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Combating wildlife crime

DOI:10.1007/s12024-010-9179-4
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Linzi Wilson-Wilde at National Institute of Forensic Science
Linzi Wilson-Wilde
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EDITORIAL
Combating wildlife crime
Linzi Wilson-Wilde
Published online: 22 July 2010
ÓSpringer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010
It is with great pleasure that I introduce this special edition
dedicated to wildlife crime. Wildlife crime is an important
area of law enforcement that I have a strong commitment
to. It involves the illegal trade in animals, plants and their
derivatives and can result in the depletion of natural
resources, invasion of pest species and the transmission of
diseases. For the first time an international journal has
dedicated an entire edition to the issue of wildlife crime,
bringing together submissions from numerous global
experts regarding their work in this area. The aim of this
initiative is to generate attention to this significant criminal
activity.
The current global situation is summarized and dis-
cussed in the commentary by Wilson-Wilde [1]. In a
positive move, international action is becoming more
coordinated and an overview of the 2009 INTERPOL
Wildlife Crime Group meeting in Brazil is presented in the
commentary by Neme [2].
At the international level there are 175 signatories to the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) [3]. CITES provides a
system of control to inhibit the exploitation of animals and
plants and prevent trade from threatening the extinction of
endangered species. Fauna and flora are listed on one of the
three Appendices of CITES. Appendix I lists species where
international trade is prohibited (exceptions are made for
non-commercial purposes, such as scientific research),
Appendix II lists species where international trade is reg-
ulated in circumstances where the trade does not endanger
the survival of the species and Appendix III lists species
where international trade is regulated at the request of a
particular country (for example Uruguay has listed the
eleven banded armadillo). Paramount to the enforcement of
CITES and the subsequent prosecution of offenders is the
ability to identify the species in question. Alacs et al. [4]
provide an excellent review of genetic DNA analysis
methods used in the forensic investigation of wildlife
crime, covering various available techniques that can be
applied and techniques that have potential for future
application. Tobe and Linacre take this a step further
investigating the use of DNA techniques in mixed samples
from more than one species [5] and Spencer et al. [6]
extend DNA techniques to the analysis of historical and
degraded samples with much success.
Offenders of wildlife crime can be categorized into three
main groups; minor offenders, organized illegal trading and
serious major criminal activity [7]. Minor offenders gen-
erally relate to abuses against conditions in permits and are
more opportunistic types of crime. These offenders are
usually tracked through inadequate record keeping and
generally involve exchanges between wildlife collectors.
Organized illegal trading moves into the realms of delib-
erate clandestine poaching with intent to make gain and
meet the needs of the market. It requires planning and can
threaten wildlife, with no consideration of their habitat, for
monetary gain in selling specimens on the black market.
Serious major criminal activity differs from the latter in
that it is highly organized involving major criminal groups
who are professional, financially backed and specifically
market products. These offenders may also be involved in
major fraud and drug shipping [7]. Therefore combating
criminal activity requires a well-equipped forensic facility
to provide cutting edge technology, maximizing eviden-
tiary outputs. Setting up such a laboratory is not easy and
L. Wilson-Wilde (&)
ANZPAA National Institute of Forensic Science,
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
e-mail: linzi.wilson-wilde.nifs@anzpaa.org.au
Forensic Sci Med Pathol (2010) 6:149–150
DOI 10.1007/s12024-010-9179-4
Ogden clearly highlights some of the issues and provides
an insight into how this might be achieved [8].
It is difficult to ascertain specifically what drives
demand in particular wildlife trade; however it is thought
that a number of factors such as fashion, rarity of the
species, trends in alternative remedies and medicine and
criminal elements each play a part. Fashion can have a
major impact and is highly variable. Particularly endan-
gered species cost more and can therefore be in higher
demand by collectors due to higher profits compared to the
risks and penalties incurred. Simply placing a species on
the CITES list, Appendix I can make a species more
appealing. Yates et al. [9] look at the identification of hairs
from elephant and giraffe used in traditional style jewelry
(presumably bound for the tourist trade) using light
microscopy.
A number of very interesting case studies are included in
this edition to highlight the impact wildlife crime has on
the animals involved and the type of forensic analysis that
must be undertaken to assist the investigation. Byard et al.
[10] present a case study on unusual upper aerodigestive
tract obstructions in wild dolphins causing death. Byard
et al. [11] also discuss a case study on unexpected deaths in
captive fur seals and Carapetis et al. [12] present a case
illustrating the consequences of ingesting foreign material
by seabirds. In the article by Johnson two interesting case
studies are discussed regarding the illegal importation of
live bird eggs and the illegal possession of shark fins [13].
Wildlife crime also includes offences involving
domesticated species, such as animal cruelty cases and
where an animal may be used to link an individual to the
commission of an offence (for example dog hairs on a
suspect). El-Sayed et al. [14] investigate the use of DNA
analysis in domesticated species and Clarke and Vanden-
berg look at the application of canine DNA profiling in
forensic casework [15]. Wilson-Wilde et al. [16] look at
species identification in the context of a laboratory con-
ducting standard DNA analysis and implications and rec-
ommendations for implementing a species identification
method. Two book reviews are also included in this special
edition, Forensic Science in Wildlife Investigations, edited
by Linacre and Introduction to Veterinary and Compara-
tive Forensic Medicine by Cooper and Cooper.
We hope that the various concepts, research and issues
discussed in this edition are thought provoking and provide
an insight into this significant global issue.
References
1. Wilson-Wilde L. Wildlife crime-a global problem. Forensic Sci
Med Pathol. 2010;6:221–2.
2. Neme L. INTERPOL’s Wildlife Crime Working Group Meeting.
Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2010;6:223–4.
3. CITES 2010. http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/what.shtml. Accessed
10 June 2010.
4. Alacs EA, Georges A, FitzSimmons NN, Robertson J. DNA
Detective: A review of molecular approaches to wildlife foren-
sics. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2010;6:180–94.
5. Tobe SS, Linacre A. DNA typing in wildlife crime: recent
developments in species identification. Forensic Sci Med Pathol.
2010;6:195–206.
6. Spencer PD, Schmidt D, Hummel S. Identification of historical
specimens and wildlife seizures originating from highly degraded
sources of kangaroos. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2010;6:225–32.
7. McDowell D. Wildlife crime policy and the law. Canberra:
Australian Government Publishing Service; 1997.
8. Ogden R. Forensic science, genetics and wildlife biology: getting
the right mix for a wildlife DNA forensics lab. Forensic Sci Med
Pathol. 2010;6:172–9.
9. Yates BC, Espinoza EO, Baker BW. Forensic species identifi-
cation of elephant (Elephantidae) and giraffe (Giraffidae) tail hair
using cross section analysis and light microscopy. Forensic Sci
Med Pathol. 2010;6:165–71.
10. Byard RW, Tomo I, Kemper CM, Gibbs SE, Bossley M, Mach-
ado A, Hill M. Unusual causes of fatal upper aerodigestive tract
obstruction in wild bottlenose dolphins (Turiops aduncus).
Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2010;6:207–10.
11. Byard RW, Machado A, Braun K, Solomon LB, Boardman W.
Mechanisms of deaths in captive juvenile New Zealand fur seals
(Arctocephalus forsteri). Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2010;6:
217–20.
12. Carapetis E, Machado AJ, Byard RW. Lethal consequences of
ingested foreign material in seabirds. Forensic Sci Med Pathol.
2010;6:242–3.
13. Johnson R. The use of DNA identification in prosecuting wildlife-
traffickers in Australia. Do the penalties fit the crimes? Forensic
Sci Med Pathol. 2010;6:211–6.
14. El-Sayed Y, Mohamed O, Ashry K, El-Rahman SA. Using spe-
cies-specific repeat and PCR-RFLP in typing of DNA derived
from blood of human and animal species. Forensic Sci Med
Pathol. 2010;6:158–64.
15. Clarke M, Vandenberg N. Dog attack: the application of canine
DNA profiling in forensic casework. Forensic Sci Med Pathol.
2010;6:151–7.
16. Wilson-Wilde L, Norman J, Robertson J, Sarre S, Georges A.
Current issues in species identification for forensic science and
the validity of using the cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene.
Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2010;6:233–41.
150 Forensic Sci Med Pathol (2010) 6:149–150
... Illegal wildlife trade is undertaken by three offender types: minor offenders, organised traders, and major crime syndicates (Wilson-Wilde, 2010). This results in a diverse array of tactics to extract and traffic wildlife, and requires an equally multifaceted approach to quantify and curtail wildlife crime. ...
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Species identification has become a tool in the investigation of acts of alleged wildlife crimes. This review details the steps required in DNA testing in wildlife crime investigations and highlights recent developments where not only can individual species be identified within a mixture of species but multiple species can be identified simultaneously. 'What species is this?' is a question asked frequently in wildlife crime investigations. Depending on the material being examined, DNA analysis may offer the best opportunity to answer this question. Species testing requires the comparison of the DNA type from the unknown sample to DNA types on a database. The areas of DNA tested are on the mitochondria and include predominantly the cytochrome b gene and the cytochrome oxidase I gene. Standard analysis requires the sequencing of part of one of these genes and comparing the sequence to that held on a repository of DNA sequences such as the GenBank database. Much of the DNA sequence of either of these two genes is conserved with only parts being variable. A recent development is to target areas of those sequences that are specific to a species; this can increase the sensitivity of the test with no loss of specificity. The benefit of targeting species specific sequences is that within a mixture of two of more species, the individual species within the mixture can be identified. This identification would not be possible using standard sequencing. These new developments can lead to a greater number of samples being tested in alleged wildlife crimes.
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Full-text available
Juvenile seals are sometimes encountered in waters around South Australia with injuries and/or diseases that require veterinary treatment. Two cases are reported where apparently stable animals died soon after being rescued due to quite disparate conditions. In Case 1 a juvenile male New Zealand fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri) was found unexpectedly dead in its enclosure. A necropsy examination revealed an emaciated juvenile male with no injuries. The intestine was filled throughout its length with melena stool that was due to heavy infestation of the stomach with roundworms with adjacent gastritis. Death was due to shock from upper gastrointestinal blood loss secondary to parasitosis. In Case 2 a second juvenile male New Zealand fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri) also died unexpectedly in its enclosure. It had been listless with loud respirations since capture. At necropsy there was no blood around the head, neck or mouth, and no acute external injuries were identified. An area of induration was, however, present over the snout with fragmentation of underlying bones. The maxilla was freely mobile and CT scanning revealed multiple comminuted fractures of the adjacent facial skeleton. Examination of the defleshed skull showed fragmentation of the facial skeleton with roughening of bones in keeping with osteomyelitis. Death was attributed to sepsis from osteomyelitis of a comminuted midfacial fracture. These cases demonstrate two unusual and occult conditions that may be present in recently retrieved juvenile fur seals. Failure to establish the correct diagnosis rapidly may result in death soon after capture. The usefulness of imaging techniques such as CT scanning in delineating underlying injuries prior to necropsy is clearly demonstrated.
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Article
A pied cormorant (Phalacrocroax varius) was found sleeping on rocks in a coastal region near Adelaide. Examination revealed entanglement by fishing line with superficial wounds to the left leg. The cormorant was also reported to have ingested a number of fishing hooks, however, the exact location of the hooks was not known. In addition, the bird was found to be underweight and shocked. X-ray examination revealed two ingested fishing hooks embedded in the esophagus in the midneck, and in the stomach (Fig. 1). These had caused the cormorant to be unable to extend its neck for diving, feeding and/or flying. Surgical intervention was undertaken.