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Economics of Human Trafficking
Abstract
Because freedom of choice and economic gain are at the heart of productivity, human trafficking impedes national and international economic growth. Within the next 10 years, crime experts expect human trafficking to surpass drug and arms trafficking in its incidence, cost to human well-being, and profitability to criminals (Schauer and Wheaton, 2006: 164–165). The loss of agency from human trafficking as well as from modern slavery is the result of human vulnerability (Bales, 2000: 15). As people become vulnerable to exploitation and businesses continually seek the lowest-cost labour sources, trafficking human beings generates profit and a market for human trafficking is created.
This paper presents an economic model of human trafficking that encompasses all known economic factors that affect human trafficking both across and within national borders. We envision human trafficking as a monopolistically competitive industry in which traffickers act as intermediaries between vulnerable individuals and employers by supplying differentiated products to employers. In the human trafficking market, the consumers are employers of trafficked labour and the products are human beings. Using a rational-choice framework of human trafficking we explain the social situations that shape relocation and working decisions of vulnerable populations leading to human trafficking, the impetus for being a trafficker, and the decisions by employers of trafficked individuals. The goal of this paper is to provide a common ground upon which policymakers and researchers can collaborate to decrease the incidence of trafficking in humans.
... Their domestic economic, legal and political systems afford them little protection from exploitative labour practices, and without property, credit history or regular income they become excluded from formal economic life (Christ and Burritt, 2021;Crane, 2013). The national and international economic systems they are absorbed into often offer them no meaningful alternative to succumbing to modern slavery, and limited or no social security, weak governance, political instability, government and international community inaction, along with widespread corruption and conflicts, push them further into poverty (Begum and Solaiman, 2016;Wheaton et al., 2010;Cole and Shirgholami, 2022;Van Buren et al., 2021). Orchestrators in GVCs have limited motivation to change workers' vulnerability to modern slavery, as that is likely to increase costs. ...
... Secondly, social issues such as the disintegration of families, domestic violence, marginalisation of women and children and often silent acceptance of brutalisation in the global economy contribute to the systemic creation of vulnerability resulting in modern slavery (Wheaton et al., 2010;Van Buren et al., 2021). Further, environmental degradation creates, for example, rural deprivation and poverty amongst farmers (Burki et al., 2021), and the concentration of employment opportunities in large industrial centres decreases the quality of life and increases a sense of isolation for workers separated from their traditional communities and families (Chesney et al., 2019;Gold et al., 2015;Wheaton et al., 2010;Van Buren et al., 2021). ...
... Secondly, social issues such as the disintegration of families, domestic violence, marginalisation of women and children and often silent acceptance of brutalisation in the global economy contribute to the systemic creation of vulnerability resulting in modern slavery (Wheaton et al., 2010;Van Buren et al., 2021). Further, environmental degradation creates, for example, rural deprivation and poverty amongst farmers (Burki et al., 2021), and the concentration of employment opportunities in large industrial centres decreases the quality of life and increases a sense of isolation for workers separated from their traditional communities and families (Chesney et al., 2019;Gold et al., 2015;Wheaton et al., 2010;Van Buren et al., 2021). MNCs are primarily located in large industrial centres and are often out of touch with the vagaries of rural life. ...
Purpose
Modern slavery in global value chains is an emerging topic of interest across various fields, including in international business, but is often fragmented in its approach. This study aims to provide a practical framework for studying relationships between participants in global value chains by exploring the nexus of three concepts – vulnerability, resilience and empowerment (VRE) – in the context of modern slavery.
Design/methodology/approach
This article offers a deductive thematic analysis of 51 empirical and conceptual business research studies on modern slavery in global value chains published until mid-2021 according to the three categories of interest at the micro (within individuals and organisations), meso (between individuals and organisations) and macro (structural) levels.
Findings
The findings have informed the development of three themes, each of which is an opportunity for future research with clear policy implications: a reductionist approach to vulnerability obscures its complexity; externalising the empowerment process and locating it outside of the agency of workers serves to further disempower them; and focusing exclusively on organisational resilience conceals the essentiality of resilience within individuals, communities and societies.
Originality/value
This article is among the first to extend the focus of business literature on modern slavery in global value chains beyond its current largely facile engagement with VRE, offering an original descriptive VRE typology to engage with the nexus between these three concepts.
... The imbalance of power and resources created by the economic systems is further exacerbated by wider legal and political systems. While in theory they should protect people from being vulnerable, countries plagued by weak governance, political instability, government and international community inaction, and corruption and conflicts do not provide support mechanisms to lift individuals out of poverty (Begum et al., 2021;Van Buren et al., 2021;Wheaton et al., 2010). Further, poor governance structures often translate into excessive bureaucracy and limited protection provided to workers at the bottom of the pyramid, such as some form of social security (Begum et al., 2016;Cole & Shirgholami, 2021). ...
... Second, parallel to economic, legal and political systems based on power imbalance are social and socio-spatial systems that increase the vulnerability of workers in supply chains. Within weak social structures, social issues such as the disintegration of families, domestic violence, marginalisation of women and children, and often silent acceptance of brutalisation in the global economy contribute to the systemic creation of vulnerability resulting in modern slavery (Van Buren et al., 2021;Wheaton et al., 2010). At the same time, there are additional environmental factors that increase vulnerability, including environmental degradation, leading to, for instance, rural deprivation among farmers unable to support their families from their land and centralisation of employment opportunities, increasing population density that lowers the quality of life and increases social and geographic isolation from traditional family support structures and even extreme cases of homelessness (Chesney et al., 2019;Gold et al., 2015;Van Buren et al., 2021;Wheaton et al., 2010). ...
... Within weak social structures, social issues such as the disintegration of families, domestic violence, marginalisation of women and children, and often silent acceptance of brutalisation in the global economy contribute to the systemic creation of vulnerability resulting in modern slavery (Van Buren et al., 2021;Wheaton et al., 2010). At the same time, there are additional environmental factors that increase vulnerability, including environmental degradation, leading to, for instance, rural deprivation among farmers unable to support their families from their land and centralisation of employment opportunities, increasing population density that lowers the quality of life and increases social and geographic isolation from traditional family support structures and even extreme cases of homelessness (Chesney et al., 2019;Gold et al., 2015;Van Buren et al., 2021;Wheaton et al., 2010). ...
In this chapter, employing a systematic review and thematic analysis of business literature, we explore the notion of vulnerability and its representations in the context of modern slavery in supply chains. At the micro level, vulnerability is predominantly represented as an outcome of one behaviour — migration — simplifying the myriad of external push-and-pull factors, other behaviours and social relationships. At the meso level, situational risks are clustered around various conditions of employment. At the macro level, a broad set of systemic issues were identified to contribute to the environment in which a heightened risk of vulnerability to modern slavery is experienced. We conclude this chapter by identifying wider implications of our findings for social marketing and social and behaviour change communication as well as avenues for
future research.
... These data reflect the usage of coerced labour products procured by lawful businesses. Traffickers are involved in the hiring, contracting, transportation, and facilitation of products and services (Wheaton et al., 2010). Human trafficking typically entails many types of abuse, such as fraud, coercion, extortion, and, in the case of many, physical or sexual assault (Kiss & Zimmerman 2019). ...
... Consumers offer both the demand and the monetary incentive to traffickers in situations of labour trafficking. Consumers include businesses that subcontract certain sorts of services, end-users who buy low-cost commodities made by trafficking victims, and people who use the services of trafficking victims (Wheaton et al., 2010). Human trafficking is ultimately driven by a need for low-wage labour or services, or for commercial sex activities. ...
... In the case of forced labour trafficking, corporations and consumers generate the demand for the trafficked labour, while the trafficker or broker facilitates the transfer of the trafficked labour's services or goods to the final consumers (New, 2015). These activities include the utilisation of labour procured in another country by a trafficker-recruiter, the transporters who transported the workers from the source to the destination, and the items or products produced by trafficked labour (Wheaton et al., 2010). Strategies for tackling supply and demand in human trafficking include lowering earnings, increasing dangers, and increasing trafficking expenses. ...
Human trafficking and forced labour are not new issues in Southeast Asia, and they are still prevalent today. This chapter explores the social and ecological dynamics of migration and trafficking, as well as the underlying causes of these problems, especially in multinational corporations. This chapter also examines the international and regional laws relating to human trafficking and forced labour. Although many international instruments have been established, these issues are still growing as many trafficking victims are still trapped in a variety of industries. The complexity of the global supply and demand chain have directly enabled human trafficking to be more profitable. Many countries have taken various initiatives to promulgate their home legislation to combat human trafficking. Nevertheless, the continued existence of human trafficking demonstrates a lack of enforcement. Finally, the study emphasises the significance of coordination and collaboration across member states, including transparent data exchange on human trafficking and forced labour.
... It is possible that she has remained safe since because her 'keepers/employers' would not be particularly interested in recapturing an ill worker. In their study on the economics of human trafficking, Wheaton et al. (2010) made a harrowing observation that when trafficking victims are no longer considered as profitable to 'employers' due to issues related to poor health, age or noncompliance, they can be discarded at very low cost. ...
... These researchers also acknowledged that human trafficking networks, on top of having all the tactics and methods required of them, would also have good knowledge of vulnerable populations (Wheaton et al. 2010). This is precisely what can be observed in the trafficking network of Vietnamese vulnerable people. ...
... Human trafficking networks that are successful are those with a good understanding of the market they operate in, and this means they are dynamic and adaptive to market demand (Bales 2017;Wheaton et al. 2010). Traffickers can be very astute in taking advantage of local rules and regulations. ...
The issue of Vietnamese nationals consistently having some of the highest numbers of referrals into the UK’s National Referral Mechanism (NRM) is increasingly apparent. However, this did not gather nationwide attention until the Essex tragedy of October 2019 which saw 39 Vietnamese nationals found lifeless in a lorry after they were brought into the country by a criminal network of human traffickers and smugglers. This paper seeks to understand the circumstances of these Vietnamese victims of human trafficking to the Britain by reviewing the situation in both countries—Vietnam and the UK. Three instances of Vietnamese nationals trafficked to the UK have been chosen as case studies. Through semi-structured interviews, issues regarding how voluntary migration led these vulnerable people into slavery will be explored and this will be analysed alongside a review of literature in the field. This paper reveals the complexity of the matter, which is primarily derived from the multinational nature of trafficking and the different attitudes and approaches of the various countries involved, as well as the difficulty facing the authorities when combating this particular crime involving this specific group of vulnerable people, especially in terms of victim support. The ultimate goal of this paper is to offer authorities and practitioners in both countries a fresh review of the challenges in supporting these victims, and to redirect their focus on the obstacles to addressing Vietnamese trafficking. These obstacles include the prevalence of—often illicit—labour-exporting companies in Vietnam, instances of initial voluntary engagement in labour migration relationships which later become coercive, and the failure of the UK and Vietnam to agree what constitutes a genuine trafficking victim.
... Risk-need-responsivity theory analyzes risk to reoffend by conceptualizing seven major risk factors, which include procriminal attitudes, family and marital relationships, and social support for crime; to successfully decrease recidivism, supportive programs should be proportional to the individual's risk of reoffending (Belenko, 2006;Bonta & Andrews, 2007). Labeling and rational-choice theories play a critical role in recidivism by emphasizing the importance of negative labeling and the use of available information to compare the costs and benefits of committing a crime (Adams et al., 2003;Chiricos et al., 2007;Cullen & Agnew, 2006;Grittner & Walsh, 2020;Meshkovska et al., 2015;Siegel, 1993;Wheaton et al., 2010). Evidence suggests that negative labels have stronger effects on women, who hold less power in society and therefore have more-limited opportunities to negate these labels (Chiricos et al., 2007). ...
... While some of those engaged in sex trafficking may, as conceptualized by Paternoster and Pogarsky (2009), be rational actors making calculated decisions, these interviews reveal how the conditions of the traffickers' lives influenced their decision-making, wherein choice was limited due to their lived realities of substance use disorders, histories of abuse, and a lack of other realistic options. Rational-choice theory posits that people use available information to compare the costs and benefits of their decisions to commit a crime (Wheaton et al., 2010). However, while traffickers may know they are taking a risk, these interviews reveal that many interviewees felt coerced. ...
Limited research focuses on the nature of the lived experiences of women engaged in sex trafficking. This study employed qualitative methods of in-depth structured interviews with 10 convicted sex traffickers (ages 24–56; 100% identifying as female). Participants’ lived experiences revealed circumstances that led them to trafficking, specific needs, and the stigmatization they faced after exiting economies tied to trafficking. Inductive analysis yielded three key barriers to reintegration success: limited choice; negative labeling; and unmet physical, emotional, and social needs. These findings enhance understanding of the factors influencing the successful reintegration of convicted female sex traffickers into mainstream society.
... Human trafficking as a concept and practice is as dated as the literature on it. Such literature tends to problematize human trafficking broadly from a human rights lens and assumes a marked critique of stakeholders involved in it and governments with weak policies that feed it (Laczko and Gramegna, 2003;Cullen-DuPont, 2009;Shelley, 2010;Wheaton et al., 2010;Farrell and De Vries, 2020). However important this phenomenon and problem is, human trafficking is currently a source of conflict intractability and a source through which violent extremist groups recruit vulnerable and helpless mercenaries (Hynes et al., 2018). ...
... This pillar also includes elements that influence the public's willingness to support the expansion of trade [12,13]. These include political stability, the production of goods using forced or child labor, income inequality, and the government's response to human trafficking [14,15]. ...
... This pillar also includes elements that influence the public's willingness to support the expansion of trade [12,13]. These include political stability, the production of goods using forced or child labor, income inequality, and the government's response to human trafficking [14,15]. ...
This study explores the influence of economic, societal, and environmental factors on a country's sustainable trade using Bayesian Neural Network analysis to evaluate the correlation between these factors and the Trade Sustainability Index. It emphasizes the importance of considering all three factors in promoting sustainable trade and suggests that countries should enhance Societal and Environmental Pillar components for better trade sustainability. The network comprised four nodes: the Societal Pillar and Overall Sustainable Trade Index displayed the strongest correlation, the Environmental Pillar and Overall Sustainable Trade Index, and Economic Pillar and Overall Sustainable Trade Index. The analysis of independent variables suggests a stronger correlation between environmental and economic pillars than between societal and economic pillars. Compared to the Environmental Pillar's relationship between societal pillars, the Economic Pillar's interaction with societal pillars is more vital. In contrast to the relationship between the societal pillar and Environmental Pillar, the interaction between the Economic Pillar and Environmental Pillar is more vital.
... By adopting a victim-centered approach, where survivors' needs and voices are central to policy development and implementation, we can challenge societal perceptions that perpetuate the cycle of exploitation. Providing comprehensive support services, including shelter, healthcare, legal aid, and psychological counseling, is essential in helping survivors rebuild their lives [16]. ...
Human trafficking is a serious violation of human rights that affects millions of people worldwide. It is a complex and multifaceted issue that encompasses various forms, such as forced labor, sexual exploitation, and organ trafficking [1] and is a problem of human security [2]. The social perception of human trafficking plays a crucial role in shaping awareness, response, and efforts to combat this heinous crime [3,4]. Understanding how society perceives human trafficking is essential in order to foster empathy, generate effective solutions, and eradicate this modern-day form of slavery [5,6]. The social perception of human trafficking often faces significant barriers that hinder comprehensive understanding and action. One of the primary barriers is the misconception that human trafficking only occurs in distant countries or affects specific demographics [5]. In reality, trafficking is a global problem that transcends borders, impacting men, women, and children of all backgrounds [7]. The media plays a vital role in shaping societal perceptions of human trafficking. Unfortunately, the media can also contribute to distorted narratives and sensationalism, focusing excessively on shocking stories and salacious details [8]. While raising awareness is important, it is equally essential to portray the complex realities of human trafficking accurately, shedding light on its systemic nature and the vulnerabilities that contribute to its persistence [9]. One very critical aspect of social perception revolves around victim blaming and stigmatization [10]. Society often places blame on the victims, perceiving them as responsible for their circumstances. This perspective fails to recognize the coercion, manipulation, and power imbalances that are inherent in trafficking situations [11]. Such stigmatization can prevent survivors from seeking help and perpetuate a cycle of victimization [12]. Developing empathy and a deeper understanding of human trafficking is crucial to combating this issue effectively. By recognizing that trafficking victims are not mere statistics but individuals with stories of exploitation and survival, society can humanize their experiences. Empathy enables us to challenge stereotypes, eliminate victim-blaming attitudes, and extend support and resources to survivors [13]. Education plays a vital role in shaping social perception. Comprehensive and age-appropriate education about human trafficking can help dispel myths, raise awareness, and empower individuals to identify and respond to signs of trafficking [14]. Governments, schools, community organizations and media should collaborate to integrate anti-trafficking education into curricula, ensuring that young people understand their rights, the tactics used by traffickers, and the importance of reporting suspicious activities [15]. Addressing the social perception of human trafficking requires collaborative efforts among governments, civil society organizations, law enforcement agencies, and communities. By adopting a victim-centered approach, where survivors' needs and voices are central to policy development and implementation, we can challenge societal perceptions that perpetuate the cycle of exploitation. Providing comprehensive support services, including shelter, healthcare, legal aid, and psychological counseling, is essential in helping survivors rebuild their lives [16].
... The rational choice model explains the social factors influencing the migration of vulnerable groups and job choices, the goals of importers, and the decisions of abused people's bosses. The study brings together lawmakers and experts against human slavery (Wheaton et al., 2010). Human trafficking includes moving and harming persons in the job market (e.g., child labour, brothels, construction sites) or elsewhere. ...
The Millennial Era Human Trafficking Law Study investigates the definition of human trafficking in Article 3 of the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children. It consists of three components: exploitative actions, means, and intent. By extending traffickers' connections and opportunities to recruit and exploit victims, globalization and technological progress facilitate the spread of human trafficking. There are 49.6 million people living in modern slavery, 27.6 million of whom are forced to work and 22 million of whom are compelled to marry. Human trafficking is a complex and multifaceted problem caused by poverty, injustice, conflict situations, gender discrimination, tolerance for violence against women and children, a lack of appropriate laws and political will, restrictive immigration policies, globalization of the sex industry, transnational engagement, and organized crime networks. Due to global threats, the study of human trafficking law in the twenty-first century is crucial. This is typically viewed as a supply-side development issue due to destitution and the dearth of alternative employment opportunities.
... um elenco de artigos faz uma revisão dos estudos que então se desenvolviam nas grandes regiões do planeta: Oriente Médio, África Sub-saariana, América latina e Caribe, Ásia, etc. Cinco anos depois, outro número seria lançado, em 2010, trazendo uma reunião de textos de horizontes disciplinares variados, com diferentes perspectivas teóricas, e produzidos a partir de referenciais empíricos distintos. Encontramos ali um estudo que aborda as dificuldades metodológicas nas pesquisas qualitativas com as pessoas "vítimas" de tráfico, e as suas implicações éticas, a partir de uma amostragem com mulheres retornadas na Moldávia (BRuNOVSkIS; SuRtEES, 2010); um ensaio sobre as possibilidades de uma abordagem que relacione a questão do tráfico com as teorias de desenvolvimento humano, como estratégia de superação de sua principal causa, a pobreza (DANAIlOVA-tRAINOR; lACzkO, 2010); uma análise do discurso dos atores institucionais em torno do tráfico, a partir do instrumental analítico do "gerenciamento biopolítico" e do "cálculo econômico", e a consequente produção das "vítimas" do tráfico de pessoas como forma de estigmatização e controle das migrações (BERMAN, 2010); um ensaio que busca dissecar aquilo que seria um modelo econômico do tráfico de pessoas (WHEAtON et al., 2010); uma investigação sobre a ambiguidade da condição dos trabalhadores migrantes contratados no Oriente Médio (JuREIDINI, 2010); a apresentação de uma pesquisa sobre o crescente número de menores viajando desacompanhados pelos aeroportos europeus, como possível grupo de risco (DERluYN et al., 2010). Em todos eles percebe-se a busca por um veio de análise que permita uma aproximação e compreensão mais profunda da complexidade dessa realidade, seja pela investigação empírica, seja pelo uso de um variado repertório de instrumental teórico. ...
O artigo busca fazer um ensaio de revisão bibliográfica sobre o tema do tráfico de pessoas para exploração sexual, tendo presente que se trata de um campo de debates intenso e polêmico, ainda em formação. Divide-se em três partes: exposição da literatura institucional, em que predomina uma abordagem jurídica e política de organismos internacionais e nacionais; a interpretação das ciências sociais, na linha da sociologia, antropologia e estudos culturais; a produção de ONGs e entidades da sociedade civil, em especial da Igreja Católica, que se manifestam a partir de sua inserção no terreno de ação. As publicações analisadas são predominantemente acessíveis pela internet, procurando dar atenção especial para três publicações relevantes na área do direito penal, dos estudos culturais e de uma pesquisa mobilizada por uma rede internacional de ONGs, entre o Brasil, a República Dominicana e o Suriname.
... Human trafficking as a concept and practice is as dated as the literature on it. Such literature tends to problematize human trafficking broadly from a human rights lens and assumes a marked critique of stakeholders involved in it and governments with weak policies that feed it (Laczko and Gramegna, 2003;Cullen-DuPont, 2009;Shelley, 2010;Wheaton et al., 2010;Farrell and De Vries, 2020). However important this phenomenon and problem is, human trafficking is currently a source of conflict intractability and a source through which violent extremist groups recruit vulnerable and helpless mercenaries (Hynes et al., 2018). ...
... According to a global survey conducted by the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the Walk Free Foundation in 2017 (ILO & Walk Free Foundation, 2020), over 40 million people suffer from modern slavery or human trafficking. Despite the tremendous costs of human trafficking imposed on individual countries (Broad et al., 2020;Moynihan, 2006;Wheaton et al., 2010), empirical studies to unveil potential factors behind policy changes criminalizing human trafficking have not been thoroughly developed. Given the importance of legal reforms to regulate human trafficking and protect the victims (Farrell & Fahy, 2009;Spohn, 2014), the shortage of empirical studies on potential factors leading countries to adopt domestic statutory laws penalizing human trafficking is unanticipated. ...
Human trafficking is an imminent problem not limited to certain regions of the globe. Although the problem of human trafficking is severe over the world, Sub-Saharan African countries are some of the most vulnerable to human trafficking. Despite the severity of human trafficking in Sub-Saharan Africa, only 23 countries, less than half of Sub-Saharan African countries, have introduced domestic statutory laws addressing human trafficking. Why do some African countries adopt laws for combating human trafficking, while others do not? Focusing on the role of gender-related factors in the introduction of laws addressing human trafficking, this article aims to fill this academic lacuna by conducting time-series cross-national analysis on 49 African countries from 1960 to 2016. The empirical results from this study demonstrate that increases in the percentage of women in legislative branches and in women’s participation in civil society organizations lead countries to introduce anti-human trafficking laws.
... Some criminal justice studies focus on prostitution and illegal immigration (some of which are trafficked). Sociological research makes the legislation more effective for different countries and situations as it increases the knowledge of cultural norms and responses [2]. ...
Objectives: To study human trafficking and its typology, and various socio-cultural, political, economical triggers responsible for this sinister social reality, and also analyze gender and age-based victimization’ also simultaneously examine the international and domestic laws to combat human trafficking and its implementable capacities. Subjects and methods: The proposed examination was an exploratory, qualitative sample-based survey study. The body of data analyzed was mustered up from multiple sources, primarily from the students of University level enrolled in various studies, including social workers, community activists through convenient and judgmental sampling spread over 6 months, and the contents were analyzed. Results: Various socio-cultural, political, and economic grounds were observed for human trafficking for its various heinous purposes. Gender-based victimization and age-based victimization in the version of child trafficking were the prominent findings. The loopholes and shortcomings in various laws to shackle human trafficking were discovered. It was also further examined that most of the laws and socio-cultural ambiance are not victim-friendly and do not stop secondary victimization of the trafficked victims. Conclusion: Human trafficking has wide-ranging socio-cultural, economical, environmental, and political triggers in India; which have continued for a huge span of time in many parts and locations of the country. The nature of most of the problems resembles that in many other parts of the world. The present status and higher vulnerability of women and children in the domain of human trafficking for various purposes primarily for sexual exploitation and for cheap labor purposes suggest the need to improve legal, socio-cultural, economic, political, ecological, environmental, and developmental methods along with focused attention to local community involvement and participation.
The article delves into the intricate link between gender inequality, human trafficking, and development in Bangladesh. It reveals that women, particularly those in underprivileged areas, are disproportionately affected by patriarchal norms, economic inequalities, and inadequate legal systems. Drawing from the theoretical literature, the study suggests that conventional development strategies often overlook these structural inequalities, disproportionately affecting women. It also highlights how commodification of labor, deregulation, and market-oriented policies can exacerbate gender inequalities, increasing women's vulnerability to exploitation. The article calls for a comprehensive strategy to address these systemic issues, advocating for substantial investments in education, healthcare, social protection, and legislative reform. It also underscores the importance of collaboration between governments, civil society organizations, and local communities in combating trafficking and raising awareness. The article provides policymakers and stakeholders with significant insights and recommendations to accomplish Sustainable Development Goal-5 of gender equality and empower all women and girls. By highlighting the complicated relationship between gender inequality, trafficking, and development, it emphasizes the necessity for gender-sensitive policies and initiatives to address women’s vulnerability and their exploitation. An intersectional approach, integrating multiple sectors, can create comprehensive policies and actions to prevent trafficking, empower women, and promote inclusive, sustainable development to attain the targets of Sustainable Development Goal-5.
The sex trafficking industry has evolved into a persistent and globally prevalent problem, notably in Asia. It is fundamentally a business-oriented and profit-driven activity. Political, social, and economic issues influence the modus operandi of sex traffickers. The majority of existing studies on sex trafficking in Asia are studied from several viewpoints, including human rights, feminists, and migration, with the least emphasis on the traffickers’ economic and organisational issues. Therefore, this paper will discuss the root causes of sex trafficking in Asia and examine it from a business economic and organisational standpoint, by analysing extensive literature and examining primary and secondary sources. According to these sources, three important factors contribute to the crime of sex trafficking: the supply of potential victims for exploitation in the source countries, the constant demand for trafficked victims in the destination countries, and the presence of organised crime groups acting as intermediaries in the market-driven business enterprise.
Article is a short summary on intelligence conducted by citizens (CITINT)
Human trafficking is considered one of the most significant blights on our current society, as it deprives people of their most fundamental rights. Despite commendable efforts against this transnational scourge, emphasis often leans towards addressing criminal aspects tied to migratory flows, potentially undermining victim protection. New technologies further complicate the landscape, challenging conventional anti-trafficking policies. This chapter stresses the critical need to bridge the gap between human trafficking manifestation and prevention/prosecution strategies, enriching discourse on international security. It aims to spotlight challenges hampering anti-trafficking policy effectiveness, empowering governments to fortify identification systems and combat the perpetuation of this heinous offense.
Siendo la trata de seres humanos uno de los negocios delictivos más rentables aescala mundial, se hace necesario abordar el fenómeno desde una perspectiva económica.A partir del estudio de 128 sentencias condenatorias por TSH dictadas entre2012 y 2022 por las Audiencias Provinciales y la Audiencia Nacional, se analiza laimplementación y eficacia en la práctica jurisprudencial española de determinadosmecanismos penales de carácter sustantivo-procesal que inciden directa o indirectamenteen el componente lucrativo de la trata. Tras poner de relieve el escaso uso y lalimitada eficacia que tienen estos instrumentos en nuestra práctica jurisprudencial,se ofrecen algunas propuestas con el objetivo de mejorar la referida aproximacióneconómica a la trata de seres humanos.
The subject of this article is the relationship between corruption and human trafficking, more specifically, the impact of corruption on the emergence and spread of trafficking in human beings. This paper aims to systematize the findings of existing theoretical and empirical studies that have examined the connection between corruption and trafficking in human beings. As the primary research method, the author employs a literature review. Scientific papers that have addressed the link between the key concepts were analyzed. Findings indicate that corruption is one of the strongest predictors of human trafficking in the countries of origin, as well as the most significant factor facilitating the process of human trafficking and enabling impunity for perpetrators of this criminal act. Based on insights from the existing academic literature, we can conclude that the nexus between corruption and trafficking in human beings remains insufficiently explored.
Drug abuse and illicit trafficking are widespread problems that have detrimental effects on society, the economy, and public health. Overdoses, mental health issues, and addiction are prevalent. Community outreach and education are two prevention techniques. To combat illicit trafficking, a multifaceted strategy involving international collaboration, law enforcement, and prevention is needed. This includes addressing economic and social repercussions like decreased production, higher medical expenses, job challenges, corruption, violent crime, property crime, organized crime, and mental health issues. All forms of drugs, including manmade compounds, naturally occurring botanicals, and psychoactive medications, are banned. In 1995, the Commission on Narcotic Drugs carried out studies on drug production, distribution, and use in black markets. The Commission was advised by the General Assembly to address the negative social and economic effects of drug abuse and illicit trafficking. Different estimates constrain our current understanding. Drug misuse and illegal trafficking have a detrimental effect on the economy, society, and culture. They also pose a threat to public health, raise healthcare costs, and lower productivity. Implementing a comprehensive plan for drug abuse and trafficking, including treatment, prevention, education, law enforcement, and legislative changes, is crucial due to increased urbanization and cultural shifts. Notwithstanding the foregoing, the main objectives of this research article are to carry out a global macroeconomic theoretical analysis of the economic, social, and legal ramifications of drug abuse and illicit trafficking, including employment, labour, corruption, and crime, using secondary sources of information and relevant statistical data. According to this point of view, the situation as it stands now is important and relevant to both the economy and society.
Purpose
This paper empirically investigates the relationship between financial availability and crime by measuring it across five dimensions: banking, securities, insurance, private lending and digital inclusive finance.
Design/methodology/approach
The study utilizes 2011–2017 data from prefecture-level cities as a representative sample. Moreover, these findings remain robust after addressing endogeneity through the use of the historical distance between cities and the railroad network as an instrumental variable.
Findings
The findings demonstrate a significant negative relationship between financial accessibility and crime rates. Heterogeneity exists in the inhibitory effect of different types of financial accessibility on crime, with banking finance exhibiting a stronger inhibitory effect compared to private lending. Areas affected by natural disasters and infectious diseases exhibit a stronger inhibitory effect of financial accessibility on crime rates, particularly in areas with severe shocks of natural disasters and epidemics. This effect is attributed to the low financing threshold and easy access to private lending, which plays a more effective role than bank finance when people face extreme risks.
Practical implications
There should be stricter regulations imposed on private lending markets and the introduction of more rational legislation aimed at guiding a healthy development within these markets; such measures serve as effective and complementary means for individuals from all walks of life to access credit financing.
Social implications
The regulation of financial resources by the government should always prioritize ensuring the accessibility of financial policies to cater to the needs of the majority population.
Originality/value
This study is for the first time in an emerging economy context, the causal relationship between financial accessibility and crime. To provide a more comprehensive measure of financial accessibility in a region, this paper proposes a five-dimensional methodology.
Through a framework that combines literature's observations on traffickers' policy-based representations with International Relations (IR) theories, this paper explores the representations of traffickers and anti-trafficking government goals in policies of the United Kingdom's (UK), Scottish and Northern Irish governments. Policies were found to mostly subscribe to a Realist's viewing of human trafficking, emphasising criminal choices. Still, and despite their growing tendency to focus on a wider range of traffickers, their dominant narrative tends to revolve around trafficking stereotypes, often ignoring the full spectrum of traffickers' identities to promote total human trafficking elimination. This discourse may overstate Britain's trafficking problem, sustaining state legitimacy and intervention and narrowing down the scope of anti-trafficking efforts. Conclusively, to ensure a more effective anti-trafficking response, the UK needs to set more feasible goals and based on an in-depth knowledge of traffickers strive to further enrich the policy-promoted human trafficking narrative.
Terms such as human trafficking and modern-day slavery are ephemeral but reflect manifestations of oppression, servitude, and captivity that perpetually have threatened the basic right of all humans. Operations research and analytical tools offering practical wisdom have paid scant attention to this overarching problem. Motivated by this lacuna, this study considers two of the most prevalent categories of human trafficking: forced labor and forced sex. Using one of the largest available datasets due to Counter-Trafficking Data Collective (CTDC), we examine patterns related to forced sex and forced labor. Our study uses a two-phase approach focusing on explainability: Phase 1 involves logistic regression (LR) segueing to association rules analysis and Phase 2 employs Bayesian Belief Networks (BBNs) to uncover intricate pathways leading to human trafficking. This combined approach provides a comprehensive understanding of the factors contributing to human trafficking, effectively addressing the limitations of conventional methods. We confirm and challenge some of the key findings in the extant literature and call for better prevention strategies. Our study goes beyond the pretext of analytics usage by prescribing how to incorporate our results in combating human trafficking.
According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), between 20 and 40 million individuals are victims of trafficking in persons, also known as modern slavery. This chapter has five goals. The first goal is to discuss the recruitment of individuals into modern slavery. The second goal is to examine the risk factors associated with modern slavery. The third goal is to discuss the fate of African slaves, drawing several parallels to the Transatlantic Slave Trade and modern slavery. The fourth goal is to compare historical and modern slavery. The final goal is to examine the strides that policy, the law, and mental health professionals have made to help eradicate modern slavery and help victims of human trafficking to successfully integrate into society.KeywordsHuman traffickingMental health professionalsModern slaverySex traffickingSlaveryUnited StatesVictimizationGlobal crime
This study explores digital group solidarity as a new typology in the theory of moral embeddedness by Beckert (2005). Digital group solidarity is understood as a form of group solidarity that is constructed through digital interactions in a market arena. This study is different from that of Scott (2020) which more focuses on censorship policies on homosexual movies. It is also in contrast with a study by Nurmajesty et al. (2022) which is in reference to Beckert (2009) regarding the mechanism of commodity valuation of the jamu (Indonesian herbal medicine) market in Indonesia based on physical and symbolic values. The description of the characteristics of moral embeddedness, particularly group solidarity exchange, in the digital realm of the homosexual movie industry is mapped through TNA and SNA using the Netlytic and Gephi software and supported by polls via Twitter and observations in several chat groups of homosexual movie lovers. Referring to the conducted survey, 71.85% of consumers of homosexual movies use Twitter to communicate with each other instead of chat groups and offline meetings. Beckert (2005) argues that the formation of group solidarity is primordial based, while this study discovers that digital group solidarity is relatively unrelated to primordial ties. In contrast to Beckert (2005) who observes group solidarity from only one side of the market (either producers or consumers), this study reveals that digital group solidarity can occur in both arenas and places more emphasis on the preference side. Digital group solidarity is also revealed as a slice of cooperation and group solidarity in Beckert (2005), since both ego and alter ego in digital group solidarity tend to be observed as benefits.
This chapter will identify and elaborate on the migratory phenomenon, or migration, in general, indicating the displacement of one person or group of people, which can happen within the same country (internal migration) or through crossing international borders (international migration). International migration, therefore, involves the country of provenance/origin of the person and one or more countries of transit, and finally, a country of destination. The term migration, therefore, embraces all types of displacements without distinction in terms of temporal, spatial, and causal amplitude. It includes economic, environmental, forced migration, family reunification, and other variants. Consequently, the migrant is a person who, for whatever reason, moves from the country of origin. However, the definition of a migrant is not universally accepted.
This article explored police methods and challenges in the identification of human trafficking activities by the South African Police Service (SAPS). A qualitative research method was employed in this study that used semi-structured interviews to collect data. Participants were sourced from three key stakeholder groups: (1) the SAPS (Headquarters), (2) Sunnyside Community Service Centre, and (3) Directorate for Priority Crime Investigation (DPCI) officials with expertise related to human trafficking. This sample comprised 15 participants and a purposive sampling procedure was adopted. The study found that there are various methods of identifying human trafficking identified by the SAPS in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality (CTMM). Furthermore, the findings highlighted that human trafficking has a national dimension despite that trafficking could occur within the same province or policing area. However, it remains a concern that policing methods to reduce the scourge are not effectively implemented hence an increased rate of human trafficking not only in the CTMM policing area but in many parts of South Africa. It was also found that in the process of identifying human trafficking activities, the SAPS is often faced with various challenges that may be linked to ineffective implementation of methods of identifying human trafficking activities
In the decades following the globalization of the world economy, trafficking, forced labor and modern slavery have emerged as significant global problems. States negotiated the Palermo Protocol in 2000 under which they agreed to criminalize trafficking, primarily understood as an issue of serious organized crime. Sixteen years later, leading academics, activists and policy makers from international organizations come together in this edited volume and adopt an inter-disciplinary, multi-stakeholder approach to revisit trafficking through the lens of labor migration and extreme exploitation and, in the process, rethink the law and governance of trafficking. This volume considers many key factors, including the evolving international law on trafficking, the relationship between trafficking, slavery, indenture and domestic migration law and policy as well as newly emergent techniques of governance, including indicators, all with a view to furthering prospects for lasting economic justice in a globalized world.
This study looked into the dynamics of human trafficking. Descriptive research design and exploratory method were used in the study that aimed to examine the connections between countries of origin, destination, and transit. The underlying characteristics of countries with high reported cases of human trafficking both in places of origin and destination were also scrutinized. The data were gathered from the Global Trafficking in Persons Report in 2009 through data mining. The countries with reported high cases of human trafficking were Armenia, Russia, Belarus, and the United States. The economic well-being, graft and corruption, and political stability were considered as contributing factors that facilitated and encouraged human trafficking. The study also revealed the dynamics or movement of human trafficking in various levels.Keywords: dynamics, human trafficking, places of destinations, places of origin, supply-demand relationship, corruption
The purpose of this research is to find out the implementation and actualization of international and domestic law regarding child trafficking, to find examples of multilateral international cooperation forms that have been created in the context of overcoming child trafficking, and to identify threats and solutions needed by the international community in the prevention of Child Trafficking. This research was legal research with a normative juridical approach with descriptive-analytical research specifications. Child trafficking is a form of human trafficking. This crime can be attributed to the existence and widespread of the concept of "modern slavery." Internationally and nationally, laws regarding the prevention of child trafficking and child protection have been created. Examples in the international spectrum are UNTOC Annex II: Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Convention on The Rights of the Child created by UNICEF, International Program on the Elimination of Child Labor (IPEC) by the ILO, the World Congress against the Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children, and the Palermo Protocol. With evidence of the development of child trafficking with the influence of cyberspace and information technology, the international community's concern on this issue must also increase. This is needed in making effective policies, laws, and actions in overcoming the crime of child trafficking.
The issue of human trafficking has received a substantial amount of attention in recent years. Growing global concern around this grave crime has led the international community to develop a comprehensive framework for the global fight against it. One important aspect of this framework is to prevent trafficking from occurring and thus save the vulnerable from being exploited. To this end, it is essential to identify conditions that promote the achievement of strong preventative strategies. While recent reports on anti-trafficking efforts of countries have stressed the significant role of civil society in assisting governments to prevent human trafficking, the number of quantitative studies that examine this relationship has remained limited. To fill this gap, this chapter investigates empirically whether civil society participation reinforces governments' efforts to prevent trafficking. Based on the data for 165 countries over the period from 2003 to 2015, this chapter presents evidence that countries with strong civil society engagement take effective measures to prevent trafficking.
Human trafficking is second only to drug trafficking in terms of criminal industry profitability and has a known annual revenue of greater than $100 billion. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the problem of trafficking by exposing populations to social conditions such as unemployment and poor health outcomes, conditions that render individuals more vulnerable to traffickers. Human trafficking has historically been recognized as a problem exclusively for law enforcement, though modern scholars have increasingly recognized human trafficking as a social justice issue that must involve all facets of society, from governments and healthcare providers to local businesses, in the response. After establishing human trafficking as a social justice issue that requires a collaborative and multi-faceted response, the chapter will lay out an example of how collaborative work, focused on the application of technology, can elevate a response to a complex problem such as human trafficking.
Human trafficking is not a new problem in South Africa and statistics have indicated that it is on the increase. The crime of human trafficking is clandestine and complex. Human trafficking is a complex issue that can be considered from different perspectives and its associated legal framework, in very general terms, states will be responsible for their own acts or omissions that breach their obligations under international law, including human rights law. This article explores and attempts to find solutions for victims of human trafficking. This study utilised a phenomenological qualitative framework following semi-structured interviews. The sampling methods adopted for this study were purposive, using snowball sampling, where the authors could identify the samples, one after the other, through references given earlier. It focused on 40 participants from the Directorate for Priority Crime Investigation (DPCI), the South African Police Service (SAPS), the Department of Home Affairs (DHA), the Department of Social Development (DSD) and the Gauteng Provincial Office, from Pretoria, Springs and Kempton Park. The key findings indicated that the challenges are corruption, lack of motivation and commitment to combat human trafficking, lack of limited awareness and information about the human trafficking scourge in South Africa, the findings also indicated a lack of clear strategy and response by stakeholders to successfully investigate, prosecute and incarcerate the perpetrators of human trafficking and the findings further indicated lack of capacity, resources and training to deal with human trafficking. Based on the findings, the author provided, possible recommendations such as; the utilisation of advanced technology and use of intelligence-led policing to strengthen the work of stakeholders, advanced training and better education including improved awareness strategies; and the utilisation of social media as a tool to deal with human trafficking and strengthening of enforcement responses and reporting techniques.
Se realiza una revisión del concepto de trata de personas para establecer una diferenciación con conceptos afines. Debido a que el concepto de trata reúne múltiples formas de explotación, se analizan las diferencias entre la explotación laboral y la explotación sexual. El estudio permite comprender las ideologías subyacentes al concepto de trata, identificar su utilización como estrategia discursiva y reconocer la amplitud de la experiencia de las víctimas. Se propone incluir el concepto en la agenda para el mejoramiento de las condiciones de los mercados laborales y el reconocimiento de los derechos de trabajadores sexuales.
West Africa is also known as the “Bulge of Africa” and comprises the countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Côte d'Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. There are many different tribes in Western Africa spanning a diversity of cultures. More than a thousand local languages are spoken including cross-border native tongues such as Ewe, Fulfulde, Hausa, Mandingo, Wolof, Yoruba, Ibo, and Ga. Comprising approximately 5% of the world’s population (over 300 million people) in a vast territory covering over 40% of sub-Saharan Africa (about 5.1 million square kilometers), West Africa is the most densely populated on the continent. This gives rise to diverse socio-cultural and ecological dimensions of development that seriously challenge the establishment of peace and security in the region.
National laws play a significant role in controlling trafficking in persons as “international legal instruments depend on national level criminalization and enforcement, as well as national […] policies to ensure the provision of basic services and protections of victims.” Accordingly, individual Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) countries have signed and ratified several international human rights treaties, including the Palermo Protocol; by ratifying these agreements, they have given “consent to be bound” by the treaties and to undertake legal duties to respect, protect, and fulfil human rights. The purpose of this chapter is to present analysis of the international Anti-trafficking framework enforced upon West African states to fight this crime. Upon ratification, states commit to implementing these obligations into their national domestic laws and to ensure that their policies or practices protect the rights enshrined in the treaty. Consequently, states can be held accountable under international law for any action or omission “that leads to a human rights abuse either directly or indirectly through a failure to investigate and apply the rule of law in a situation where a person or persons’ rights have been compromised.”
The previous chapter focused on the definition of trafficking in person and described the different forms in which it was manifested in West Africa. It also strived to ascertain why trafficking occurs by identifying the underlying economic, social, political, environmental, and cultural factors that render people vulnerable to exploitation. To carry out their criminal activities, traffickers often interact with legitimate individuals and institutions who inadvertently or deliberately benefit from or support this illicit enterprise. This begins with the recruitment process where recruiters including housewives pose as labor brokers. Travel agents facilitate the movement of victims through hotels, night clubs, brothels, and restaurants whose owners and pimps harbor or engage them. Legitimate businesses may also purchase the products made or harvested by trafficked victims; customers are the end users of the trafficked victims’ services. Health care practitioners may also be involved in the trafficking business by providing specialized services to the victims. Other actors include corrupt border guards, police or embassy personnel, the investors who finance the operations, and financial institutions such as banks that launder the illegal proceeds. The ensuing discussion will provide an analysis of factors that contribute to trafficking in persons through the prism of the perpetrators. It will focus on the traffickers and their cohorts and examine the motivations for becoming involved in the trade, as well as the environments conducive to organized criminal activity.
Human exploitation refers to the curtailment of fundamental human rights. The crime plays out notwithstanding the laws that criminalizes human abuses. This study explored the policing of human trafficking and forced labor in the Southern African countries of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and assesses the capabilities and abilities of law enforcement agencies in the region to curb the scourge. In this study a qualitative perspective was adopted with use of literature study and interviews. The prevalence of organized criminal groupings exacerbates the problem of human trafficking and forced labor in the region. Law enforcement corruption is rife as the police are often accused of acts of receiving bribes. There are capacity constraints in the policing agencies across the region which impacts negatively on proactive enforcement of protected goods. The study reveals that respective law enforcement agencies work in seclusion and do not systematize their databases to share information with other agencies owing to a prevailing cynicism amongst countries. It is proposed that there should be harmonization of law enforcement agencies’ databases to share information for intelligence purposes and to develop defensive and responsive response mechanisms to thwart the crime.
In this study, I examined the increasing number of trafficking victims in the U.S and the relationship between sex trafficking and immigration. Through the use of a case study comparison of state immigration and trafficking laws in Texas and Arizona, I have found that indeed trafficking increases through the implementation of stringent immigration laws. This increase results from a lack of recognition given that migrants are often victims of trafficking. The findings of my research reaffirms that found in the literature on trafficking: victims of sex trafficking are further victimized rather than helped by restrictive immigration laws.
Life is about interests. Interests have dichotomies to them. Whereas some are advantaged, some tend to be disadvantaged. Existence is premised on man’s interaction, which derives from information and, in turn, makes communication possible. McQuail aptly asserts that:
Research, programs, and legislation related to sex trafficking are often premised on the invisibility of the male buyer and the failure to address men’s role in buying and abusing women in prostitution. Governments, UN agencies, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and others act as if the male demand for sexual exploitation is insignificant, or that prostitution is so entrenched because, after all, “men will be men.” Little research on trafficking has focused on the so-called customer as a root cause of trafficking and sexual exploitation. And even less legislation has penalized the male customer whose right to buy women and children for prostitution activities remains unquestioned. This article looks at the demand—its meaning, the myths that rationalize why men buy women in prostitution, qualitative information on the buyers in two studies conducted by the Coalition Against Trafficking in Women (CATW)—as well as best practices that address the gender of demand.
This chapter aims to explore the trafficking demand by using some perspectives from the field of marketing. It may seem repellent to use such terms when referring to human beings, but today there is a large and vibrant market for trafficked persons in a number of economic activities. Traffickers are regularly thinking of how to stimulate and meet the demand for their product. Victims of trafficking, noticeably those trafficked for sexual exploitation, must somehow be presented and marketed to “consumers.” To begin to understand demand, we must put ourselves in the shoes of those who stand on both sides of the supply-and-demand equation. Before doing so, however, it is necessary to review some of the broad themes in trafficking and to examine any already-existing information on demand for trafficked people.
This paper examines the inner workings of Chinese human smuggling organizations. Contrary to widely held conceptions about Chinese organized crime, most alien smugglers are otherwise ordinary citizens whose familial networks and fortuitous social contacts have enabled them to pool resources to transport human cargoes around the world. They come from diverse backgrounds and form temporary alliances to carry out smuggling operations. With the exception of a shared commitment to making money, little holds them together. The smuggling organizations mostly resemble ad hoc task forces and are assembled for specific operations. These organizations have clear divisions of labor with limited hierarchical structures. We discuss the theoretical implications of their unique organizational characteristics.
Polls identify crime as the number one public worry. Crime also exacts tremendous costs not factored into official measures of well-being, and it is a favorite subject of political campaign promises. However, the public seems largely unaware that crime responds to economic conditions and incentives and that the results of a substantial body of work by economists have important implications for public policy. ; This article introduces the economics and crime literature by describing a simple supply-and-demand crime model in which criminals supply crime, the public demands protection from crime, and the government provides public protection. The author uses the model to show how crime responds to a variety of demographic and economic factors and also what results to expect from public policy proposals. ; Using state data from 1971 to 1994, the article outlines broad regional differences and trends in the patterns of crime in the United States. While the nation in the 1990s has seen crime fall dramatically in almost all categories, not all regions have benefited equally. In particular, southeastern states have seen distinct worsening in crime rates relative to other regions. ; The author subjects the data to a more in-depth treatment using a panel regression approach that estimates the effects of demographic and economic variables on crime. The results mirror some found by others but also highlight serious issues vexing the empirical literature. Generally, the demographic and economic variables explain crime rather well, and estimates for the most part conform to the economic model of crime.
This essay explores key questions emerging from recent research with children who experience commercial child sexual exploitation. It examines the discrepancies between children’s right to be protected from all forms of violence, including sexual violence, and the right to express their views. Child protection has traditionally focused on protecting younger children from sexual abuse in the home, so a conceptual shift is needed to embrace the needs of older children who are making their own decisions about how to respond to and manage adversity. The author proposes a child protection system that understands the various forms of exploitation of children in public spaces and within the informal economies of drug and sex markets. The author argues for a ‘social model’ for contextualizing consent to sexual activity that takes into account the economic, social, and environmental pressures on young people.
In his 1999 book, Disposable People, Kevin Bales brought to light the shocking fact of modern slavery and described how, nearly two hundred years after the slave trade was abolished (legal slavery would have to wait another fifty years), global slavery stubbornly persists. In Ending Slavery, Bales again grapples with the struggle to end this ancient evil and presents the ideas and insights that can finally lead to slavery's extinction. Recalling his own involvement in the antislavery movement, he recounts a personal journey in search of the solution and explains how governments and citizens can build a world without slavery.
Migration, both legal and illegal, impacts upon every nation in the world. Forms of irregular migration include human smuggling and trafficking. As serious as this world-wide problem has become - experts in government agencies and international NGOs estimate the number of women and children trafficked internationally at between 700,000 and 4 million annually (U.S. Department of State, 2002) — many countries lack trafficking legislation. In other countries where legislation exists, it is only the act of forced prostitution or sexual exploitation which constitutes trafficking offences, disregarding acts of forced labour or slavery-like practices. Government officials in a position to assist victims reject the idea of their victimisation and often view trafficked persons as illegal migrants, subjecting them to arrest and deportation.
With organized crime estimated to generate billions of dollars every year through illegal activities such as money laundering, smuggling of people and goods, extortion, robbery, fraud and insider trading, authorities are increasingly working together to combat this increasing threat to international security and stability. In this book former police officer Frank Madsen provides a much needed, short and accessible introduction to transnational organized crime, explaining its history and the key current issues and clearly examining the economics and practices of crime in the era of globalization. Key issues discussed include: the war on drugs. anti-money laundering efforts. the relationship between organized crime and terrorism. development of 'Internet based' criminal activity. international response to transnational organized crime. Illustrated by a series of researched case studies from around the world, Transnational Organized Crime is essential reading for all students and researchers in International Relations, International Law and Criminology.
This unprecedented work provides both the history of sex work in this region as well as an examination of current-day sex tourism. Based on interviews with sex workers, brothel owners, local residents and tourists, Kamala Kempadoo offers a vivid account of what life is like in the world of sex tourism as well as its entrenched roots in colonialism and slavery in the Caribbean.
This study is an investigation of the literature relating to the trafficking of women and children into the United States for sexual exploitation. The intent is to discover the extent and complexity of the problem, the cost in both human and economic terms, and research directions toward the development of probable political, legal, economic, and social solutions. A subject rife with research possibilities and probable solutions, trafficking is poorly defined, differentially and intermittently quantified, and handicapped by obsolete legal codes and a sexist prostitution enforcement paradigm. Recommended are state statute creation, police training and paradigm change, and increased/broadened victims’ services.
Written and gathered from the perspective that women and girls are the victims, this volume brings fresh insight into the discussion of prostitution and sex trafficking (P/T). The author's intent is to help the reader understand the realities of P/T, and to explain the logistics of victim rescue. The included articles concentrate on treatment and service to the women and girls who are able to find a way to escape P/T. Including preface and introduction, the 18 articles presented combine to call into question the conventional wisdom upon the following subjects: • Sex trafficking is qualitatively different than prostitution. • Legalizing prostitution will result in both decreasing the harm of prostitution and lowering the rate of international sex trafficking. • Most women in prostitution have freely chosen that life and remain in it willingly. • Street prostitution is the most dangerous type. • Male prostitution is different than female prostitution. • Prostitution is a "normal" profession for women from certain socio-economic segments of the world's population. New evidence is presented on the universality of techniques used to control women and children, as well as the extreme psychological trauma most women suffer under P/T. Furthermore, many insights are offered to guide the helping professions in P/T victim treatment and service.
Organizational Structure The organizational structure of Chinese organized crime in the United States is quite complex. Broadly defined, there is a great variety of Chinese criminal organizations. These include gangs, secret societies, triads, tongs, Taiwanese organized crime groups, and strictly US-based tongs and gangs. According to Ko-lin Chin, the foremost academic expert in the U.S. on Chinese organized crime, there is no empirical support for the belief that there is a well-organized, monolithic, hierarchical criminal cartel called the "Chinese Mafia." Chin says: "My findings...do not support the notion that a chain of command exists among these various crime groups or that they coordinate with one another routinely in international crimes such as heroin trafficking, money laundering, and the smuggling of aliens" (1996:123). In order to simplify and focus our discussion, this analysis will concentrate on the Fuk Ching gang. The Fuk Ching are active in New York City, and are regarded as one of the most powerful, and also transnationally active, Chinese organized crime groups in the U.S. (Chin, 1996). They are estimated to have approximately 35 members, with another 20 members currently in prison. Other major gangs in New York City include the Ghost Shadows, Flying Dragons, Tung On, and Born-to-Kill. The New York City gangs, like the Fuk Ching, mainly operate extortion and protection rackets in defined neighborhoods in New York's Chinatown. Their victims are mostly businesses in Chinatown. In California, the Chinese organized crime presence and problem is quite different from that in New York. In California, the dominant groups are the Wo Hop To and the the Wah Ching. One of the structural characteristics that makes Chinese organized crime different from other forms is the relationship between some of the street gangs and certain adult organizations. The latter are called tongs. The Fuk Ching, for example, are affiliated with the Fukien American Association. The Fukien American Association – as with other tongs and their relationships with gangs – provide the Fuk Ching with a physical place to gather and hang out. They allow the gang to operate on their (the tong's) territory, thus legitimizing them with the community. They also provide criminal opportunities (such as protecting gambling operations), as well as supplying money and guns. The Fuk Ching originally emerged in New York in the mid-1980s, and as with other gangs, their main criminal activity in Chinatown was extortion. They were founded by a collection of young men (youth in their late teens and early twenties) from Fujian province in China --many if not all of whom had criminal records in China. Fuk Ching recruitment today continues to be among Fujianese teenagers.
Encouraged by the US, the Caribbean is being drawn into a global panic over human trafficking, leading to greater policing and surveillance of migrant women and the sex trade. Drawing on colonial precedents, the moral outrage about women trafficked into prostitution, embodied in legislation such as the US Trafficking Victims Protection Act, obscures the deeper causes of exploitation and oppression and leads to the demonisation of those in undocumented, hyper-exploited labour forces. Moreover, the false equation of trafficking with prostitution renders sexual labour as coerced labour and, as such, misrepresents sexual agency.
Although slavery is illegal throughout the world, we learned from Kevin Bales's highly praised exposé, Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy, that more than twenty-seven million people-in countries from Pakistan to Thailand to the United States--are still trapped in bondage. With this new volume, Bales, the leading authority on modern slavery, looks beyond the specific instances of slavery described in his last book to explore broader themes about slavery's causes, its continuation, and how it might be ended. Written to raise awareness and deepen understanding, and touching again on individual lives around the world, this book tackles head-on one of the most urgent and difficult problems facing us today. Each of the chapters in Understanding Global Slavery explores a different facet of global slavery. Bales investigates slavery's historical roots to illuminate today's puzzles. He explores our basic ideas about what slavery is and how the phenomenon fits into our moral, political, and economic worlds. He seeks to explain how human trafficking brings people into our cities and how the demand for trafficked workers, servants, and prostitutes shapes modern slavery. And he asks how we can study and measure this mostly hidden crime. Throughout, Bales emphasizes that to end global slavery, we must first understand it. This book is a step in that direction.
Feminist Review (2003) 73, 139–144. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fr.9400086
Slavery is illegal throughout the world, yet more than twenty-seven million people are still trapped in one of history's oldest social institutions. Kevin Bales's disturbing story of slavery today reaches from brick kilns in Pakistan and brothels in Thailand to the offices of multinational corporations. His investigation of conditions in Mauritania, Brazil, Thailand, Pakistan, and India reveals the tragic emergence of a "new slavery," one intricately linked to the global economy. The new slaves are not a long-term investment as was true with older forms of slavery, explains Bales. Instead, they are cheap, require little care, and are disposable. Three interrelated factors have helped create the new slavery. The enormous population explosion over the past three decades has flooded the world's labor markets with millions of impoverished, desperate people. The revolution of economic globalization and modernized agriculture has dispossessed poor farmers, making them and their families ready targets for enslavement. And rapid economic change in developing countries has bred corruption and violence, destroying social rules that might once have protected the most vulnerable individuals. Bales's vivid case studies present actual slaves, slaveholders, and public officials in well-drawn historical, geographical, and cultural contexts. He observes the complex economic relationships of modern slavery and is aware that liberation is a bitter victory for a child prostitute or a bondaged miner if the result is starvation. Bales offers suggestions for combating the new slavery and provides examples of very positive results from organizations such as Anti-Slavery International, the Pastoral Land Commission in Brazil, and the Human Rights Commission in Pakistan. He also calls for researchers to follow the flow of raw materials and products from slave to marketplace in order to effectively target campaigns of "naming and shaming" corporations linked to slavery. Disposable People is the first book to point the way to abolishing slavery in today's global economy. © 1999, 2000, 2004, 2012 by The Regents of the University of California.
Human Rights Quarterly 22.3 (2000) 867-872
Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy, by Kevin Bales (Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1999), 298 pp.
Slavery has existed for thousands of years and this ancient scourge has perhaps been the darkest spot in human history. Most people understand slavery in terms of legal ownership. Its evocation conjures up memories of the bondage of the Atlantic slave trade, the American South, or the Biblical slavery of the Old Testament. Today ownership of human beings is illegal in every country. Hence, slavery is understood to be an extinct phenomenon of the human past about which some feel guilty or angry and also a little smug and superior since legalized slavery no longer exists.
However, according to Kevin Bales, slavery still exists in many variant forms in most parts of the world today. In Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy, Bales stresses that slavery has evolved and endured even though legalized slavery has been abolished. According to Bales, the technology of violence in the new global economy is used as a form of control over impoverished people. Bales defines a slave as a person held by violence or the threat of violence for economic exploitation.
The new variant forms of slavery -- what Bales calls "new slavery"--are different from the older forms of slavery. Old forms of slavery were based on legal ownership where slaves were expensive, scarce, long-term investments generating low profits. Slaves were almost always racially or ethnically different from their masters in the old forms. In all respects, "old" slavery reflected the agricultural and rural economies of which it was a part. On the other hand, the "new" slavery is generated essentially by greed and the profit-making motive. Slaves are controlled not through legal ownership, but violence. In the "new" forms of slavery, profits are high and the slaves are readily dispensable.
Although Bales argues that slavery exists in almost all countries of the world, he bases his conclusions on case study data from five countries. Bales focuses on one industry in each country: prostitution in urban Thailand, the charcoal industry in Brazil, the brick-making industry in Pakistan, the Indian agricultural industry's "untouchable" farm workers, and water carrying in Mauritania. In choosing these five countries, Bales' principal objective was to highlight the different types of slavery that vary between old and new forms. Bales analyzes these variant forms of slavery within the social, economic, and historical context of each country.
Thailand poses the purest example of the new form of slavery. The prostitution industry, which is illegal in Thailand, is rife with the characteristics of the new slavery. According to Bales, there are currently between half a million and one million prostitutes (in a national population of 60 million) and prostitution is one of the biggest industries in Thailand. Prostitutes are sold everywhere in Thailand -- barber shops, massage parlors, coffee shops and cafes, bars and restaurants, night clubs and karaoke bars, brothels, hotels, and even temples. The industry is fueled by Thailand's entrance into the global economy. Capital flows in from middle and upper-class Thais, who invest without any social repercussions; often the police and other government actors are intricately involved in the system. Investors from Japan, Singapore, South Korea, and Hong Kong also contribute heavily. The industry is very profitable (sometimes with 500% or more return per year) and very little capital is needed to start operations.
Most of the prostitutes are either bought or recruited by brokers and pimps from Northern Thailand, Burma, and Laos. They are usually bought at a young age from consensual parents, often only for the price of a TV set. After they are taken to the cities and towns, they are beaten into submission and are often raped if they refuse to consent to sex. Prostitutes are hardly paid anything for their services and most of their earnings are used for rent and living expenses in the brothels. Most of the money earned in the industry goes to brothel owners and pimps. Prostitutes face various risks at the brothels, including contracting sexually transmitted diseases...
Trafficking of women and children for the sex industry and for labor is prevalent in all regions of the United States. An estimated 45,000 to 50,000 women and children are trafficked annually to the United States, primarily by small crime rings and loosely connected criminal networks. The trafficked victims have traditionally come from Southeast Asia and Latin America; however, increasingly they are coming from the New Independent States and Central and Eastern Europe. Trafficking to the US is likely to increase given weak economies and few job opportunities in the countries of origin; low risk of prosecution and enormous profit potential for the traffickers; and improved international transportation infrastructures. Though it may be impossible to eradicate trafficking to the US, it is possible to diminish the problem significantly by targeted prevention and micro-credit strategies in the source countries; strengthening the penalties and laws against traffickers in this country; and enhancing assistance and protections for the victims.
Current legal responses to the problem of human trafficking often reflect a deep reluctance to address the socio-economic root causes of the problem. Because they approach trafficking as an act (or series of acts) of violence, most responses focus predominantly on prosecuting traffickers, and to a lesser extent, protecting trafficked persons. While such approaches might account for the consequences of trafficking, they tend to overlook the broader socioeconomic reality that drives trafficking in human beings. Against this backdrop, this article seeks to reframe trafficking as a migratory response to current globalizing socioeconomic trends. It argues that, to be effective, counter-trafficking strategies must target the underlying conditions that impel people to accept dangerous labor migration assignments. The article recommends that existing counter-trafficking strategies be assessed with a view to assessing their potential for long-term effectiveness. It also advocates strategic use of the non-discrimination principle to promote basic economic, social, and cultural rights, the deprivation of which has sustained the trafficking phenomenon.
This is an experimental assignment undertaken for the ILO to try to estimate the order of magnitude of the profits from forced labour and human trafficking. The paper’s main finding is that global profits made from forced labourers exploited by private agents or enterprises could reach US 31.6 billion from trafficked victims. The largest profits – more than US$ 15 billion - are made from people trafficked and forced to work in industrial countries. These figures show that profits are possibly much larger than has so far been recognized by the estimates of other national or international organizations. They also support the view that trafficking thrives because it is lucrative and that policy measures to combat this scourge must include the confiscation of the financial assets of those involved in trafficking across or within borders. This requires countries to put in place and implement as rapidly as possible serious systems of financial investigation.
PIP
"A case is made for treating international migration as a global business which has both legitimate and illegitimate sides.... The article focuses on migrant trafficking, the core of the illegitimate business.... Our model conceives of trafficking as an intermediary part of the global migration business facilitating movement of people between origin and destination countries.... The model also suggests how through the existence of common routes and networks of contacts, traffickers increasingly channel migrants, thus determining the geography of movement. We also demonstrate the model with available evidence on trafficking mainly in and across Europe and attempt thereby to show how trafficking operates both theoretically and in practice." (EXCERPT).
The article reviews the empirical evidence for trafficking and human smuggling in Europe. It argues that a market for irregular migration services has emerged, in which the mechanisms and forms of organization are still relatively unknown. Irregular migrants using these services are exposed both to unscrupulous service providers and to the immigration and policing authorities, thereby generating a dependence on safeguards provided by the trafficking networks. Thus a symbiosis has developed between trafficker and trafficked. The enormous interest and concern for trafficking and human smuggling in governmental, inter-governmental and non-governmental organizations, in the media and popular opinion, is running ahead of theoretical understanding and factual evidence. This has implications for policy measures designed to combat trafficking and human smuggling, which may not work and also have unintended side effects. The article begins with a discussion of the main conceptual and definitional issues confronting researchers and politicians. This is followed by an assessment of the main theoretical approaches that have been developed and an evaluation of current statistical knowledge. Information on the organizational structure of trafficking organizations is then reviewed, followed by a summary of the characteristics of migrants involved, based on empirical studies that have been carried out. The article concludes by indicating some of the main research priorities.
The trafficking of migrants around the world hasbecome a multi-billion-dollar business for criminalorganisations. Over the last ten years, thousands ofmigrants have been moved illegally acrossinternational borders with the assistance ofprofessional trafficking organisations.The increasing number of people forced or willing tomove abroad as well as the restrictions placed onlegitimate migration systems have translated intoorganized crime. Around the world, traffickingorganisations have learned to take advantage of thisstructural inequality, creating sophisticated channelsof illegal migration while exploiting those forced orwilling to migrate.This article seeks to examine traffickingorganisations in light of the most recent theories andinterpretations of organized crime, that is theeconomic analysis of transnational criminalorganisations. With respect to the elaboration offuture countermeasures on national, regional andinternational levels, the aim of this article is toidentify more precisely the major organisational andoperational features of the migrant traffickingbusiness.The article begins with an introductory discussion ofthe economic approach to organized crime in part 1.Part 2 analyses the illegal market in which criminalorganisations, in particular traffickers, operate.This provides the working basis for the examination ofthe migrant trafficking organisation in part 3 of thearticle.
Volume 1 deals with international crimes. It contains several significant contributions on the theoretical and doctrinal aspects of ICL which precede the five chapters addressing some of the major categories of international crimes. The first two chapters address: the sources...
I. Introduction Since the turn of the century, legislation in Western countries has expanded rapidly to reverse the brief dominance of laissez faire during the nineteenth century. The state no longer merely protects against violations of person and property through murder, rape, or burglary but also restricts "dis crimination" against certain minorities, collusive business arrangements, "jaywalking," travel, the materials used in construction, and thousands of other activities. The activities restricted not only are numerous but also range widely, affecting persons in very different pursuits and of diverse social backgrounds, education levels, ages, races, etc. Moreover, the likeli hood that an offender will be discovered and convicted and the nature and extent of punishments differ greatly from person to person and activity to activity. Yet, in spite of such diversity, some common properties are shared by practically all legislation, and these properties form the subject matter of this essay. In the first place, obedience to law is not taken for granted, and public and private resources are generally spent in order both to prevent offenses and to apprehend offenders. In the second place, conviction is not generally considered sufficient punishment in itself; additional and sometimes severe punishments are meted out to those convicted. What determines the amount and type of resources and punishments used to enforce a piece of legislation? In particular, why does enforcement differ so greatly among different kinds of legislation?
The main theme of this article is market development and trafficking as a business. It touches upon most of the aspects of the phenomenon, which have been encountered elsewhere, and translates them into the relatively unfamiliar context of many of the Asian and South-East Asian economies. Equally, the literature cited is also probably unfamiliar. Themes touched upon include democratization, inter-state relations, human rights, and scale and perspectives, together with the problems of definitions, theory, and the reliability of data. The directions and characteristics of trafficking flows together with routes and border control are also considered. Coordinated official responses to criminality and criminal organizations, as well as to trafficked individuals, are beginning to emerge. There is a note of caution sounded that contextual and cultural perspectives, particularly on sex workers, must be viewed somewhat differently to those in Western societies. The article concludes that as long as countries in Asia maintain their policies of restrictive immigration, trafficking can be expected to continue and almost certainly increase. This is because accelerating development creates demand for labor at various skill levels and because even in times of recession migrants and brokers will seek to side-step attempts to expel immigrants and restrict access to labor markets. The elimination of trafficking is unlikely to be realistically achieved through legislation and declarations of intent but by improvements in the socioeconomic status of the population.
The article addresses the question of how to develop appropriate measures to tackle trafficking in women, based on the findings of a study of trafficking between the Philippines and Belgium. It argues that there is no easy or unidimensional solution to human trafficking, since it is influenced by a complex set of factors, often working in combination with one another. It concludes that control measures alone cannot stop the flow of trafficking in women and that a legal approach which relies solely on one type of legislation would be too narrow. An effective strategy must combine and balance punitive measures with protection of human rights, stricter border control and the removal of the root causes of irregular movements. Measures must be agreed and coordinated between origin, transit and receiving countries.
A recent manifestation of the North/South, East/West political-economic divide is the international sex trade in women, of which trafficking in women for purposes of sexual employment is a large subset. Trafficking in humans in general, and women in particular, has taken center stage in many nation-states as an issue of a threat to national security and societal cohesion. This article explores some of the basic facts about trafficking and spotlights it as a truly global phenomenon, with its contemporary origins in the international capitalist market system. Furthermore, it argues that the international political economy of sex not only includes the supply side--the women of the third world, the poor states, or exotic Asian women--but it cannot maintain itself without the demand from the organizers of the trade--the men from industrialized and developing countries. The patriarchal world system hungers for and sustains the international subculture of docile women from underdeveloped nations.
This paper concentrates on both the positive and normative effects of punishments that enforce laws to make production and consumption of particular goods illegal, with illegal drugs as the main example. Optimal public expenditures on apprehension and conviction of illegal suppliers obviously depend on the extent of the difference between the social and private value of consumption of illegal goods, but they also depend crucially on the elasticity of demand for these goods. In particular, when demand is inelastic, it does not pay to enforce any prohibition unless the social value is negative and not merely less than the private value. We also compare outputs and prices when a good is legal and taxed with outputs and prices when the good is illegal. We show that a monetary tax on a legal good could cause a greater reduction in output and increase in price than would optimal enforcement, even recognizing that producers may want to go underground to try to avoid a monetary tax. This means that fighting a war on drugs by legalizing drug use and taxing consumption may be more effective than continuing to prohibit the legal use of drugs.
Gary S. Becker, the 1992 recipient of the Nobel Prize for Economic Science and Professor of Economics at the University of Chicago, spoke to business and community leaders as guest lecturer in the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond's Economic Lecture Series. This article is excerpted from The Economics of Crime: Prevention, Enforcement, and Punishment, which outlined his premise that people decide whether to commit a crime by a comparison of the benefits and costs.
Remarks on efforts to globally promote women's rights'', Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents
- G Bush
Bush, G.
2004 ''Remarks on efforts to globally promote women's rights'', Weekly
Compilation of Presidential Documents, 40(11): 395-399.