and Sham Meditation Groups on Systolic Blood Pressure
Control Meditation Sham
Pre
a
Post
a
Pre
b
Post
b
Pre
c
Post
c
M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)
Session1 127.81 (22.74) 119.04(24.35) 134.14(22.44) 125.59(18.56) 119.04(16.33) 110.59(12.39)
Session 3 121.44 (18.5) 114.33(21.86) 128.90(12.97) 115.86(24.96) 113.11(13.32) 110.33(13.23)
a
n¼26.
b
n¼29.
c
n¼27.
M, mean; SD, standard deviation.
Table 4. Means and Standard Deviations for Control, Mindfulness,
and Sham Meditation Groups on Diastolic Blood Pressure
Control Meditation Sham
Pre
a
Post
a
Pre
b
Post
b
Pre
c
Post
c
M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)
Session 1 67.50 (11.67) 67.78 (11.47) 67.90 (11.49) 68.24 (9.06) 62.93 (9.27) 62.52 (8.36)
Session 3 69.64 (15.13) 67.11 (10.15) 69.07 (11.20) 67.10 (9.93) 64.63 (8.11) 63.26 (8.70)
a
n¼26.
b
n¼29.
c
n¼27.
M, mean; SD, standard deviation.
6 ZEIDAN ET AL.
training can benefit clinical patient populations. Clinical re-
search is required to explore the effects of brief mindfulness
meditation training on health.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge Susan Helfrich-
Avett and Adam Burch for their assistance on this project.
Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist.
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Address correspondence to:
Fadel Zeidan, PhD
Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy
Wake Forest University School of Medicine
Medical Center Boulevard
Winston-Salem, NC 27157
E-mail: fzeidan@wfubmc.edu
EFFECTS OF BRIEF AND SHAM MEDITATION ON MOOD 7
