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Reliability and Validity of a Reactive Agility Test for Australian Football
Abstract
The aim of this study was to test the reliability and construct validity of a reactive agility test (RAT), designed for Australian Football (AF).
Study I tested the reliability of the RAT, with 20 elite junior AF players (17.44 +/- 0.55 y) completing the test on two occasions separated by 1 wk. Study II tested its construct validity by comparing the performance of 60 participants (16.60 +/- 0.50 y) spread over three aged-matched population groups: 20 athletes participating in a State Under-18 AF league who had represented their state at national competitions (elite), 20 athletes participating in the same league who had not represented their state (subelite), and 20 healthy males who did not play AF (controls).
Test-retest reliability reported a strong correlation (0.91), with no significant difference (P = .22) between the mean results (1.74 +/- 0.07 s and 1.76 +/- 0.07 s) obtained (split 2+3). Nonparametric tests (Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney) revealed both AF groups performed significantly faster on all measures than the control group (ranging from P = .001 to .005), with significant differences also reported between the two AF groups (ranging from P = .001 to .046). Stepwise discriminant analyses found total time discriminated between the groups, correctly classifying 75% of the participants.
The RAT used within this study demonstrates evidence of reliability and construct validity. It further suggests the ability of a reactive component within agility test designs to discriminate among athletes of different competition levels, highlighting its importance within training activities.
... In recent years, there have been an increase in the number of studies researching reactive agility (RA) (3,4,9,14,16,19,26,29,30,47,60,65,67). These studies have aimed to determine the discriminatory validity of the tests at different performance levels (16,21,23,30,31,38,44,45,49,52,58,71,73,74), determining the factors that may affect RA ability (17,24,55,56,68,69,75) and its trainability (6,10,18,26,33,46,72). Furthermore, many of these studies have identified agility as being a different athletic quality to change-of-direction speed (12,20,40,44,51,57,66). ...
... Seventy-five percent of the studies included tests in which Y-shaped or T-shaped tasks were used, where athletes had to respond to a light (16 studies), human (16 studies), or video (7 studies) stimulus. In 32 of the tests (10)(11)(12)19,24,25,(27)(28)(29)31,38,41,47,49,(55)(56)(57)(58)(59)(60)(61)(62)65,67,69,(71)(72)(73)(74), each athlete had to perform either a single 45 or 90°change of direction. However, in the more recent literature, most studies included more than a single change of direction or more than one reaction to a given stimulus. ...
... Sixteen studies included in the current review assessed agility through the response to the movement from a researcher or another player as an elicited stimulus (10,14,24,25,27,28,33,41,(56)(57)(58)(59)65,(71)(72)(73). The main advantage of using this type of agility test is its accessibility and the greater specificity that the stimulus represents. ...
The aims of this systematic review were to: 1) examine the reliability of the reactive agility tests and, 2) analyse the discriminatory validity of the agility tests. A literature search was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). We explored PubMed, SPORTDiscus and Cochrane Plus databases looking for articles about agility in team sports. After filtering for article relevance, only 42 studies met the inclusion criteria; 37 of which assessed the reliability of agility tests and 22 assessing their validity. Reliability showed a high ICC in almost all studies (range 0.79-0.99) with the exception of two studies. In addition, other studies also assessed the reliability of decision time (ICC=0.95), movement time (ICC=0.92) and decision accuracy (ICC=0.74-0.93), all of which exhibited acceptable reliability. Furthermore, these data show high discriminatory validity, with higher performance players being faster than lower performance level players (mean = 6.4%, range = 2.1-25.3%), with a faster decision time (mean = 23.2%, range = 10.2-48.0%) with the exception of one study, and better decision accuracy (mean = 9.3%, range = 2.5-21.0%). Thus, it can be concluded that reactive agility tests show good reliability and discriminatory validity. However, most agility tests occur in simple contexts whereby only two possible responses are possible. Therefore, future research should consider creating more specific and complex environments which challenge the cognitive process of high-level athletes.
... O que há de novo neste conceito é a importância reservada aos componentes anteriormente não considerados, como a capacidade cognitiva e de tomada de decisão -caracterizando essa ação como aberta Sheppard, Young, Doyle, Sheppard, & Newton, 2006;Young & Willey, 2010). Ou seja, semelhante à imprevisibilidade que ocorre em diferentes espor-à imprevisibilidade que ocorre em diferentes espor-imprevisibilidade que ocorre em diferentes esportes, como é o caso dos jogos coletivos (Veale, Pearce, & Carlson, 2010). ...
... Os testes tradicionais de agilidade nos esportes coletivos apenas envolviam a mudança de direção do indivíduo avaliado Veale et al., 2010). Nestes procedimentos o atleta iniciava o teste com conhecimento prévio de quando as mudanças de direção ocorreriam. ...
... Isso porque estamos tratando de um teste que avalia uma condição geral -não aquela que requer um grau de especialização no esporte. Por outro lado, estudos recentes demostram que apenas os testes abertos, que exigem alto grau de especialização do atleta, são capazes de diferenciar atletas de diferentes níveis de rendimento (Sheppard et al., 2006;Veale et al., 2010). Ou seja, nos esportes coletivos os atletas são frequentemente exigidos a tomar decisões rápidas sobre suas ações. ...
... Two of the LRAT studies were replicas of the design by Sheppard et al. (24) however they were tested on rugby league players (9, 10). The other two LRAT (18,25) designed their RAT so that the participants ran a Y pattern similar the VRAT. ...
... All 10 RAT included in the systematic review recorded total time to complete the test as one of their outcome measures. However, decision/response time was not measured by all of the studies with three (18,24,25) only measuring movement times. Response time was usually assessed via post hoc video analysis and was defined as the time difference between the first definitive foot contact initiating the movement from the investigator in the final direction they moved their body, and the first definitive foot contact initiating the response from the participant. ...
... Additionally, some studies did not measure decision/response time (18,24,25) and only measured total time. As discussed by Gabbett (10), if decision time was not recorded, some athletes may be incorrectly classified as having superior anticipatory skills when in fact they had superior movement time. ...
Agility is defined as a rapid whole-body movement with change of direction or speed in response to a stimulus. However, traditional agility tests do not address this definition and are pre-planned with no stimulus. In response to this, studies have been conducted to develop a new agility test that incorporates a sport-specific stimulus. The aim of this review was to summarize the literature on reactive agility tests and provide coaches with recommendations on the best way to test and develop agility in athletes. A literature search was conducted to find agility tests that used a sport-specific stimulus and tested higher and lesser-skilled athletes. Ten articles were identified that meet the criteria for inclusion with half of the studies incorporating a video based stimulus while the other half used a tester as the stimulus. It was found that reactive agility tests were a valid and reliable method of testing agility compared to traditional pre-planned agility tests. Reactive agility tests can also be used as a training drill to improve an athlete’s perceptual and response times by using a sport specific stimulus while pre-planned agility drills may not.
... Agility is another physical characteristic essential in rugby [26,27]. Players are required to make fast decisions while rapidly accelerating, decelerating and changing direction [21,22]. ...
... Several authors have evaluated the agility of rugby players using a number of different tests including the 'L' run, Illinois agility run test, 505 and the modified 505 test [28,29]. The pre-planned nature of these tests limit their applicability to real game demands since changes of direction in rugby are often in response to stimuli such as an attacking or defending opponent [25,27,30]. It is now commonly accepted that perceptual or neuropsychological factors such as anticipation, intuition, sensory processing and decision-making are all important to agility performance [27,30]. ...
... The pre-planned nature of these tests limit their applicability to real game demands since changes of direction in rugby are often in response to stimuli such as an attacking or defending opponent [25,27,30]. It is now commonly accepted that perceptual or neuropsychological factors such as anticipation, intuition, sensory processing and decision-making are all important to agility performance [27,30]. Today, the reactive agility test (RAT) is widely used in literature to evaluate the change in direction with speed while the players are responding to unpredictable stimuli [27,30,31]. ...
Background:
Scientific focus on rugby has increased over the recent years, providing evidence of the physical or physiological characteristics and game-specific skills needed in the sport. Identification of tests commonly used to measure these characteristics is important for the development of test batteries, which in turn may be used for talent identification and injury prevention programmes. Although there are a number of tests available in the literature to measure physical or physiological variables and game-specific skills, there is limited information available on the psychometric properties of the tests. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to systematically review the literature for tests commonly used in rugby to measure physical or physiological characteristics and rugby-specific skills, documenting evidence of reliability and validity of the identified tests.
Methods/design:
A systematic review will be conducted. Electronic databases such as Scopus, MEDLINE via EBSCOhost and PubMed, Academic Search Premier, CINAHL and Africa-Wide Information via EBSCOhost will be searched for original research articles published in English from January 1, 1995, to December 31, 2015, using a pre-defined search strategy. The principal investigator will select potentially relevant articles from titles and abstracts. To minimise bias, full text of titles and abstracts deemed potentially relevant will be retrieved and reviewed by two independent reviewers based on the inclusion criteria. Data extraction will be conducted by the principal investigator and verified by two independent reviewers. The Consensus-based Standards for the Selection of Health Measurement Instruments (COSMIN) checklist will be used to assess the methodological quality of the selected studies.
Discussion:
Choosing an appropriate test to be included in the screening test battery should be based on sound psychometric properties of the test available. This systematic review will provide an overview of the tests commonly used in rugby union and other related high intermittent team sports characterised by skill executions using the hands and legs such as Rugby League and Australian Rules Football. In addition, the review will highlight the psychometric properties of the identified tests. This information is crucial in developing a sport-specific test battery which can be used for talent identification, especially among young adolescent players, and injury prevention programmes.
Systematic review registration:
PROSPERO CRD42015029747.
... Therefore, to respond faster, the tested athlete should pay attention to both the ball and movements of the other players (opponents). We believe that skilled water polo players move significantly faster and spend less time making decisions compared to novice players (Veale, Pearce, & Carlson, 2010;Young & Willey, 2010). ...
... The Functional Test for Agility Performance showed trends similar to those observed in previous studies that were conducted to evaluate effectiveness of an open agility test in distinguishing performance of athletes with different standard competition levels Uljevic, et al., 2014;Veale, et al., 2010). Although kinematic movement patterns and athletes' perceptual cues were not measured in FTAP, we believe that better performance was positively correlated with a combina-tion of large adjustments in body position, mental attention, and ability to anticipate passes, which was possible due to perceptions of postural cue information (Veale, et al., 2010). ...
... The Functional Test for Agility Performance showed trends similar to those observed in previous studies that were conducted to evaluate effectiveness of an open agility test in distinguishing performance of athletes with different standard competition levels Uljevic, et al., 2014;Veale, et al., 2010). Although kinematic movement patterns and athletes' perceptual cues were not measured in FTAP, we believe that better performance was positively correlated with a combina-tion of large adjustments in body position, mental attention, and ability to anticipate passes, which was possible due to perceptions of postural cue information (Veale, et al., 2010). For example, we subjectively observed that in FTAP skilled athletes used short rotational movements and both hands to remove the ball floating in an arch. ...
The aim of this study was to evaluate the sensitivity and validity of the Functional Test for Agility Performance (FTAP) in water polo players. Six elite junior (aged 16.33±0.82 years) male players and 65 competitive men (aged 18.1±4.3 years) who were classified in three groups (G1-3), participated in different phases of the test. The scores accomplished in FTAP at two periods (initial and final) were compared. They were correlated with the scores in Sprint/Agility Test and differences between standards of competition (G1-3) were assessed. Performance differences were assessed using the paired t-test and Pearson’s correlation was used to determine the association with agility time in the Speed/Agility Test. Differences between standards of competition were assessed using ANOVA. The final Functional Test for Agility Performance was performed in fewer seconds compared to initial (p=.002, r=.94). No significant correlation was found between Functional Test for Agility Performance and Speed/Agility Test (r=.42, p=.40), as expected and evidencing the discriminant validity. Differences were found between G1 and G3 (p<.001) and G2 and G3 (p=.008). The Functional Test for Agility Performance showed adequate sensitivity and validity, and thus is a decision-making test that can be used to assess training and expertise.
... In the study, ARF players were tasked with responding to a human performing four possible scenarios, where scenarios were presented in a random order and differently for each athlete. The high test-retest reliability (ICC 0.87) observed within this study has also been reported for other studies [8,[38][39][40][41][42][43]. ...
... Despite the aforementioned findings, it is worth remembering that an actual human is involved in testing and their accompanying variable movement still has the potential to affect the repeatability, accuracy, and overall test integrity. In one instance, no significant difference was reported between the times recorded for each of the four tester-initiated movement directions (p = 0.11) [42]. However, Young and Willey [43] highlighted the influence a tester may have on performance in a group of semiprofessional ARF players. ...
... Whether the included external cues adequately challenge the cognitive abilities of high-standard athletes is therefore questionable [31,37]. Likewise, while current tests may be able to discriminate between playing level, this may not be the case for different positions [42]. ...
Background
Agility is an important characteristic of team sports athletes. There is a growing interest in the factors that influence agility performance as well as appropriate testing protocols and training strategies to assess and improve this quality.
Objective
The objective of this systematic review was to (1) evaluate the reliability and validity of agility tests in team sports, (2) detail factors that may influence agility performance, and (3) identify the effects of different interventions on agility performance.
Methods
The review was undertaken in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. We conducted a search of PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, and SPORTDiscus databases. We assessed the methodological quality of intervention studies using a customized checklist of assessment criteria.
Results
Intraclass correlation coefficient values were 0.80–0.91, 0.10–0.81, and 0.81–0.99 for test time using light, video, and human stimuli. A low-level reliability was reported for youth athletes using the video stimulus (0.10–0.30). Higher-level participants were shown to be, on average, 7.5 % faster than their lower level counterparts. Reaction time and accuracy, foot placement, and in-line lunge movement have been shown to be related to agility performance. The contribution of strength remains unclear. Efficacy of interventions on agility performance ranged from 1 % (vibration training) to 7.5 % (small-sided games training).
Conclusions
Agility tests generally offer good reliability, although this may be compromised in younger participants responding to various scenarios. A human and/or video stimulus seems the most appropriate method to discriminate between standard of playing ability. Decision-making and perceptual factors are often propositioned as discriminant factors; however, the underlying mechanisms are relatively unknown. Research has focused predominantly on the physical element of agility. Small-sided games and video training may offer effective methods of improving agility, although practical issues may hinder the latter.
... However, currently there is no functional agility test that assesses these movements in water polo. Thus, it is necessary to construct a test to evaluate the specific agility of players that, when combined with their physical motor abilities Currell and Jeukendrup, 2008;Veale et al., 2010;Young and Willey, 2010) represents the specific requirements of the sport (Tan et al., 2009). and Young et al. (2002) define agility as the capacity of an athlete to rapidly change speed or direction in response to a stimulus. ...
... However, recent studies have highlighted the importance of an evaluation of a combined set of cognitive and physical components . As such, besides the athlete having to quickly change direction, this action would have to be in response to an unexpected situation occurring during the test Veale et al., 2010;Young and Willey, 2010). ...
... To evaluate the specific agility of the players the authors designed a Functional Test for Agility Performance (FTAP). The test is characterized by its open nature Veale et al., 2010;Young and Willey, 2010), since the athlete does not have prior knowledge of the direction of his displacement thus ensuring the randomness of movements generated by the passes made by another player. The test presents the subjects with high-intensity dislocation of short duration, similar to the situations indicated by Tan et al. (2009). ...
Few functional agility tests for water polo take into consideration its specific characteristics. The preliminary objective of this study was to evaluate the reliability of an agility test for water polo players. Fifteen players (16.3 ± 1.8 years old) with a minimum of two years of competitive experience were evaluated. A Functional Test for Agility Performance (FTAP) was designed to represent the context of this sport. Several trials were performed to familiarize the athlete with the movement. Two experienced coaches measured three repetitions of the FTAP. Descriptive statistics, repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA), 95% limit of agreement (LOA), intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and standard error of measurements (SEM) were used for data analysis. It was considered that certain criteria of reliability measures were met. There was no significant difference between the repetitions, which may be explained by an effect of the evaluator, the ability of the players or fatigue (p > 0.05). The ICC average from evaluators was high (0.88). The SEM varied between 0.13 s and 0.49 s. The CV average considering each individual was near 6-7%. These values depended on the condition of measurement. As the FTAP contains some characteristics that create a degree of unpredictability, the same athlete may reach different performance results, increasing variability. An adjustment in the sample, familiarization and careful selection of subjects help to improve this situation and enhance the reliability of the indicators.
... For this reason, the eccentric-concentric muscular activity in this type of movement plays a fundamental role, and it is important to know the stress or muscular damage that it can cause to a player [7][8][9]. Efficiency in COD mechanics could be related to the player's agility as well as being an indicator of favorable performance in elite players [10]. An efficient COD mechanic could reduce the probability of long-term injuries [5,7]. ...
... GPS (Global Positioning System) devices have been Sensors 2023, 23, 3095 2 of 11 the most widely used monitoring resource in recent years [11]. However, low sampling frequency (5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20) Hz) seems to be a limitation for detecting fast movements when the duration is short [12]. ...
The purpose of this study was to study the validity and reproducibility of an algorithm capable of combining information from Inertial and Magnetic Measurement Units (IMMUs) to detect changes of direction (COD). Five participants wore three devices at the same time to perform five CODs in three different conditions: angle (45°, 90°, 135° and 180°), direction (left and right), and running speed (13 and 18 km/h). For the testing, the combination of different % of smoothing applied to the signal (20%, 30% and 40%) and minimum intensity peak (PmI) for each event (0.8 G, 0.9 G, and 1.0 G) was applied. The values recorded with the sensors were contrasted with observation and coding from video. At 13 km/h, the combination of 30% smoothing and 0.9 G PmI was the one that showed the most accurate values (IMMU1: Cohen’s d (d) = −0.29;%Diff = −4%; IMMU2: d = 0.04 %Diff = 0%, IMMU3: d = −0.27, %Diff = 13%). At 18 km/h, the 40% and 0.9 G combination was the most accurate (IMMU1: d = −0.28; %Diff = −4%; IMMU2 = d = −0.16; %Diff = −1%; IMMU3 = d = −0.26; %Diff = −2%). The results suggest the need to apply specific filters to the algorithm based on speed, in order to accurately detect COD.
... First, the generic movement patterns of the tester were replaced by soccer-specific passing movements as recommended in a recent review (19). Second, based on match analysis (1,7,21,26), a further directional change was added, thereby increasing the total distance (27). ...
... Reliability findings for the total time and the movement time are in accordance with previous research using the classic agility test and a live tester (25). In the respective studies, very large-tonearly perfect Pearson's r and ICC values (0.87-0.99) have been reported (10,13,14,22,25,27). However, to the best of our knowledge, there seemed to be no study that applied a live tester and examined the reliability of the response time, making comparisons with the literature impossible. ...
Altmann, S, Neumann, R, Ringhof, S, Rumpf, MC, and Woll, A. Soccer-specific agility: reliability of a newly developed test and correlates of rerformance. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2020—The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability of a newly developed soccer-specific agility test and to determine the correlation of different performance parameters with overall agility performance as measured by the total time. Twenty-two amateur soccer players (age, 25.1 ± 4.0 years) completed a newly developed agility test on 2 separate occasions. The test required the players to conduct 2 changes of direction, one in a preplanned manner and one in response to a stimulus that was provided by a live tester who performed different soccer-specific passing movements. Regarding reliability, very large Pearson's r and intraclass correlation coefficient values were obtained for the total time and the movement time, with moderate and large-to-very large values being evident for the response time and the decision-making time, respectively. The usefulness to detect moderate performance changes was rated as “good” for the total time, the response time, and the movement time. The decision-making time was rated as “OK.” The movement time showed a very large relationship with overall agility performance as measured by the total time, while the response time and the decision-making time showed small to moderate relationships. In conclusion, the newly developed soccer-specific agility test is a reliable tool to assess the agility performance of soccer players and can be used by coaches and researchers to detect moderate performance changes. Because physical aspects, represented by the movement time, showed the greatest influence on total agility performance, they are advised to be included in soccer-specific agility training programs of amateur players.
... Tieto faktory však navzájom vstupujú do interakcie v rôznej miere v závislosti od športovo-špecifického kontextu. Dnes sa vo všeobecnosti prijíma definícia, v ktorej spracovanie vizuálnych podnetov, anticipácia a reakčný čas sú najdôležitejšie komponenty športového prejavu agility v kolektívnych športoch (Veale et al., 2010). Lockie et al. (2014) sa vo svojom výskume pokúsili overiť predpoklad, že plánovaná (bežecká) a reaktívna agilita sú odlišné zručnosti (schopnosti) v atletike aj v basketbale. ...
... Okrem toho, niektoré štúdie nemerali čas rozhodovania (Morland et al., 2013;Veale et al., 2010) ale len celkový čas. Ako uvádzajú v diskusii Gabbett et al (2008), ak nebol čas rozhodovania zaznamenaný, niektorí športovci mohli byť nesprávne zaradení do najvyššej triedy podľa výkonu, keď v skutočnosti dosiahli slabý čas pohybu. ...
This book presents a comprehensive view of agility performance in sport. It has been designed for personal trainers and coaches in sports games and martial arts, for P.E. teachers in schools, professional athletes, sports students at universities, recreational athletes, researchers, as well as for the public interested.
The aim of this work is to explain, to trainers and coaches, the difference in reactive and running agility and offer them methods of training agility separately, with a specific focus on the core skills in the given sport.
The task of this monograph is to submit different training means, focusing on the development of agility for the stage of initial sports preparation and initial specialization as well as the specialized sports preparation stage. The application of the above-mentioned means should result in the improved motor display of a sportsperson, faster acquisition of motor skills, as well as a higher percentage of effectivity in a game.
... With available equipment, the protocol requires less preparation time and is easier to administer than video-based systems. Human-stimulus protocols have been widely used in rugby league (Gabbett et al., 2008(Gabbett et al., , 2011a(Gabbett et al., , 2011bGabbett & Benton, 2009), basketball (Scanlan et al., 2014a(Scanlan et al., , 2014b and Australian Rules football (Veale et al., 2010). The latter used a slightly modified version that involved an initial 2 m, unanticipated stimulus, cutting 45°, 5 m to the left or right and then another planned cut 45° in the opposite direction for another 5 m. ...
... Gabbett and Benton (2009) also compared elite and sub-elite rugby league players and found significant differences between groups in total time to complete the test, decision time and response accuracy (d = 1.39, 0.62, 0.58, respectively). Finally, Veale et al. (2010) found that their modified version of the RAT was able to discriminate between different ability levels of U18 Australian Rules football players. Gabbett et al (2011b) also found that reactive agility (r = 0.29) was one factor associated with the number of line break assists (an offensive match statistic) in professional rugby league match play. ...
... The apparatuses used in Badcamp could be considered low-cost compared with the tests that use digital cameras, media players, movement sensors, and computers. [4][5][6][7][8] The whole apparatus could be built or obtained for less than US $300. In addition, the test apparatuses are easily transported and quickly assembled (less than 10 min) anywhere they are to be used. ...
... Considering that they had only 2 possibilities (ie, forecourt and backcourt with 50% chance of success) and that in the badminton match the number of possible shuttlecock landing places is much greater than 2, there are still doubts as to whether the players frequently use anticipation during their actions in the match. 20 Consequently, the results of this study challenge the assumption that agility tests using generic stimuli are not indicated to test agility in open-skill sports 5,7,8,16 and support our hypothesis that expert players do not often use anticipation in the matches. Accordingly, it is plausible that the problem is not in the nature of the stimulus (generic or specific) but in the amount of stimuli and possible motor responses that could be selected to successfully perform the test. ...
Badminton requires open and fast actions towards the shuttlecock, but still there is no specific agility test for badminton players with specific movements.
The aims of this study were to develop an agility test that simultaneously assesses perception and motor capacity and examine the test's concurrent and construct validity and its test-retest reliability.
The Badcamp agility test consists of running as fast as possible to six targets placed on the corners and middle points of a rectangular area (5.6m by 4.2m) from the start position located in the centre of it, following a visual stimuli presented in a luminous panel. We recruited 43 badminton players (17-32 years-old) to evaluate concurrent (with shuttle run agility test - SRAT) and construct validity and test-retest reliability.
Results revealed Badcamp presents concurrent and construct validity, as its performance is strongly related to SRAT (ρ= 0.83, p<0.001) and performance of experts being better than non-expert players (p< 0.01). Also, Badcamp is reliable as no difference (p=0.07) and high ICC value (ICC=0.93) were found in the performance of the players in two different occasions.
The findings indicate that Badcamp is an effective, valid and reliable tool to measure agility, allowing coaches and athletic trainers to evaluate players' athletic condition, training effectiveness, and possibly detect talented individuals in this sport.
... The term agility has long been described with different meanings and interpretations and has been traditionally thought of as simply 'the ability to change direction quickly' [1,3]. However, this description has been undergoing a transformation with a particular emphasis on the reactive aspect of sport play and its association with sport specific agility [4][5][6][7][8]. ...
... Reactive agility is the term used to distinguish between the traditional ideology of agility and the new definition of agility. This form of agility has more relevance within the context of a sport specific training programme and several researchers have examined its application to sports such as tennis [9], Australian Rules Football [8], and netball [5]. Consistent with the concept of specificity, it is evident that generic light or visual directional based stimuli do not allow skilled performers the opportunity to use their superior anticipatory skill [1,7]. ...
The primary aim of this research was to determine if the two-handed ball carry impacted on time to completion of a change of direction speed (CODS) test and a reactive agility test (RAT). Fourteen males, registered in the local rugby league/union or touch football competitions, completed an L-Run (CODS) and a modified RAT while running either with (mean L-Run = 5.69 ±0.14; mean RAT stepping left = 3.50 ±0.18; stepping right = 3.46 ±0.14) or without (mean L-Run = 5.60 ±0.16; mean RAT stepping left = 3.43 ±0.15; stepping right = 3.44 ±0.16) a rugby ball to determine if the two-handed ball carry produced significant (p < 0.05) differences in test time. Statistical analysis showed that the two-handed ball carry produced significantly slower times in both the CODS test (p = < 0.002) and RAT (p = 0.022). It is suggested that sports, such as rugby league, rugby union, and touch football that require participants to run in possession of a ball while displaying different forms of agility, should consider implementing testing methods that incorporate the two-handed ball carry to more specifically reflect what transpires during play.
... The term agility has long been described with different meanings and interpretations and has been traditionally thought of as simply 'the ability to change direction quickly' [1,3]. However, this description has been undergoing a transformation with a particular emphasis on the reactive aspect of sport play and its association with sport specific agility [4][5][6][7][8]. ...
... Reactive agility is the term used to distinguish between the traditional ideology of agility and the new definition of agility. This form of agility has more relevance within the context of a sport specific training programme and several researchers have examined its application to sports such as tennis [9], Australian Rules Football [8], and netball [5]. Consistent with the concept of specificity, it is evident that generic light or visual directional based stimuli do not allow skilled performers the opportunity to use their superior anticipatory skill [1,7]. ...
The primary aim of this research was to determine if the two-handed ball carry impacted on time to completion of a change of direction speed (CODS) test and a reactive agility test (RAT). Fourteen males, registered in the local rugby league/union or touch football competitions, completed an L-Run (CODS) and a modified RAT while running either with (mean L-Run = 5.69 ±0.14; mean RAT stepping left = 3.50 ±0.18; stepping right = 3.46 ±0.14) or without (mean L-Run = 5.60 ±0.16; mean RAT stepping left = 3.43 ±0.15; stepping right = 3.44 ±0.16) a rugby ball to determine if the two-handed ball carry produced significant (p < 0.05) differences in test time. Statistical analysis showed that the two-handed ball carry produced significantly slower times in both the CODS test (p = < 0.002) and RAT (p = 0.022). It is suggested that sports, such as rugby league, rugby union, and touch football that require participants to run in possession of a ball while displaying different forms of agility, should consider implementing testing methods that incorporate the two-handed ball carry to more specifically reflect what transpires during play.
... The new reactive agility test also includes components of stimulus perception and decision-making in response to the movement of the tester. Based on the journal review, results from previous studies show the high validity and reliability of the reactive agility test for football (Veale et al., 2010). Moreover, it was also found that the validity was relatively high for the reactive test of the net game sports group (Farrow et al., n.d.). ...
Background: Reactive agility ability is part of a vital motor component in tennis that requires a more specific assessment according to the needs of the sport. Aim: This study analyzed the validity and reliability of technology-based reactive agility tests on tennis. Method: It is a research and development (R&D) research, which involves developing a measuring instrument for a reactive agility tennis sports. The research subjects were divided into four groups; first, based on a literature review of SINTA/international accredited journals; second, seven sports evaluation experts; third, 13 certified practitioners/coaches and 78 tennis athletes obtained from coaches; fourth, 40 randomly obtained tennis athletes. The data collection technique used the Likert scale, while the data analysis technique used the Aiken V validation test. Reliability test used person product moment statistics. Results: Research on the construction of the tennis Reactive Agility measuring instrument has good content validity with a V value of 0.85, and the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) value of 0.8 is categorized as good inter-rater reliability. Conclusion: The results show high content validation and high inter-rater test reliability in the construction of technology-based reactive agility tests for tennis sports, and this developing reactive agility test instruments can be used by coaches to evaluate and train the ability of tennis athletes. Keywords: Validity, Reliability, Reactive Agility Test, Court Tennis Sports
... For the Side Plank Leg Raise Test (SPLRT) the trunk dysfunction was associated with lower extremity injuries. Women demonstrated reduced core endurance compared to men, which has been linked to higher injury rates in women [52]. They also showed significantly reduced endurance during side plank and hip abduction. ...
... The evaluation is important to control training and performance and by systematically evaluating it is possible to predict individual and collective performance, which will result in valuable information for coaches and athletes (Canossa et al., 2009). Often in WP tests are applied empirically or, in some cases, of unclear relevance, therefore, tests that can assess specific motor skills, individually, and in combination, are needed (Veale et al., 2010). Agility, throw speed, and vertical jump are considered the main abilities that determine the success of a WP player, as previously reported (Alcaraz et al., 2011;Platanou, 2005), stand out. ...
This study aimed to verify, in water polo (WP), the networks formed with anthropometry, tactical position of the players, and performance in WP specific tests, by experience in the modality. It was aimed, as well, to comparing the variables of the net between the less (group 1 – G1, 24 players) and more (group 2 – G2, 25 players) experienced players. The study included WP players from four teams. Body mass, height, and arm span were measured and tests for agility (AGIL), vertical jump (VJ) and throw speed (TS) were applied. Comparison between groups was performed with Student’s t test for independent data and the effects size were verified with Cohen’s d. Three measures of centrality, in z-score, were used: expected influence (EI), closeness centrality (CC), and strength centrality (SC). Network figures demonstrated the relationships between variables in each group. Experience effect sizes were moderated for body mass and for VJ. Arm span and experience had the highest EI values (1.70 and 1.32, respectively), which indicates that the variables are most susceptible to interventions. For G1, tactical position and VJ presented the highest values of CC (1.23 and 1.75, respectively), which indicates that the variables are most quickly affected by interventions, and SC (1.14 and 0.77, respectively), which indicates they have the strongest relationships in the system. For G2, height and arm span had the highest EI values (1.05 and 0.91, respectively). Arm span and body mass had the highest CC values (1.57 and 0.91, respectively). Arm span and experience had the highest SC values (2.16 and 0.69, respectively). G2 formed a more stable network and fewer relationships than G1 players. In general, G1 had a more complex network and G2 a less complex network between variables; anthropometry and experience influence (i) the performance of the WP player to perform specific actions (agility, jumping and throwing) and (ii) the definition of the player’s tactical position in the team.
... La evaluación es importante para controlar el entrenamiento y el rendimiento y, mediante la evaluación sistemática, es posible predecir el rendimiento individual y colectivo (Quevedo et al., 2015;Menescardi et al., 2019), lo que se traducirá en información valiosa para entrenadores y deportistas (Canossa et al., 2009). A menudo, en el waterpolo las pruebas se llevan a cabo de forma empírica o, en algunos casos, con una relevancia poco clara; por lo tanto, se necesitan pruebas que puedan evaluar habilidades motoras concretas de forma individual y combinada (Veale et al., 2010). La agilidad, la velocidad de lanzamiento y el salto vertical se consideran las principales habilidades que determinan el éxito de un jugador de waterpolo, tal y como se ha registrado anteriormente (Alcaraz et al., 2011;Platanou, 2005). ...
The aim of this study was to verify the effect of rule changes in the 2019 water polo (WP) rules on the performance of sub-elite and elite level teams of both genders, comparing pre- and post- moments. The data were collected through official game reports from Brazilian and European WP tournaments, totaling 533 matches, referring to goals (G), goals per quarter (GQ1 to GQ4), exclusion fouls (EF) and penalty fouls (PF). Mean, standard deviation and 95 % confidence intervals were calculated for all variables. Generalised estimating equations were used to compare the variables pre- and post-WP rule changes. Effect sizes (Cohen’s d) were calculated. SPSS 20.0 was used in all analysis. The alpha significance level was established at.05. At the level of the sub-elite teams, women decreased GQ1 and increased GQ2, GQ3, GQ4 and EF, while men increased only EF and PF. At the level of the elite teams, women did not change the variables, whereas men increased G, GQ1, GQ2, EF and PF. The 2019 WP rule changes provoked different responses according to gender and the competitive level of the teams.
... Test Cooper (0,400) Agility is the ability of an individual to change direction quickly, which has been considered a qualitative determinant of success, whether at the individual level or the team (Veale et al., 2010). The idea of modern football is a sport whose peculiarity is the repetition of speeds and positions in the form of jumps, sprints, and changes in direction (Gharbi et al., 2012;Sheppard et al., 2006). ...
Objective: this study aims to build and propose a battery for physical tests according to scientific bases to be used in the selection process for school football teams in the secondary stage. Method and material: twelve physical tests representing the various physical characteristics of football players (endurance, strength, speed, agility, flexibility) were selected and applied to 48 players of the school football teams belonging to the State School Association of Biskra-Algeria. Results: the results indicated that the physical tests give statistically significant differences compared to other physical tests among the players of the school football teams in the secondary stage. Conclusions: the physical tests that gave statistically significant differences are the tests that will be the battery of physical tests for the players of school football teams in the secondary stage of Biskra state.
... Furthermore, a paired t-test revealed no difference between the performance on the test and retest (p = .07). Veale, Pearce, and Carlson (2010) tested the reliability and construct validity of a novel reactive agility test (RAT) on a sample of elite junior Australian Football players. More importantly, when testing the same population on two occasions separated by 1 week, the results of the RAT showed no significant difference (p = 0.22) and good reliability (r = 0.91) between the test results, indicating the absence of the learning effect through "test practice". ...
The aim of the present study was to examine the content validity and reliability of the newly developed Reaction Time and Defensive Slide Test (RTADST). Thirty-six female basketball players were recruited from three professional State Basketball league of Bosnia and Herzegovina clubs (age: 18.81 ± 2.58 years) who completed three separate trials of the RTADST with each trial consisting of fast shuffling movements left and right. Each athlete performed the test 3 times in one day, and repeated testing was conducted the following day at evening basketball sessions. The RTADST relative reliability was evaluated by Cronbach's alpha and ICC. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.81 which indicates good reliability. When recommendations from Bucheit et al. (2011) were taken into account, the value of ICC <0.69 indicated poor reliability. Absolute reliability of RTADST was assessed by CV, and its value was 5.3%, which is somewhat above the 5%, or the limit of acceptable reliability. Parameters of relative and absolute reliability after the exclusion of the first trial (familiarization with the test task), were more acceptable. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.90 and ICC = 0.82 compared to the one from all three trials. Considering absolute reliability, it could be concluded that the test is reliable since the CV value is below 5% (3.9%). Reliability between two days was assessed by ICC, and its value was 0.74, which confirms good reliability. Finally, the RTADST can be considered as a valid test that discriminates female basketball perimeter players and post players in reaction time and basketball defensive slide speed, while conditioning programs for the development of these abilities need to be carried out with a tool such is RTADST for the initial and final evaluation of these abilities.
... Likewise, there was a very large (R = 0.79) and large (R = 0.55) correlation between the average and maximum number of kicks performed in the TAAA test and the WAnT mean and peak power, respectively (p < 0.001). Authors Veale, Pearce & Carlson (2010) [20] tested reliability and validity of a reactive agility test (RAT) for Australian Football with 20 elite junior players. Test-retest reliability reported a strong correlation (0.91), with no significant difference (p = .22) ...
Czaková Monika, Broďáni Jaroslav (2022). Raliability and validity of karate agility test. In International Journal of Yoga, Physiotherapy and Physical Education, ISSN: 2456-5067, 2022, 7(2), 72-77.
... This is in line with the literature which states that at this time, tests to measure agility in field-based sports are less relevant to the characteristics of movement in competitions. [15]. ...
Background: Kata is a series of moves competed in karate that require agility in its movements. Purpose: This research aimed to determine the validity and reliability of karate agility test in kata category. Method: This was a developmental research. The data were collected using the Delphi technique, involving 7 experts and test-retest. The participants were 20 karate aged at least 20 years old who have practiced karate for 6 years and have won regional competitions. This was to determine the test of empirical validity and reliability. The content validity was calculated using the Aiken formula, the empirical validity was calculated using Pearson Product Moment, while the reliability was calculated using the Cronbach Alpha. Results: The results showed that the karate agility test in kata category had high validity and reliability. The Aiken results were as follows: Item (1) size has fit the karate in kata category with a value of V 0.85; Item (2) distance between cones has fit with a value of V 0.80; Item (3) equipment has fit with a value of V 0.80; Item (4) number of test repetitions has fit with a value of V 0.80; Item (5) test procedure has fit with a value of V 0.80; Item (6) safe instrument has fit with a value of V 0.85; Item (7) agility has fit with a value of V 0.85; Item (8) score taking has fit with a value of V 0.80. The results of Pearson product moment r-table were 0.444, r-count (test 1) was 0.927, r-count (test 2) was 0.903, significance was 0.000 < 0.05. Conclusion: It can be concluded that the agility test can be used to measure the karate agility in kata category.
... As an openskilled team sport, water polo athletes rely on agility to make quick, appropriate positional and directional changes based on observations of the ball, the referee, their opponents, and teammates. Recognizing the importance of agility for match performance, researchers have developed various agility tests for landbased sports with positive results, demonstrating the ability of these tests to classify athletes based on this crucial skill (13,17,18,21,28). The sport specificity of tests is an important factor in the robustness of a test (18), and is an aspect that is even more pertinent when considering how different movement in water is compared with that on land. ...
There is a gap in water-based agility testing that considers both the change-of-direction (COD) and perceptive-reactive components of agility. This study sought to develop easily implementable, sport-specific in-water agility tests for water polo and to verify the reliability and validity of these new tests: the in-water Stop and Go (SG) and Jump and Go (JG). Female water polo athletes at the Senior (n = 12, age = 22.1 ± 2.1 years), Junior (n = 19, age = 18.5 ± 1.0 years), and Youth (n = 11, age = 16.5 ± 0.8 years) national levels performed 3 trials of each of the SG, JG, and the existing Functional Test for Agility Performance (FTAP). Senior athletes performed an additional experimental session to assess reliability parameters. Relative reliability for agility and COD versions of the SG and JG was high or very high (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = 0.76–0.95). For construct validity analyses, significant between-group differences for each of the new tests (p < 0.05) were found. In contrast, the FTAP was moderately reliable (ICC = 0.57) and was unsuccessful in discriminating between playing levels. Considering the favorable metrological properties of the SG and JG, their fidelity to in-game demands, and their accessible setups, these new tests represent viable options to implement at grassroots and elite levels for the assessment and training of water polo–specific agility.
... Berdasarkan review jurnal hasil penelitian terdahulu menunjukkan bahwa validitas tinggi dan relibilitas tinggi tes reaktif agility untuk olahraga sepak bola (Veale et al., 2010). Dan juga diketemukan validitas cukup tinggi untuk tes reaktif kelompok olahraga net game (Farrow et al., 2005). ...
Instrumen pengukuran reaktif agility sangat diperlukan oleh beberapa cabang olaharga termasuk tenis meja, tetapi kenyataan belum ada instrument pengukuran reaktif agility untuk olahraga tenis meja. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menguji validitas Aiken’s dan menguji reliabilitas antar rater instrumen pengukuran reaktif agility olaharaga khusus tenis meja. Metode research and development yang dipergunakan dalam penelitian ini yaitu model 3D yang merupakan modifikasi model dari Thiagarajan yaitu Develop, dengan pendekatan campuran kualitatif dan kuantitatif. Partisipan adalah dokumen dan seoarang ahli. Pengumpulan data menggunakan teknik literature reviews dengan tipe narrative review, kemudian dilanjutkan dengan FGD dan teknik delphi. Instrumen penelitian menggunaka koesioner dengan skala rating 1 sampai 4. Analisis data menggunakan formula Aiken’s untuk uji konten validitas dan Cronbach's Alpha maupun intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) untuk uji reliabilitas antar rater. Hasil penelitian menunujukkan nilai koefisien Aiken’s V di atas 0,76, maka dapat dikatakan bahwa semua aspek valid. Selain itu, juga dihasilkan nilai Cronbach's Alpha dan ICC sebesar 0,875, maka dapat dikatakan bahwa instrument ini cukup andal. Dengan demikian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa instrument pengukuran reaktif agility olahraga khusus tenis meja memiliki validitas Aiken cukup tinggi, dan reliabilitas antar rater cukup kuat. Aiken’s Validity of test instrument for measuring the reactive agility of table tennis AbstractThe reactive agility measurement instrument is strongly needed by several sports, including table tennis. Nevertheless, there has no reactive agility measurement instrument used in table tennis. This research is aimed at testing the Aiken’s validity and the inter-rater reliability of the reactive agility measurement instrument in table tennis. The research and development (R&D) method used in this study refers to the 3D model, which is a modification model from Thiagarajan, including Develop, using a mixed approach of qualitative and quantitative. The participants were documents and an expert. Data were collected using a literature review technique with a narrative review, then proceeded with FGD and Delphi technique. The research instrument used was a questionnaire with a rating scale of 1 to 4. Data were analyzed using Aiken’s formula to test the content validity and Cronbach’s Alpha as well as intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) to test the inter-rater reliability. The research result shows that the Aiken’s V coefficient value is above 0.76, indicating that all aspects are valid. Furthermore, Cronbach’s Alpha and ICC value are 0.875, indicating that the instrument is quite reliable. Therefore, it is concluded that the reactive agility measurement instrument for table tennis has a quite high Aiken validity and a quite strong inter-rater reliability.
... Numerous studies have developed methods to assess physiological qualities of AF players (for examples see Pearson, Naughton, & Torode, 2006;Pyne, Gardner, Sheehan, & Hopkins, 2005;Veale, Pearce, & Carlson, 2010); however, there remains no valid and reliable AF kicking test to assess and monitor kicking performance and development, with the potential aim to establish skill benchmarks for player identification purposes. Therefore, the aim of the current study is to develop a match-referenced Australian Football Field-Based-Dynamic Kicking Assessment (AFFB-DKA) and establish the validity and reliability of the test to assess AF kicking performance. ...
Purpose: In Australian Football (AF), the ability to proficiently kick the ball is a critical skill and has been shown to be advantageous to a team’s successful performance; however, a valid and reliable match referenced kicking assessment remains absent. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop a valid and reliable AF kicking proficiency assessment comparative to match play kicking performance. Method: Youth male Australian Football players (n = 251) from different stages within the AF talent pathway were recruited. The developed AFFB-DKA (Australian Football Field-Based—Dynamic Kicking Assessment) considered particular constraints of match play kicking demands such as kick type, distance, delivery, and locomotion of the player receiving the ball. In total, 14 kicks were completed during the test. Validity (i.e., content, logical and construct) and reliability (i.e., test re-test) were assessed. Results: Findings indicate the kicking test can distinguish across and between age (i.e., U14; U16; U18) and skill groups (i.e., club; sub-elite; elite). The timeframe between U14 and U16 was identified as a potential key period where kicking skill acquisition may be most impressionable; however, further research is recommended to support this. Conclusion: The developed AFFB-DKA is the first Australian Football specific kicking assessment to consider and apply match play kicking constraints to make a more representative, valid and reliable assessment.
... These techniques are more frequently used in their counter attack activities practiced during their regular training as well as during the competitive matches when two equally trained teams take on each other (26). Better agility of W ater Polo athletes might further be attributed to their short bursts of rotational movements that involve both the hands to remove the ball floating in an arch (27,28). From this discussion it may be hypothesised that W ater Polo players possess better agility score than their Swimmer counterparts as also suggested in earlier investigations (29,30). ...
Introduction: Present study was aimed to evaluate the important fitness profile parameters in young male Indian Water Polo players and swimmers. Materials & Methods: State level male Water Polo players (age: 22.73±1.91 yrs) and swimmers (age: 22.00±1.13 yrs) were recruited from different sports academies, Kolkata, India. Sedentary subjects (age: 24.50±1.91 yrs) were randomly sampled from the same area. Physical and fitness profile parameters were assessed by standard methods. Results: VO2max, high intensity effort and agility depicted significantly (p<0.05) higher values in Water Polo group while flexibility, vertical jump test (VJT) and push up exhibited significantly (p<0.05) higher values in swimmers. Higher agility score in Water Polo might be attributed to their body movements from a horizontal to a vertical position. Higher score of flexibility, VJT and push up in swimmers was probably due to their participation in dynamic stretching, plyometric activities and specific motor pattern movements as well as breaststroke swimming. This indicated the tendency of having higher anaerobic capabilities in Swimmers in comparison to their Water Polo counterparts. Conclusion: Water Polo players and Swimmers have significant difference in the fitness profile parameters due to the variation in their event specific activity and difference in the training pattern. These data would also serve as the National standard of fitness profile data in Indian context. © 2018, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India. All rights reserved.
... The RAT referred to the same structure of the valid and reliable Y-shaped test widely used in literature (Green, Blake, & Caulfield, 2011;Oliver & Meyers, 2009;Veale, Pearce, & Carlson, 2010). In the present study, the RAT involved a decisionmaking element provided by a live tester acting as an opponent delivering an offensive stimulus to react to (Gabbett, Kelly, & Sheppard, 2008a;Morland, Bottoms, Sinclair, & Bourne, 2013;Paul, Gabbett, & Nassis, 2016;Trecroci et al., 2016). ...
The aim of the current study was to evaluate field-based physical performance of under 16 years (U16) elite and sub-elite soccer players. Forty elite (n = 20) and sub-elite (n = 20) soccer players were enrolled and tested for countermovement jump (CMJ), 10-m sprint and agility, in terms of sprint with 90° turns (S90), S90 with ball, Slalom, Slalom with ball, and reactive agility (RAT). Statistical and practical significant differences were observed in CMJ, S90 and RAT between elite and sub-elite. Elite players exhibited a likely better performance in Slalom, Slalom with ball and S90 with ball despite a non-significant difference by level of play. Concerning sprint ability, both groups showed similar performance in the 10-m sprint. Countermovement jump and agility tests are field-based physical assessments recommended to better distinguish between U16 elite and sub-elite soccer players.
... Whereas independent Samples Test and Paired Samples Test are significant between the two situations proposed in the opposite of their homogenous, calculate based on Levene's Test. Confirmed by Veale, Pearce, & Carlson, et al., (2010) in the importance of reactive component within agility test designs to discriminate athletes' different levels. Supported by our hypothesis in ability of player to coordinate his movements in real time compared to the environment variables, case the situation B. Propped by O'Neil, Perez, & Baker, (2014) as a dynamic environments enabling metacognitive awareness. ...
Baked on the theory, which advance the assessment of agility performance in the real game would depend on other factors such as Visual processing, Perception and Anticipation. To achieve this objective, we based on 18-meter test with five delimiters spaced by 3 meters between them, proposed in two situations. Situation (A), we refer to traditional agility tests, in which, we change the cone with flex players. The opposite of the situation (B) in which we integrate the Hexagonal Obstacle Test as part of the initial protocol with five dynamic players, asked to jump in four directions (left- center -/ right- center -front- center -back) into a single rhythm, coordinated by the examiner. For this proposal, 30 élite male Soccer Players participated in this study. Tested during the regional selection Oran league. Selected by attentional means based on their performance in 5-10-5 shuttle test.The comparison of results achieved in the two situations shows significant differences between them. Opposite of correlations strongly significant between the tests used in this study. The main conclusion of the study is that athletes regardless their Agility mental skills improvement. Can use our protocol to test their difficulties, according to the environment variables, for better concordances of perceptual motor skills to operate simultaneously. Record in the present study as strategy to improve Dynamic Decision Making, which involves continual decisions each with task-related tradeoffs, founded on cognitive functions such as visual processing, Timing, Reaction time Perception, and Anticipation as well as change of direction speed.
... For example, agility is a fundamental physiological characteristic required for optimal performance by rugby players. The construct has been evaluated using different tests such as 'L' run, Illinois agility run test, agility 505 test, modified 505 test and change of direction speed test in the literature [6,10,16,[18][19][20][21][22]. In an attempt to understand the basis of selecting tests, it may be important to have an overview of all the tests that measures a specific physiological construct and evaluate systematically the measurement properties of the identified tests in an attempt to identify test(s) with the strongest level of evidence per construct. ...
Background
This systematic review was conducted with the first objective aimed at providing an overview of the physiological characteristics commonly evaluated in rugby and the corresponding tests used to measure each construct. Secondly, the measurement properties of all identified tests per physiological construct were evaluated with the ultimate purpose of identifying tests with strongest level of evidence per construct.
Methods
The review was conducted in two stages. In all stages, electronic databases of EBSCOhost, Medline and Scopus were searched for full-text articles. Stage 1 included studies examining physiological characteristics in rugby. Stage 2 included studies evaluating measurement properties of all tests identified in Stage 1 either in rugby or related sports such as Australian Rules football and Soccer. Two independent reviewers screened relevant articles from titles and abstracts for both stages.
Results
Seventy studies met the inclusion criteria for Stage 1. The studies described 63 tests assessing speed (8), agility/change of direction speed (7), upper-body muscular endurance (8), upper-body muscular power (6), upper-body muscular strength (5), anaerobic endurance (4), maximal aerobic power (4), lower-body muscular power (3), prolonged high-intensity intermittent running ability/endurance (5), lower-body muscular strength (5), repeated high-intensity exercise performance (3), repeated-sprint ability (2), repeated-effort ability (1), maximal aerobic speed (1) and abdominal endurance (1). Stage 2 identified 20 studies describing measurement properties of 21 different tests. Only moderate evidence was found for the reliability of the 30–15 Intermittent Fitness. There was limited evidence found for the reliability and/or validity of 5 m, 10 m, 20 m speed tests, 505 test, modified 505 test, L run test, Sergeant Jump test and bench press repetitions-to-fatigue tests. There was no information from high-quality studies on the measurement properties of all the other tests identified in stage 1.
Conclusion
A number of physiological characteristics are evaluated in rugby. Each physiological construct has multiple tests for measurement. However, there is paucity of information on measurement properties from high-quality studies for the tests. This raises questions about the usefulness and applicability of these tests in rugby and creates a need for high-quality future studies evaluating measurement properties of these physiological tests.
Trial registrations
PROSPERO CRD 42015029747.
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (10.1186/s13102-017-0081-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
... It makes the physical capability known as agility one of the most important for successful performance in such sport modalities. Previous studies have recommended the use of specific agility tests for various sports like netball (Farrow et al., 2005), Australian football (Sheppard et al., 2006;Veale et al., 2010), tennis (Monte and Monte, 2007), basketball (Mikołajec et al., 2013), as well as football and futsal (Benvenuti et al., 2010). A common feature of these tests is that they challenge participants to perform shifts and changes of direction guided by visual stimuli. ...
The Badcamp agility test was created to evaluate agility of badminton players. The Badcamp is a valid and
reliable test, however, a doubt about the need for the use of this test exists as simpler tests could provide similar information about agility in badminton players. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine the specificity of the
Badcamp, comparing the performance of badminton players and athletes from other sports in the Badcamp and the shuttle run agility test (SRAT). Sixty-four young male and female athletes aged between 14 and 16 years participated in the study. They were divided into 4 groups of 16 according to their sport practices: badminton, tennis, team sport (basketball and volleyball), and track and field. We compared the groups in both tests, the Badcamp and SRAT. The results revealed that the group of badminton players was faster compared to all other groups in the Badcamp. However, in the SRAT there were no differences among groups composed of athletes from open skill sports (e.g., badminton, tennis, and team sports), and a considerable reduction of the difference between badminton players and track and field athletes. Thus, we concluded that the Badcamp test is a specific agility test for badminton players and should be considered in evaluating athletes of this sport modality.
... Furthermore, differences in the decision and total time between groups exceeded the MD values to be considered real (Fig. 2). In the past 10 years, many previous authors have developed and examined reactive agility assessments in athletic populations (i.e., Australian football) in an effort to differentiate players of different skill levels when compared to the traditional closed skill agility tests [20,23,24]. However, these tests many not translate well to more clinical settings which involve special populations and limited testing areas. ...
Background:
Reactive agility tests have become popular in sport for talent identification; however, the ability of these tests to evaluate physical function and falls risk in clinical populations warrants future study.
Aim:
To examine the reliability and construct validity of a novel functional reactive agility test (FRAT) across the lifespan.
Methods:
Forty-three young (24 ± 2 years), 32 middle-aged (50 ± 2 years), and 19 old (66 ± 4 years) men performed a FRAT that included a rapid lateral movement (1.5 m) in response to a randomly delayed visual stimulus. Test-retest reliability and minimum difference (MD) scores were determined from a subset of participants.
Results:
There was no systematic error (P > 0.087) between testing days, and the intraclass correlation coefficients, standard error of measurement (% of the mean), and MD values for decision time, movement time, and total time ranged from 0.876 to 0.949, 4.16-9.24%, and 0.128-0.138 s, respectively. The young men had faster decision times (P = 0.027) when compared to the older men and faster total times when compared to the middle-aged and older men (P < 0.001).
Discussion:
The FRAT demonstrated acceptable reliability and construct validity between different age groups.
Conclusion:
Due to its limited space requirements, the FRAT may serve as a useful tool in future studies examining clinical populations.
... In addition, many sports often require directional changes to occur while simultaneously manipulating equipment. Elite athletes have been found to produce a faster performance, by successfully adjusting their movement output to account for the task constraints (36,43). However, this has only been investigated during a change of direction task under closed preplanned conditions. ...
Agility is a key feature within many strength and conditioning programs, with the development of athlete's physical and technical qualities being the primary focus to increase performance. This approach is somewhat limited as true retention and transfer of performance from training to sport cannot be achieved unless coaches develop an athlete's ability to identify relevant stimuli and learn to adapt movement in response to varying constraints. The purposes of this article is to discuss the constrains acting on the athlete, and provide examples of how these can be manipulated to enhance information-movement coupling during training to improve overall agility performance.
... It makes the physical capability known as agility one of the most important for successful performance in such sport modalities. Previous studies have recommended the use of specific agility tests for various sports like netball (Farrow et al., 2005), Australian football (Sheppard et al., 2006;Veale et al., 2010), tennis (Monte and Monte, 2007), basketball (Mikołajec et al., 2013), as well as football and futsal (Benvenuti et al., 2010). A common feature of these tests is that they challenge participants to perform shifts and changes of direction guided by visual stimuli. ...
The Badcamp agility test was created to evaluate agility of badminton players. The Badcamp is a valid and reliable test, however, a doubt about the need for the use of this test exists as simpler tests could provide similar information about agility in badminton players. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine the specificity of the Badcamp, comparing the performance of badminton players and athletes from other sports in the Badcamp and the shuttle run agility test (SRAT). Sixty-four young male and female athletes aged between 14 and 16 years participated in the study. They were divided into 4 groups of 16 according to their sport practices: badminton, tennis, team sport (basketball and volleyball), and track and field. We compared the groups in both tests, the Badcamp and SRAT. The results revealed that the group of badminton players was faster compared to all other groups in the Badcamp. However, in the SRAT there were no differences among groups composed of athletes from open skill sports (e.g., badminton, tennis, and team sports), and a considerable reduction of the difference between badminton players and track and field athletes. Thus, we concluded that the Badcamp test is a specific agility test for badminton players and should be considered in evaluating athletes of this sport modality.
... The RAT used in this study referred to the similar Y-shaped agility test previously adopted by other authors (Green, Blake, & Caulfield, 2011;Oliver & Meyers, 2009;Veale, Pearce, & Carlson, 2010) and including a live experimenter. After an initial sprint, participants were required to react to the left or to the right gates according to the experimenter's movements: (i) step forward with the right or left foot, and change direction to the left or right, respectively; (ii) step forward with the right or left, then left or right, and change direction to the right or left, respectively. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of speed, agility and quickness (SAQ) training on acceleration (5 and 20 m), change of direction speed (CODS) and reactive agility in preadolescent soccer players. Thirty-five participants (age = 10.57 ± 0.26, body mass = 36.78 ± 5.34 kg, body height = 1.42 ± 0.05 m), randomly assigned to experimental (EG, n = 20) and control groups (CG, n = 15), completed a 12-week training intervention, 2 day/week. A significant interaction was found in 5-m sprint (P < 0.05, part η² = 0.117) and reactive agility (P < 0.01, part η² = 0.248) between EG and CG. In both groups, 20-m sprint time improved significantly (P < 0.05, effect size = 0.3–0.4) while performance on CODS remained unchanged after 12 weeks. These findings indicated that SAQ training could positively affect cognitive skills and initial sprint acceleration through the middle childhood, offering useful guidance to soccer coaches.
... anticipating on-going activities and making appropriate decisions) (Falk et al., 2004). Furthermore, we believe that skilled water polo players move significantly faster and spend less time making decisions compared to novice players (Veale et al., 2010;Young and Willey, 2010). ...
The reliability of the Functional Test for Agility Performance has only been evaluated in water polo players in a small group of novice athletes. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the reliability of the Functional Test for Agility Performance in skilled water polo players. Forty-two athletes (17.81 ± 3.24 years old) with a minimum of 5 years of competitive experience (7.05 ± 2.84 years) and playing at the national or international level were evaluated. The Functional Test for Agility Performance is characterized as a specific open decision-making test where a tested player moves as quickly as possible in accordance to a pass made by another player. The time spent in the test was measured by two experienced coaches. Descriptive statistics, repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA), 95% limit of agreement (LOA), intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and standard error of measurements (SEM) were used for data analysis. Athletes completed the Functional Test for Agility Performance in 4.15
0.47 s. The ICC value was 0.87 (95% IC = 0.80–0.92). The SEM varied between 0.24 and 0.38 s. The LOA was 1.20 s and the CV average considering each individual trial was 6%. The Functional Test for Agility Performance was shown to be a reliable quick decision-making test for skilled water polo players.
... In badminton, agility indicates the ability to move to the approaching shuttle with a correct footwork. There are several agility performance tests that have been developed according to the nature of the different sports namely rugby, netball and football which focuses on the change of direction speed and perceptual/decision making123. However, specific agility testing for badminton currently available only focuses on the change of direction speed with all tests forgoing the perceptual/decision making aspect [4]. ...
... In badminton, agility indicates the ability to move to the approaching shuttle with a correct footwork. There are several agility performance tests that have been developed according to the nature of the different sports namely rugby, netball and football which focuses on the change of direction speed and perceptual/decision making [1][2][3]. However, specific agility testing for badminton currently available only focuses on the change of direction speed with all tests forgoing the perceptual/decision making aspect [4]. ...
INTRODUCTION: Agility is an important quality in many sports played on court or field. In badminton, agility indicates the ability to move to the approaching shuttle with a correct footwork. There are several agility performance tests that have been developed according to the nature of the different sports namely rugby, netball and football which focuses on the change of direction speed and perceptual/decision making [1-3]. However, specific agility testing for badminton currently available only focuses on the change of direction speed with all tests forgoing the perceptual/decision making aspect [4]. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to present a new methodology for measuring specific movement agility in badminton. Additionally, a second purpose of the research is to investigate if there were differences of agility performance (changes of direction speed and decision time) between pre-planned agility (sequence movement) test and specific movement agility (randomly movement) test using previously developed system i.e. Badminton Agility Training and Testing System. METHODS: Specifically, the agility performance of male players (n=40) when responding to interactive LED lights (Fig. 1) showing the direction shot (randomly) from opponent, was compared to a traditional, pre-planned agility movement where no external stimulus (sequence) was present. Subjects were randomly selected among students enrolled in badminton as their curriculum course. The test was conducted after they have completed 14 weeks of the course. The total change of direction speed of the players was the primary dependent measures of interest. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: The results showed that significant differences existed between the two test conditions proving that the system was assessing different types of agility. The pre-planned agility (sequence) was found to be faster compared to the specific movement agility test (random) with significant difference (P < 0.05) between the mean results (25.63 + 1.94 s and 31.66 + 1.66 s). This difference was found to be caused by the presence of decision making (decision time) in the specific movement agility test [5]. CONCLUSION: Therefore, the results suggest that badminton-specific movement agility test system is a better measure of badminton specific agility performance than an equivalent non-specific pre-planned agility test since the nature of the game of badminton requires change of direction speed and decision making. Future research may include elite badminton players to further assess the device's capability.
... These elements of a CODS test were often missing from the reactive agility tests in the literature. For example, some of the reactive agility tests include a protocol that incorporated one change of direction and a sport specific stimulus Gabbett et al., 2008), a protocol with a generic stimulus and one change of direction of 37° (Oliver & Meyers, 2009), and a protocol with sport specific stimulus and two changes of direction of 45° (Veale, Pearce, & Carlson, 2010). Alternatively, a test that incorporated two movement patterns (side-stepping and forward sprinting), and 3 changes of direction with angles of 180°, 90°, and 45° has also been used in one study (Farrow et al., 2005). ...
The purpose of the present study was to develop a field-based agility test incorporating both the established elements of change of direction speed (CODS) tests, and an unplanned element (provided by a generic stimulus). Sixteen university sports students completed two tests, one week apart. Test 1 included an unplanned agility test (UAT) and a 20m sprint test, while test 2 included the UAT and a CODS test. The UAT was found to be reliable (intraclass correlation coefficient 0.89, coefficient of variation 3.7%), and the common variance between the UAT/CODS test, and the UAT/20m sprint was 41.5% and 19.5% respectively. The differences between both the total time and the cutting time on the UAT and the CODS test were highly significant (p < 0.01). These findings indicate that the UAT showed a good level of reliability, and that it measured a different characteristic to the CODS test. While the stimulus used in the UAT was generic, the test may better replicate the physical, if not the cognitive, demands of reactive agility actions in comparison with a CODS test. It may therefore be a practical, field based alternative to a specific reactive agility test that could be used by coaching practitioners.
In sports science, accurate tracking of athletes’ movement patterns is essential for performance analysis and injury prevention. Changes of direction (COD), frequently executed during basketball games at cutting angles of around 135° (internal angle of 45°), are essential for agility and high-level performance. Moreover, mastering effective COD mechanics is associated with a lower risk of injuries and enhanced long-term athletic success. However, manual segmentation of data from wearable sensors is labor-intensive and time-consuming, often creating bottlenecks for sports practitioners. The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and accuracy of an automated algorithm for detecting COD movements in basketball and to compare its performance with manual detection methods. Data were collected from 62 basketball players, each completing two tests (V-cut test and a modified V-cut test), totaling 248 trials. The system utilizes kinematic data from an Xsens full-body kit to analyze key variables that characterize direction changes. The proposed method detects COD events with a median error of one frame and an interquartile range of two frames. The system demonstrated nearly 80% accuracy in COD detection, as validated against manual video analysis. These findings indicate that automated COD detection can significantly reduce segmentation time for practitioners while providing actionable, data-driven insights to enhance kinematic assessment during sport-specific activities.
This systematic review aimed to analyze the evolution, reliability, and validity of agility testing in athletes. The results indicated the necessity of prioritizing reactive agility (RA) as the primary focus in the scientific assessment of athletes' agility performance. The cutting and “stop and go” tests were the most widely used agility tests, utilizing light or human random signals as stimuli. Overall, the agility tests demonstrated that high reliability and poor agility performance could be predictive indicators of higher sports injury rates. Convergent validity between the agility and change of direction speed (CODS) tests was moderate. Agility tests could also differentiate athletes with different performance levels and age groups. Future practitioners should focus on customizing the “gold standard” agility tests for specific sports, which includes evaluating the reliability and validity of these tests.
Schnelligkeit im Allgemeinen und Agilität im Speziellen stellen leistungsbestimmende Faktoren in zahlreichen Mannschaftssportarten dar. Agilität umfasst dabei nicht nur physische Komponenten wie Beschleunigungen und Richtungswechsel, sondern auch kognitive Komponenten wie Wahrnehmung, Antizipation und Entscheidungsfindung. Eine typische Aktion aus dem Mannschaftssport mit einer hohen Anforderung an die Agilität ist das Abfangen eines Steilpasses des Gegenspielers. Zunächst muss der Abwehrspieler diesen Pass möglichst früh wahrnehmen und im besten Fall antizipieren. Anschließend trifft er die Entscheidung, mit einem schnellen Richtungswechsel in Ballrichtung zu beschleunigen und setzt diese Entscheidung motorisch um. Vor allem aufgrund der beschriebenen ablaufenden kognitiven Prozesse in typischen Spielsituationen spielt Agilität nicht nur für die Leistungserbringung eine wichtige Rolle, sondern ebenfalls in der Prävention von Kontakt- und Non-Kontakt-Verletzungen. Vor dem beschriebenen Hintergrund ist das Ziel dieses Beitrags, zunächst eine Begriffsklärung von Agilität sowie eine Abgrenzung zu dem in der Sportpraxis oft verwendeten Begriff der Handlungsschnelligkeit vorzunehmen. Aufbauend auf einer Beschreibung der Bedeutung von Agilität im Mannschaftssport werden anschließend Methoden zur Erfassung sowie zum Training von Agilität dargestellt und diskutiert.
Cognition plays a key role in sports performance. This meta-analytic review synthesizes research that examined the relationship between cognitive functions, skills, and sports performance. We identified literature by searching Cochrane Library, APA PsycINFO, PubMed, and Web of Science. We included studies conducted on competitive athletes, assessed cognitive prerequisites, and included performance measures related to the sport. Of the 9,433 screened records, 136 reports were included, containing 142 studies, 1,227 effect sizes, and 8,860 participants. Only 11 studies used a prospective study design. The risk of bias was assessed using the Risk of Bias Assessment Tool for Nonrandomized Studies. The multilevel meta-analysis showed a medium effect size for the overall difference in cognitive functions and skills, with higher skilled athletes scoring better than lower skilled athletes (Hedges' g = 0.59, 95% CI [0.49, 0.69]). The moderator analysis showed larger effect size for tests of cognitive decision-making skills (g = 0.77, 95% CI [0.6, 0.94]) compared to basic (g = 0.39, 95% CI [0.21, 0.56]) and higher cognitive functions (g = 0.44, 95% CI [0.26, 0.62]), as well as larger effect for sport-specific task stimuli compared to general ones. We report that higher skilled athletes perform better on cognitive function tests than lower skilled athletes. There was insufficient evidence to determine whether cognitive functions and skills can predict future sport performance. We found no evidence to support claims that tests of general cognitive functions, such as executive functioning, should be used by practitioners for talent identification or player selection. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
Objectives
To develop a PPT that incorporates multiple components of athletic ability and to assess its reliability.
Design
Test-retest experimental design.
Setting
Indoor basketball court in southern Alabama, USA.
Participants
A convenient sample of 21 asymptomatic subjects (14 male, 7 female).
Main outcome measures
Subjects performed the Butterfly Agility Test (BAT), the modified Star Excursion Balance Test (mSEBT), a standing double-legged broad jump (BJ), the Pro Agility Test (PAT), and a forty-yard sprint (40 YS).
Results
Overall, the BAT was found to have good reliability (ICC = 0.89, 95 % CI = 0.023–0.97), strong correlation with the PAT (r = 0.73–0.77), moderate correlations with the BJ and 40 YS (r = 0.50–0.60), and moderate correlations with the mSEBT (r = 0.37–0.62).
Conclusion
The BAT appears to be a promising composite assessment of athletic ability among young asymptomatic adults, but it is not recommended for clinical use at this time.
Level of evidence
3b.
В монографии подвергнута всестороннему анализу проблема развития двигательных качеств (скоростных, силовых, выносливости, ловкости и координации, гибкости) и физической подготовки спортсменов. Своим содержанием представленная работа принципиально отличается от большинства обобщающих работ, посвященных двигательным качествам и физической подготовке спортсменов. Структура двигательных качеств и методика их развития рассматриваются не сквозь призму достижения наивысшего тренировочного эффекта применительно к тому или иному качеству, а на основе соответствия уровня развития и особенностей проявления каждого из двигательных качеств эффективности двигательных действий, характерных для конкретного вида спорта, органичной взаимосвязи двигательных качеств между собой и с другими сторонами подготовленности спортсменов – технической, тактической, психологической.
Широко представлен материал общенаучного и специального характера, обеспечивающий фундаментальность подхода к структуре двигательных качеств и методике их развития, рациональному питанию, применению средств интенсификации тренировочного процесса, стимуляции работоспособности и восстановительных реакций, профилактике перетренированности и травматизма как важнейшим составляющим высокоэффективной физической подготовки спортсменов. Содержание книги базируется на огромном массиве научного знания, накопленного западной, восточно-европейской и азиатской школами спортивной науки, обобщении достижений передовой спортивной практики, а также на результатах многолетних исследований автора.
Для тренеров и спортсменов, преподавателей и студентов вузов физического воспитания и спорта, научных работников, спортивных врачей.
THE ABILITY TO CHANGE DIRECTION IS A HIGHLY VALUED ATHLETIC QUALITY IN SPORT AND HAS BEEN MEASURED EXTENSIVELY. DESPITE THE IMPORTANCE AND MAGNITUDE OF RESEARCH ON CHANGE OF DIRECTION (COD) AND AGILITY, THE VALIDITY OF THE PERFORMANCE MEASURES USED TO ASSESS THESE ABILITIES HAVE FACED LIMITED SCRUTINY. A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF OUR CURRENT MEASURES OF COD AND AGILITY ARE PRESENTED. FURTHERMORE, A SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS TO ENHANCE THE VALIDITY OF COD AND AGILITY ASSESSMENT IS PROVIDED IN THE ULTIMATE EFFORT TO IMPROVE OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THIS CRUCIAL ATHLETIC QUALITY. A VIDEO ABSTRACT DESCRIBING THIS ARTICLE CAN BE FOUND IN SUPPLEMENTAL DIGITAL CONTENT 1 (SEE VIDEO, http://links.lww.com/SCJ/A217).
This study assessed the relationships between linear running velocity and change of direction (CoD) ability, and how assessing CoD ability over distances ≤ 5 m influences test reliability. Participants (n=15) from amateur rugby league teams performed three trials of a 20 m sprint test (light gates at 5 m, 10 m and 20 m) and six trials of the 5-0-5 agility test. Twelve participants repeated the 5-0-5 test several weeks later. A three-dimensional motion capture system (250 Hz) was used to track the centre of mass at 0.3 m, 0.5 m and 1.0 m either side of the turn and identify specific CoD phase times. Pearson's correlations showed strong, significant relationships between the 5-0-5 time and 5 m (r=0.89, P<0.001); 10 m (r=0.91, P<0.001) and 20 m sprint times (r=0.93, P<0.001). However, the strength of these relationships decreased (r<0.65, P>0.05) when CoD ability was measured over distances less than 0.5 m. Analysis of coefficient of variation (CV%) data indicated that the 5-0-5 test had high intra (CV% = 2.8) and inter-test reliability(CV% = 1.3), with these data decreasing for distances less than 1 m (CV% = 3.5-6.9). Specific movement phase times were the least reliable measures of CoD ability (CV% 4.7-53.6). Results suggest a bias between high speed linear running ability and 5-0-5 time. However, an effective compromise can be found between test reliability and the external validity by assessing CoD ability over 1 m. Findings indicate that the current practice of assessing CoD ability over large distances in questionable.
We propose that physiological and performance tests used in sport science research and professional practice should be developed following a rigorous validation process, as is done in other scientific fields, such as clinimetrics, an area of research that focuses on the quality of clinical measurement and uses methods derived from psychometrics. In this commentary, we briefly review some of the attributes that must be explored when validating a test: the conceptual model, validity, reliability, and responsiveness. Examples from the sport science literature are provided.
The requirements for soccer play are multifactorial and distinguishing characteristics of elite players can be investigated using multivariate analysis. The aim of the present study was to apply a comprehensive test battery to young players with a view to distinguishing between elite and sub-elite groups on the basis of performance on test items. Thirty-one (16 elite, 15 sub-elite) young players matched for chronological age (15-16 years) and body size were studied. Test items included anthropometric (n = 15), physiological (n = 8), psychological (n = 3) and soccer-specific skills (n = 2) tests. Variables were split into separate groups according to somatotype, body composition, body size, speed, endurance, performance measures, technical skill, anticipation, anxiety and task and ego orientation for purposes of univariate and multivariate analysis of variance and stepwise discriminant function analysis. The most discriminating of the measures were agility, sprint time, ego orientation and anticipation skill. The elite players were also significantly leaner, possessed more aerobic power (9.0 +/- 1.7 vs 55.5 +/- 3.8 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)) and were more tolerant of fatigue (P < 0.05). They were also better at dribbling the ball, but not shooting. We conclude that the test battery used may be useful in establishing baseline reference data for young players being selected onto specialized development programmes.
A total of 146 professional rugby league football players, contracted to 2 teams competing in England (n = 45) and Australia (n = 101), participated in this study. All players completed the following series of physical fitness performance tests: 1 repetition maximum squat and bench press, 15- and 40-m sprint, agility run, 5-minute run for distance, 60-second sit-up, 30-second plyometric push-up, and measurement of body weight and subcutaneous skinfold (4 sites). Analysis of variance with a criterion alpha level of p < 0.05, was used to determine if any significant difference could be found when grouping players into 3 different positional categories typically identified in the sport. There were a number of significant differences with respect to test results between categories, and this was apparent for all 3 systems of categorization. On the basis of these findings, we recommend that to more efficiently structure the physical fitness training of players, the players should be grouped either according to the 2 broad positional categories of forwards or backs or according to the 4 categories of forwards, distributors, adjustables, and outside backs. Grouping players according to the 9 specific positions played on the team is not warranted.
The purpose of this study was to identify the relationships between leg muscle power and sprinting speed with changes of direction.
the study was designed to describe relationships between physical qualities and a component of sports performance.
testing was conducted in an indoor sports hall and a biomechanics laboratory.
15 male participants were required to be free of injury and have recent experience competing in sports involving sprints with changes of direction.
subjects were timed in 8 m sprints in a straight line and with various changes of direction. They were also tested for bilateral and unilateral leg extensor muscle concentric power output by an isokinetic squat and reactive strength by a drop jump.
The correlations between concentric power and straight sprinting speed were non-significant whereas the relationships between reactive strength and straight speed were statistically significant. Correlations between muscle power and speed while changing direction were generally low and non-significant for concentric leg power with some moderate and significant (p<0.05) coefficients found for reactive strength. The participants who turned faster to one side tended to have a reactive strength dominance in the leg responsible for the push-off action.
The relationships between leg muscle power and change-of-direction speed were not consistent. Reactive strength as measured by the drop jump appears to have some importance for lateral change-of-direction speed, possibly because of similar push-off actions. It was concluded that reactive strength of the leg extensor muscles has some importance in change-of-direction performance but the other technical and perceptual factors than influence agility performance should also be considered.
The aim of this experiment was to determine the effectiveness of two video-based perceptual training approaches designed to improve the anticipatory skills of junior tennis players. Players were assigned equally to an explicit learning group, an implicit learning group, a placebo group or a control group. A progressive temporal occlusion paradigm was used to examine, before and after training, the ability of the players to predict the direction of an opponent's service in an in-vivo on-court setting. The players responded either through hitting a return stroke or making a verbal prediction of stroke direction. Results revealed that the implicit learning group, whose training required them to predict serve speed direction while viewing temporally occluded video footage of the return-of-serve scenario, significantly improved their prediction accuracy after the training intervention. However, this training effect dissipated after a 32 day unfilled retention interval. The explicit learning group, who received instructions about the specific aspects of the pre-contact service kinematics that are informative with respect to service direction, did not demonstrate any significant performance improvements after the intervention. This, together with the absence of any significant improvements for the placebo and control groups, demonstrated that the improvement observed for the implicit learning group was not a consequence of either expectancy or familiarity effects.
This study investigated the effects of skill-based conditioning games and traditional conditioning for improving speed, agility, muscular power, and maximal aerobic power in rugby league players. Sixty-nine subelite rugby league players performed either a skill-based conditioning games program (N = 32) or a traditional conditioning (i.e., running activities with no skill component) program (N = 37). Each player participated in a 9-week in-season training program, performed over 2 competitive seasons. Players performed 2 organized field-training sessions each week. Players underwent measurements of speed (10-m, 20-m, and 40-m sprint), muscular power (vertical jump), agility (L run), and maximal aerobic power (multi-stage fitness test) before and after the training period. Skill-based conditioning games induced a significant improvement (p < 0.05) in 10-m, 20-m, and 40-m speed, muscular power, and maximal aerobic power, whereas traditional conditioning activities improved 10-m speed and maximal aerobic power only. No significant differences (p > 0.05) were detected between the traditional conditioning and skill-based conditioning games groups for changes in 10-m speed, agility, and maximal aerobic power. Both groups won 6 of 8 matches played within the training period, resulting in a win-loss ratio of 75%. However, on average, the skill-based conditioning games group scored more points in attack (p < 0.05) and had a greater (p < 0.05) points differential than the traditional conditioning group. The results of this study demonstrate that skill-based conditioning games offer an effective method of in-season conditioning for rugby league players. In addition, given that skills learned from skill-based conditioning games are more likely to be applied in the competitive environment, their use may provide a practical alternative to traditional conditioning for improving the physiological capacities and playing performance of rugby league players.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the reliability and validity of a new test of agility, the reactive agility test (RAT), which included anticipation and decision-making components in response to the movements of a tester. Thirty-eight Australian football players took part in the study, categorized into either a higher performance group (HPG) (n=24) or lower performance group (LPG) (n=14) based on playing level from the previous season. All participants undertook testing of a 10m straight sprint (10mSS), a 8-9m change of direction speed test (CODST), and the RAT. Test-retest and inter-tester reliability testing measures were conducted with the LPG. The intra-class correlation (ICC) of the RAT was 0.870, with no significant (p<0.05) difference between the test results obtained on the first and second test sessions using a t-test. A dependent samples t-test revealed no significant (p<0.05) difference between the test results of two different testers with the same population. The HPG were significantly (p=0.001) superior to those of the LPG on the RAT, with no differences observed on any other variable. The RAT is an acceptably reliable test when considering both test-retest reliability, as well as inter-rater reliability. In addition, the test was valid in distinguishing between players of differing performance level in Australian football, while the 10mSS and CODST were not. This result suggests that traditional closed skill sprint and sprint with direction change tests may not adequately distinguish between players of different levels of competition in Australian football.
At present, no agreement on a precise definition of agility within the sports science community exists. The term is applied to a broad range of sport contexts, but with such great inconsistency, it further complicates our understanding of what trainable components may enhance agility. A new definition of agility is proposed: "a rapid whole-body movement with change of velocity or direction in response to a stimulus". Agility has relationships with trainable physical qualities such as strength, power and technique, as well as cognitive components such as visual-scanning techniques, visual-scanning speed and anticipation. Agility testing is generally confined to tests of physical components such as change of direction speed, or cognitive components such as anticipation and pattern recognition. New tests of agility that combine physical and cognitive measures are encouraged.
To determine the relationships between physical and performance characteristics and level of skill in youth soccer players aged 12-16 years.
Anthropometry, maturity status, functional and sport-specific parameters were assessed in elite, sub-elite, and non-elite youth players in four age groups: U13 (n = 117), U14 (n = 136), U15 (n = 138) and U16 (n = 99).
Multivariate analyses of covariance by age group with maturity status as the covariate showed that elite players scored better than the non-elite players on strength, flexibility, speed, aerobic endurance, anaerobic capacity and several technical skills (p<0.05). Stepwise discriminant analyses showed that running speed and technical skills were the most important characteristics in U13 and U14 players, while cardiorespiratory endurance was more important in U15 and U16 players. The results suggest that discriminating characteristics change with competitive age levels.
Characteristics that discriminate youth soccer players vary by age group. Talent identification models should thus be dynamic and provide opportunities for changing parameters in a long-term developmental context.
The aim of this study was to examine the construct validity of selected field tests as indicators of match-related physical performance. During the competitive season, eighteen professional soccer players (age 26.2 +/- 4.5 yrs, mass 80.8 +/- 7.8 kg, and height 181.9 +/- 3.7 cm) completed an incremental running field test to exhaustion, a vertical-jump and a repeated-sprint ability (RSA) test. Match physical performance was quantified during official matches using a video-computerized, semi-automatic, match analysis image recognition system, (ProZone, Leeds, UK). The selected measures of match physical performance were: total distance covered (TD), high intensity running (HIR: > 14.4 km . h (-1)), very high intensity running (VHIR:> 19.8 km . h (-1)), sprinting (> 25.2 km . h (-1)) and top running speed. Significant correlations were found between peak speed reached during the incremental field test and TD (r = 0.58, R (2) = 0.34; p < 0.05), HIR (r = 0.65, R (2) = 0.42; p < 0.01) and VHIR (r = 0.64, R (2) = 0.41; p < 0.01). Significant correlations were also found between RSA mean time and VHIR (r = - 0.60, R (2) = 0.36; p < 0.01) and sprinting distance (r = - 0.65, R (2) = 0.42; p < 0.01). Significant differences were found between the best and worst group as defined by the median split technique for peak speed (TD = 12 011 +/- 747 m vs. 10 712 +/- 669, HIR = 3192 +/- 482 m vs. 2314 +/- 347 m, and VHIR = 1014 +/- 120 vs. 779 +/- 122 m, respectively; p < 0.05) and RSA mean time (VHIR = 974 +/- 162 m vs. 819 +/- 144 m, and sprinting = 235 +/- 56 vs. 164 +/- 58 m, respectively; p < 0.05). In conclusion, this study gives empirical support to the construct validity of RSA and incremental running tests as measures of match-related physical performance in top-level professional soccer players.
While studies have investigated change of direction speed in rugby league players, no study has investigated the reactive agility of these athletes. The purpose of this study was to investigate the reactive agility of rugby league players, to determine if this quality discriminated higher and lesser skilled players. Twenty-four elite (mean+/-S.D. age, 24.5+/-4.2 years) and 42 sub-elite (23.6+/-5.3 years) rugby league players completed a game-specific test of reactive agility. Elite players had better response accuracy (93.2+/-1.9% vs. 85.5+/-2.5%; p<0.05, effect size=0.58) and faster decision (89.5+/-5.8ms vs. 111.5+/-6.4ms; p<0.05, effect size=0.62) and movement times (2.35+/-0.03s vs. 2.56+/-0.03s; p<0.05, effect size=1.39) on the reactive agility test than sub-elite players. The reactive agility test was able to distinguish four distinct classifications. Specifically, players were classified as requiring either (1) decision-making and change of direction speed training to further consolidate good physical and perceptual abilities, (2) decision-making training to develop below average perceptual abilities, (3) change of direction speed training to develop below average physical attributes or (4) a combination of decision-making and change of direction speed training to develop below average physical and perceptual abilities. The results of this study demonstrate that a test of reactive agility discriminates higher and lesser skilled rugby league players. In addition, these findings highlight the important contribution of perceptual skill to agility in rugby league players.
In an attempt to develop a new measure of agility in the horizontal plane, this study examines several tests, including: the Illinois agility test, the 20m dash and two new tests - the Up and Back (UAB) and 505 tests, which both involve a short sprint and a reversal of direction. Eighteen subjects performed the tests in a randomised order. A strobe video and time were used to record the displacement data of the subjects, over set intervals, in the UAB and 505 tests. These data were then smoothed using a least-squares polynomial, and differentiated to produce a velocity and acceleration values. Times were recorded for the completion of the Illinois agility test and the 20m dash. The results for the four tests and the derived velocity and acceleration values were subjected to a correlation matrix. Significant correlations were found between the 505 test and acceleration values, but not with velocity values. The other tests correlated significantly with each other. It is concluded that the UAB test and Illinois Agility test are not purely agility tests because of their significant relationships with the 20m dash. The 505 test, however, has no significant correlation with velocity, but rather with acceleration. Therefore, the 505 test is seen as the test which best isolates agility in the horizontal plane.
Each chapter in this book (except Chapter 1) is set up in the following way: first, a number of typical questions raised by participants and coaches in the field of sport at all levels are signalled and superficially addressed within the context of the chapter heading. This is followed by a discussion of the psychological concepts pertinent to the answering of such questions (the 'pure' approach) and a selection of empirical findings stemming from the field of general and/or sport psychology (the 'applied' approach) are presented and discussed in the context of the questions posed. Each chapter concludes with an evaluation of the present state of affairs with respect to the topic area being discussed as well as speculation about future possibilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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This study investigated skill-based differences in anticipation and visual search strategy within open-play situations in soccer. Experienced (n = 15) and inexperienced (n = 15) subjects were required to anticipate pass destination from filmed soccer sequences viewed on a large 3-m x 3-m video projection screen. MANCOVA showed that experienced soccer players demonstrated superior anticipatory performance. Univariate analyses revealed between-group differences in speed of response but not in response accuracy. Also, inexperienced players fixated more frequently on the ball and the player passing the ball, whereas experienced players fixated on peripheral aspects of the display, such as the positions and movements of other players. The experienced group fixated on significantly more locations than their inexperienced counterparts. Further differences were noted in search rate, with experienced players exhibiting more fixations of shorter duration. The experienced group's higher search rate contradicted previous research. However, this resulted from using 11 on 11 film sequences, which were never previously used in visual search research. The increased frequency of eye fixations was regarded as being more advantageous for anticipating pass destination during open play in soccer. Finally, a number of practical implications were highlighted.
This study was conducted to determine if anthropometric and fitness testing scores can be used to discriminate between players that were selected or not selected in an elite Under 18 Australian Rules Football side. A training squad of 40 Australian Rules Football players was assessed on a battery of standard anthropometric and fitness tests just prior to the selection of the 30 man player roster for the upcoming season. Results showed that the selected players were significantly (P<0.05) taller and had greater upper body strength than non-selected players. A discriminant analysis was performed which predicted with an accuracy of 80% whether each player was successful or unsuccessful in gaining selection. This suggested that physical conditioning and anthropometric measurements do play an important part in determining selection in elite junior Australian Rules Football teams. However the discriminant function predicted non-selected players (90.9%) better than it predicted selected players (75.9%). Selected Under 18 players were found to be similar to the values reported for elite to sub-elite senior players on height, sit and reach, CMJ and perhaps aerobic fitness, but considerably less than the senior players on 3RM bench press and body mass.
Reliability refers to the reproducibility of values of a test, assay or other measurement in repeated trials on the same individuals. Better reliability implies better precision of single measurements and better tracking of changes in measurements in research or practical settings. The main measures of reliability are within-subject random variation, systematic change in the mean, and retest correlation. A simple, adaptable form of within-subject variation is the typical (standard) error of measurement: the standard deviation of an individual's repeated measurements. For many measurements in sports medicine and science, the typical error is best expressed as a coefficient of variation (percentage of the mean). A biased, more limited form of within-subject variation is the limits of agreement: the 95% likely range of change of an individual's measurements between 2 trials. Systematic changes in the mean of a measure between consecutive trials represent such effects as learning, motivation or fatigue; these changes need to be eliminated from estimates of within-subject variation. Retest correlation is difficult to interpret, mainly because its value is sensitive to the heterogeneity of the sample of participants. Uses of reliability include decision-making when monitoring individuals, comparison of tests or equipment, estimation of sample size in experiments and estimation of the magnitude of individual differences in the response to a treatment. Reasonable precision for estimates of reliability requires approximately 50 study participants and at least 3 trials. Studies aimed at assessing variation in reliability between tests or equipment require complex designs and analyses that researchers seldom perform correctly. A wider understanding of reliability and adoption of the typical error as the standard measure of reliability would improve the assessment of tests and equipment in our disciplines.
In this review, key components of perceptual skill in soccer are identified and implications for talent identification and development highlighted. Skilled soccer players can recall and recognize patterns of play more effectively than their less skilled counterparts. This ability to encode, retrieve and recognize sport-specific information is due to complex and discriminating long-term memory structures and is crucial to anticipation in soccer. Similarly, experts use their knowledge of situational probabilities (i.e. expectations) to anticipate future events. They have a better than average idea of what is likely to happen given a particular set of circumstances. Also, proficiency-related differences in visual search strategy are observed. Skilled players use their superior knowledge to control the eye movement patterns necessary for seeking and picking up important sources of information. The nature of the task plays an important role in constraining the type of search used. Skilled soccer players use different search strategies when viewing the whole field (i.e. 11 vs 11 situations) compared with micro-states of the game (i.e. 1 vs 1, 3 vs 3 situations). Visual search behaviour also differs between defensive and offensive plays. These observations have implications for the development of perceptual training programmes and the identification of potential elite soccer players.
The purpose of this study was to determine if straight sprint training transferred to agility performance tests that involved various change-of-direction complexities and if agility training transferred to straight sprinting speed. Thirty-six males were tested on a 30-m straight sprint and 6 agility tests with 2-5 changes of direction at various angles. The subjects participated in 2 training sessions per week for 6 weeks using 20-40-m straight sprints (speed) or 20-40-m change-of-direction sprints (3-5 changes of 100 degrees) (agility). After the training period, the subjects were retested, and the speed training resulted in significant improvements (p < 0.05) in straight sprinting speed but limited gains in the agility tests. Generally, the more complex the agility task, the less the transfer from the speed training to the agility task. Conversely, the agility training resulted in significant improvements in the change-of-direction tests (p < 0.05) but no significant improvement (p > 0.05) in straight sprint performance. We concluded that straight speed and agility training methods are specific and produce limited transfer to the other. These findings have implications for the design of speed and agility training and testing protocols.
In the Australian Football League (AFL), specific game movements and activities have not been studied since the 1970s and 1980s and the game is now much faster than it was 20-30 years ago. Using lapsed-time video analysis, AFL players from five different positions (full forward/full back, centre half forward/centre half back, small forward/small back, mid fielders and ruckmen) had their movement patterns (stand, walk, jog, fast-run, sprint, change of direction) and game activities (possessions, ruck duels, ground ball contests, shepherds, spoils, bumps and tackles) recorded in two games each in the 2000 season. A descriptive analysis of the results was undertaken. The main findings were: full forward/full back were most different from the other positions, as they were seen to stand more and jog and fast-run less: ruckmen and midfielders were involved in more game activities than the other positions; for all positions, there were more than 150 high intensity movements (fast-run plus sprint) in the game, but these accounted for only 4-6% of total movement time: virtually all of the high intensity movements lasted for <6 secs; more than half of all sprints involved at least one change of direction, mostly within the 0-90 degrees arc (left or right) and all ground ball contests took <6 secs, with midfielders having 2-3 times as many as the other positions. Improvements in specific pre-season and in-season training practices for different positions should be possible after careful interpretation of these findings.
The purpose of this study was to present a new methodology for the measurement of agility for netball that is considered more ecologically valid than previous agility tests. Specifically, the agility performance of highly-skilled (n = 12), moderately-skilled (n = 12) and lesser-skilled players (n = 8) when responding to a life-size, interactive video display of a netball player initiating a pass was compared to a traditional, pre-planned agility movement where no external stimulus was present. The total movement times and decision times of the players were the primary dependent measures of interest. A second purpose of the research was to determine the test-retest reliability of the testing approach. Results revealed significant differences existed between the 2 test conditions demonstrating that they were measuring different types of agility. The highly-skilled group was significantly faster in both the reactive and planned test conditions relative to the lesser-skilled group, while the moderately-skilled group was significantly faster than the lesser-skilled group in the reactive test condition. The decision time component within the reactive test condition revealed that the highly-skilled players made significantly faster decisions than the lesser-skilled players. It is reasoned that it is this decision-making component of reactive agility that contributes to the significant differences between the two test conditions. The testing approach was shown to have good test-retest reliability with an intra-class correlation of r = .83.
Relationships between fitness testing and career progression in the Australian Football League (AFL) are under-explored. This study investigated relationships between anthropometric and fitness tests conducted at the annual AFL National Draft Camp and subsequent career progression of players. A total of 283 players was tested over three consecutive camps (1999-2001). The anthropometric and fitness measures were: height, mass, sum of skinfolds, 20-m sprint test, vertical jump (standing and bilateral running), agility run and a multi-stage incremental shuttle run. The five outcome variables were: drafted (yes/no), AFL debut (yes/no), number of AFL games played to the end of 2003, and subjective ratings of career potential and career value (5-point scale). Of 205 players (72%) subsequently drafted, 166 (59%) eventually made their AFL debut. Players drafted to AFL clubs were faster over 5 m, 10 m and 20 m, ran further in the shuttle run and ran marginally faster in the agility test than players not drafted. Multi-regression analysis showed small to moderate correlations (r = 0.27-0.31) between the designated outcome variables and selected fitness tests: 20-m sprint time (faster), agility run test (faster), and running vertical jump (higher absolute height and smaller difference between left and ride sides). Regression analysis for the standing vertical jump relative to standing reach height showed a counterintuitive negative correlation with positive outcomes, possibly reflecting non-compliance with testing procedures by the less successful athletes. We conclude that the 20-m sprint, jump, agility and shuttle run tests have a small but important association with career progression of AFL footballers.
To evaluate the utility of fitness assessment and trends in drafting of players in the Australian Football League, we analysed height, mass, skinfolds, 20-m sprint, vertical jump, agility run and endurance assessed in the 495 players attending the annual national draft camps between 1999 and 2004. Effects of player position and assessment year were expressed as standardised mean differences (Cohen effect sizes) and interpreted qualitatively. Effect of birth month on chance of being drafted, which may be important in team sports, was also analysed. Compared with midfield players, ruckmen, tall forwards and tall defenders were decisively taller (effect-size range 1.33-1.95, large) and heavier (1.30-1.63, large), but had poorer sprint speed (0.23-0.57, small), aerobic ability (0.66-1.18, moderate) and agility (0.64-1.11, moderate). The only substantial changes in fitness scores over the 5-year period were an increase in height (0.76, moderate) and an increase in 20-m sprint time (0.39, small). A majority (65%) of players attending the camps were born in the first half of a given year, but their chance of being drafted (70%) was similar to that of players born in the second half (64%). We conclude that fitness assessment is useful for differentiating between player positions and identifying some annual trends in recruitment in Australian football, and that players with a second half birth month have been disadvantaged with lower representation at the national draft camp.
The aim of the study was to compare anthropometric and physical performance data of players who were selected for a Victorian elite junior U18 Australian rules football squad. Prior to the selection of the final training squad, 54 players were assessed using a battery of standard anthropometric and physical performance tests. Multivariate analysis (MANOVA) showed significant (p<0.05) differences between selected and non-selected players when height, mass, 20-m sprint, agility and vertical jump height were considered collectively. Univariate analysis revealed that the vertical jump was the only significant (p<0.05) individual test and a near significant trend (p=0.07) for height differentiating between selected and non-selected players with medium effect sizes for all other tests except endurance. In this elite junior football squad, physical characteristics can be observed that discriminate between players selected and non-selected, and demonstrates the value of physical fitness testing within the talent identification process of junior (16-18 years) players for squad and/or team selection. Based on MANOVA results, the findings from this study suggest team selection appeared to be related to a generally higher performance across the range of tests. Further, age was not a confounding variable as players selected tended to be younger than those non-selected. These findings reflect the general consensus that, in state-based junior competition, there is evidence of promoting overall player development, selecting those who are generally able to fulfil a range of positions and selecting players on their potential.
The authors examined the complex interactions between perception, cognition, and expertise by using a film-based decision-making test. They stratified 40 youth soccer players (aged 13.0-15.8 years) into groups by using a within-task criterion. They assigned the players to successful or less successful groups on the basis of their performance on a laboratory-based test of tactical skill. Using soccer-specific film simulations, movement-based response measures, and eye movement registration techniques, the authors determined the players' decision-making processes and skill level. The results showed that investigators can use film-based tests to discriminate soccer players of comparable experience and playing level on the basis of their decision-making skills. When compared with their less successful counterparts, successful decision-makers used more goal-oriented search strategies, which resulted in superior performance, as characterized by faster decision times and greater response accuracy. Successful decision-makers (a) spent more time fixating the player in possession of the ball and (b) alternated gaze more frequently between that player and other areas of the display. An earlier study in which researchers (R. Vaeyens, M. Lenoir, A. M. Williams, L. Mazyn, & R. M. Philippaerts, 2007) stratified participants into groups on the basis of playing level had not revealed those differences. The implication of the present findings is that a within-task criterion provides investigators with a more sensitive approach when they try to identify the mechanisms underlying decision-making skill. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
Agility and speed of soccer players are two different performance parameters
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Psychology and speed
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