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The feasibility of converting Cannabis sativa L. oil into biodiesel
Abstract
Cannabis sativa Linn, known as industrial hemp, was utilized for biodiesel production in this study. Oil from hemp seed was converted to biodiesel through base-catalyzed transesterification. The conversion is greater than 99.5% while the product yield is 97%. Several ASTM tests for biodiesel quality were implemented on the biodiesel product, including acid number, sulfur content, flash point, kinematic viscosity, and free and total glycerin content. In addition, the biodiesel has a low cloud point (-5 degrees C) and kinematic viscosity (3.48mm(2)/s). This may be attributed to the high content of poly-unsaturated fatty acid of hemp seed oil and its unique 3:1 ratio of linoleic to alpha-linolenic acid.
... Biochemically, as a lignocellulosic crop, hemp boasts unique qualities that make it particularly well-suited for biofuel applications. Specifically, hemp seeds contain a high oil content ranging from 26% to 38% (Cannabinoids -Alcohol and Drug Foundation, 2022; Li et al., 2010). The oil produced contains high concentrations of polyunsaturated fatty acids. ...
... Chemically, there is a crucial distinction to note between hemp and another derivative of the cannabis plant, marijuana, particularly in the cannabinoid ratio (Alcheikh, 2015;Yilbasi et al., 2022;Finley et al., 2022;Britannica, 2023). Cannabinoids are chemical substances that bind to the Endocannabinoid System, an internal cannabinoid receptor communication system (Li et al., 2010). Approximately 80-100 cannabinoids have been discovered, primarily produced by the Cannabaceae family, and categorized into three major groups: recreational, medicinal, and synthetic. ...
... Approximately 80-100 cannabinoids have been discovered, primarily produced by the Cannabaceae family, and categorized into three major groups: recreational, medicinal, and synthetic. The two primary parent substances are delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabinol (CBD) (Li et al., 2010). THC falls in the recreational category as the psychoactive component, while CBD has medicinal uses as a therapeutic agent and does not exhibit euphoric/psychedelic effects. ...
There has been significant research into the utilization of Cannabis sativa Linn or industrial hemp for various
applications, including as a fuel alternative such as biodiesel. The advantages of this crop offer improvements in
several current environmental concerns, such as pollutant emissions, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and other
drawbacks of fossil fuels. However, despite these advantages, significant enhancements in the quality of hemp
biodiesel are necessary to consider it a sustainable alternative. Currently, inorganic nanoparticle additives, such
as zinc oxide and cerium oxide, are employed within the fuel industry to enhance the quality of current market
products. Previous studies have also suggested the potential benefits of utilizing these particles for biodiesel. This
review aims to provide detailed research into defining and understanding the background information necessary
to explore the topic of hemp biodiesel enhancements further. It introduces a novel approach for modifying hemp
biodiesel as a viable fuel alternative through zinc oxide and cerium oxide nanoparticle additives.
... Hemp's high biomass (Figure 3a) content and energy yield make it suitable for ethanol production from the whole plant. Moreover, the seeds ( Figure 3b) yield high quantities of oil, which can be pressed to produce biodiesel [56]. Hemp holds the potential to be a highly sustainable and ecologically friendly crop. ...
... Li et al. [56] investigated the utilization of hemp for biodiesel production. Their results showed a conversion rate higher than 99.5%, with a product yield of 97%. ...
... Biodiesel possesses a low cloud point (−5 • C) and kinematic viscosity (3.48 mm 2 s −1 ) [56]. This may be attributed to the significant quantity of polyunsaturated fatty acids in hemp seed oil and its unique 3:1 ratio of linoleic to α-linolenic acid [68][69][70]. ...
Increased energy consumption and climate change, driven by greenhouse gas emissions, pose significant risks to global sustainability. Concerns about using agricultural land for fuel production and its competition with food production have made feedstocks like corn (Zea mays) highly controversial. This study explores the potential of alternative feedstocks, such as hemp (Cannabis sativa) and cucurbits (family Cucurbitaceae), for biofuel production amidst environmental concerns linked to fossil fuel usage. Hemp is widely acknowledged as a promising feedstock for sustainable biorefinery due to its agricultural adaptability and its ability to produce oil and carbohydrates. Cucurbits seeds are characterized by a high oil content, which can be utilized in the food industry or for energy production as biofuel. As a byproduct of cucurbits processing, a significant number of seeds often remains, which constitutes waste. By examining hemp and cucurbit byproducts and waste, which are suitable for bioenergy production, this research highlights the promise these alternative feedstocks hold for the biofuel industry. Utilizing these resources presents a viable route to diminish dependence on fossil fuels and transition toward a more environmentally sustainable energy future.
... Researching new harvesting machine designs could allow for superior co-production of hemp materials, allowing high quality seed and straw to be co-produced [14]. In addition, many new or growing applications for hemp are developing, and could show great potential in coming years, including in concrete [19], antibacterial packaging [20], insulation [21], and in conversion processes such as anaerobic digestion [22], pyrolysis [23] and esterification [24]. The effectiveness of hemp in conversion processes shows great promise. ...
... The effectiveness of hemp in conversion processes shows great promise. This is particularly evident for producing ethanol, for which hemp is more profitable than competing crops such as switchgrass and kenaf [25], and for biodiesel where hemp has a much higher conversion rate than average [24]. Similar crops such as sorghum [26] and miscanthus [27] benefit from several studies on their performance in conversion processes, though industrial hemp has been studied relatively little [23]. ...
... Hemp appears to be a passable source of biodiesel, achieving a reported 75.9% conversion rate from hempseed oil to biodiesel using a potassium hydroxide catalyst [95], comparable to many other oils, though surpassed by some that can reach over 95% conversion [96]. Elsewhere, however, hempseed oil was reported to achieve conversion rates as high as 97%, suggesting that hempseed oil can effectively be used for producing biodiesel [24]. For comparative purposes, Table 2 shows some key properties of biodiesel from several crops, including hemp [24,[97][98][99][100][101]. ...
Climate change from carbon emissions and rising energy demands poses a serious threat to global sustainability. This issue is particularly noticeable in Canada where per capita energy demands are high and fossil fuels are used. Industrial hemp can be used for bioenergy production as an alternative to fossil fuels to capture and utilize carbon, with applications in various markets at high values. Despite this, industrial hemp has faced legal barriers that have hampered its viability. This review describes industrial hemp, its status in global markets, its performance as bioenergy feedstock, and potential in Canada, so research can target gaps in available knowledge. Numerous bioenergy applications for industrial hemp exist; the production of bioethanol and biodiesel from industrial hemp has strong potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve the Canadian economy. The current study found that industrial hemp can compete with many energy crops in global markets as a feedstock for many bioenergy products with solid hemp yielding 100 GJ/ha/y, allowing for economical emissions reductions for example in coal/biochar blends that can reduce emissions by 10%, and in co-production of bioethanol and grain, generating $2632/ha/y. This work also suggests industrial hemp has unique potential for growth in Canada, though processing facilities are severely lacking, and hemp growing has some negative environmental impacts related to fertilizer use. Responsible growth could be realized through incentivizing or subsidizing processing facility investment, implementing co-production where possible, and funding research to improve conversion, harvesting and polygeneration processes.
... The oil is traditionally used in foods (Farinon et al., 2020); however, the composition makes it promising for biodiesel. Investigations are ongoing into the optimum conditions for hemp-based biodiesel (Khan et al., 2019;Rashid et al., 2016), as well as its quality Li et al., 2010) Table 2). ...
... Steam pretreatment (Barta et al., 2013;Liu et al., 2017), harvest time (Kreuger, Prade, et al., 2011), and hemp variety (Adamovičs et al., 2014) are major influences on biogas yield/quality and methane content. At optimal harvest, green hemp can yield up to 296 GJ ha −1 year −1 T A B L E 2 ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 specifications compared with properties of Cannabis sativa oil biodiesel, data compiled from Afif and Biradar (2019), Gill et al. (2011), Li et al. (2010, and Rashid et al. (2016) of energy from biogas . Biogas yields and quality from hemp crops from various experimental conditions are comparable to other biogas feedstocks (Adamovičs et al., 2014 ...
... and usability for vehicle fuel or fuel blending(Afif & Biradar, 2019;Mohammed et al., 2020). The properties of hemp-derived biodiesel are comparable to those in fuel specifications ASTM D6751(Afif & Biradar, 2019;Li et al., 2010;Rashid et al., 2016) and EN 14214(Rashid et al., 2016; ...
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is a multi-use crop that has been investigated for its potential use in phytoremediation of heavy metals, radionuclides, and organic contaminants, and as a feedstock for bioenergy production. A review of research literature indicates that hemp is a suitable crop for phytoremediation, and a competitive option for bioenergy. Coupling phytoremediation and bioenergy production from a single hemp crop is a potential solution to overcoming the economic constraints of phytoremediation projects. The current challenge is ensuring that the extracted contaminants are not introduced into the consumer marketplace. After several decades of limited research on hemp in the United States, the purpose of this review is to identify the knowledge available for hemp applications in phytoremediation or in production of bioenergy, and if and how those two purposes have been combined. The literature shows that hemp growth has been demonstrated successfully at the field scale for phytoremediation and in several bioenergy conversion technologies. Little is known about the fate of contaminants during hemp growth or during post-harvest processing, especially the relationships between hemp genetics, metabolomics, and contaminant partitioning. Complicating the understanding is the expectation that contaminant fate will be dependent on the contaminant type, the concentration in the material, and the processing methods. Before hemp from phytoremediation applications can be used for bioenergy, the fractionation of heavy metals, radionuclides, and/or organic com- pounds during transesterification, anaerobic digestion, fermentation, and/or combustion of hemp must be evaluated.
... The oil is traditionally used in foods (Farinon et al., 2020); however, the composition makes it promising for biodiesel. Investigations are ongoing into the optimum conditions for hemp-based biodiesel (Khan et al., 2019;Rashid et al., 2016), as well as its quality Li et al., 2010) Table 2). ...
... Steam pretreatment (Barta et al., 2013;Liu et al., 2017), harvest time (Kreuger, Prade, et al., 2011), and hemp variety (Adamovičs et al., 2014) are major influences on biogas yield/quality and methane content. At optimal harvest, green hemp can yield up to 296 GJ ha −1 year −1 T A B L E 2 ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 specifications compared with properties of Cannabis sativa oil biodiesel, data compiled from Afif and Biradar (2019), Gill et al. (2011), Li et al. (2010, and Rashid et al. (2016) of energy from biogas . Biogas yields and quality from hemp crops from various experimental conditions are comparable to other biogas feedstocks (Adamovičs et al., 2014 ...
... and usability for vehicle fuel or fuel blending(Afif & Biradar, 2019;Mohammed et al., 2020). The properties of hemp-derived biodiesel are comparable to those in fuel specifications ASTM D6751(Afif & Biradar, 2019;Li et al., 2010;Rashid et al., 2016) and EN 14214(Rashid et al., 2016; ...
Interests in the applications of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa) have been rapidly increasing in the United States over recent years following dissolution of restrictions on production. Cultivation of hemp had been illegal in the United States since 1970 until new regulations were implemented for research and development under the 2014 Farm Bill, followed by federal legalization instituted by the 2018 Farm Bill. Hemp is primarily grown for flower to obtain cannabinoids, seed for oil, and fiber for material processing. In addition to producing hemp for commercial or industrial purposes, hemp can be used as an effective soil phytoremediator of non-arable lands. A large majority of non-arable lands result from mining operations that have ceased. New Mexico is home to many legacy mine sites: former mining sites requiring some level of remediation to reclaim the area’s use. There are limited methods available for treatment of non-arable land due to mining contamination, particularly contamination with radionuclides such as uranium. Phytoremediation has been of particular interest as a cost-effective measure for rehabilitation of legacy mine sites. Industrial hemp has been recognized for its ability to uptake heavy metals and other contaminants from soil, and therefore is a suitable candidate for uptake of radionuclides. However, a major economic feasibility issue with phytoremediation is the utilization of the contaminated biomass following harvest. Because contaminants are known to partition into the plant biomass (roots, shoots, and flowers), seeds could be a potential source of economic value from plants otherwise contaminated with low levels of uranium. Industrial hemp seed is a high value product for both its meal and oil: with a protein content of approximately 25% and oil content of approximately 30%. The oil is traditionally used as a nutritional source, but is also a suitable feedstock for biofuel processing. Growing a seed-hemp crop on non-arable land could create an economically feasible operation for phytoremediation of uranium contaminated soil.
... It is known that the most suitable method to obtain biodiesel fuel from vegetable oils is the transesterification process. Biodiesel is obtained as a result of the reaction of alcohol with triglycerides of fatty acids in the presence of a suitable catalyst [1, 18,21]. Glycerin, which is bound to fatty acids, causes vegetable oil to be thicker and sticky. ...
... The flash point is related to the volatility value, which is an important fuel property for the engine to start and warm up. According to ASTM D6751 standards, the flash point should be above 130 °C, but according to EN 14214 European standards, this value is a minimum of 120 °C [21,29,40]. Most vegetable oils have a very high flash point and decrease to the range of 120-220 °C at the end of the transesterification reaction. ...
Scientists continue to work in order to obtain clean and efficient energy in a sustainable and economical way. Biodiesel is an important research topic not only because it is a renewable energy source, but also because it is an environmentally friendly fuel that can be produced as efficiently as petroleum-derived fuels. The raw materials used are as important as the production parameters in the production of biodiesel fuels. Hemp is not a widely cultivated plant because its cultivation is subject to government control. However, by breeding, the production of species containing low amount of stimulant and high amount of seed and fiber can be realized. In case of an efficient fuel production in compliance with the determined standards, the hemp plant can be accepted as a raw material that can also be evaluated in the field of energy. In order to guide the studies to be carried out for this purpose, in this study, the conformity of the fuel obtained by producing biodiesel from hemp seed oil to the standards was examined. As a result of the fuel analysis, it has been seen that the fuel properties of the produced hemp biodiesel are largely compatible with the TS EN 14214 standards. The results obtained provided a sufficient starting point for the development of the study.
... It is to be highlighted that a limited number of researches carried out regarding the hemp seed oil methyl ester and its blends with diesel fuel in the current literature [44][45][46]. Li et al. [47] produced biodiesel from industrial hemp seed oil via base-catalyzed transesterification reaction. The yield of the product was observed to be at 97% while the ester conversion rate was found to be 99.5%. ...
... Unit Hemp seed oil Hemp seed oil [46] Hemp seed oil [47] Styrax officinalis seed oil [39] Safflower oil [61] Juliflora seed oil [62] Linseed oil [63] Palm oil [60] Honne oil [64] Rubber seed oil [ ...
The core focus of the present investigation is regarding biodiesel production from industrial hemp seed oil applying single-stage homogenous catalyzed transesterification process obtaining high yield of methyl ester. The engine tests were carried out on a single-cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled, unmodified diesel engine operating with hemp seed oil methyl ester as well as its blends with conventional diesel fuel. The experimental findings of the test fuels were compared with those from diesel. The results pointed out that the performance and combustion behaviors of biodiesel fuels are just about in line with those of diesel fuel propensity. The specific fuel consumption for 5% biodiesel blend (0.291 kg/kW h), 10% biodiesel blend (0.305 kg/kW h), and 20% biodiesel blend (0.312 kg/kW h) blends at full load was closer to diesel (0.275 kg/kW h). In the meantime, the thermal efficiency for biodiesel was found to be at the range of 15.98–24.97% and it was slightly lower than that of diesel (18.10–29.85%) at the working loads. On the other hand, the harmful pollutant characteristics of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon, and smoke opacity for biodiesel and its blends were observed to be lower in comparison with diesel during the trials. However, the oxides of nitrogen emissions for biodiesel were monitored to be as 6.85–15.40 g/kW h which was remarkably higher than that of diesel (4.71–8.63 g/kW h). Besides that, the combustion behaviors of biodiesel and its blends with diesel showed much the same followed those of diesel. Namely, the duration of ignition delay of biodiesel–diesel blends was shorter than that of diesel fuel because of the higher cetane number specification of the methyl ester. The highest gas pressures inside the cylinder as well as the rates of the heat release of biodiesel including test fuels are lower in contrast to the diesel due to the shorter ignition delay. It could be concluded that the utilization of biodiesel produced from industrial hemp seed oil in the diesel engine up to 20% (by vol.) will decrease the consumption of diesel and environmental pollution, especially in developing countries.
... Hemp may also be grown for bio-energy applications, using either the whole biomass or by-products of existing value chains. There are examples in literature of hemp having been studied as a potential feedstock for the production of bioethanol using the stems (Das et al., 2017;Viswanathan et al., 2021;Zhao et al., 2020), methane using the whole aboveground biomass (Kreuger et al., 2011;Prade et al., 2011), solid biofuel using preferentially the shives, but also the stems or the whole aboveground biomass (Burczyk et al., 2008;Rheay et al., 2021) and biodiesel using hempseed oil (Li et al., 2010;Parvez et al., 2021;Rheay et al., 2021). ...
... high-quality fiber for bio-based composites or textile productions, seed for food purposes or inflorescences for medicinal applications). Despite having often been studied in the scope of bioenergy production (Burczyk et al., 2008;Das et al., 2017;Kreuger et al., 2011;Li et al., 2010;Parvez et al., 2021;Prade et al., 2011;Rheay et al., 2021;Seleiman et al., 2013;Viswanathan et al., 2021;Zhao et al., 2020), the cultivation of hemp for this purpose does not appear to be sustainable because of the low market value of raw biomass for such destinations (Burczyk et al., 2008;Das et al., 2017); this is particularly true if hemp is grown on marginal lands that will likely affect the biomass yield. Perennial bioenergy crops are more suited for bioenergy production. ...
Marginal lands are increasingly being considered for cultivating industrial and bioenergy crops to reduce the direct and indirect land use changes. This review investigates the feasibility of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) cultivation under the bio‐physical constraints that characterize marginal lands, with the objectives of: (i) determining to which extent hemp cultivation can be affected by the considered factors of marginality; and (ii) determining the most pertinent adaptations of crop technical management. This work establishes that hemp is a species that can be considered as particularly susceptible to adverse conditions, in particular regarding soil characteristics (heavy clay, coarse sand, shallowness) and dry climates. heavy metals (HMs) contaminations do not appear to severely limit hemp’s productivity, with the exception of thallium. The adverse effects of HMs on the profitability of hemp cultivation rather lie in limitations of the potential uses of hemp biomass for several end‐uses applications (e.g. textiles, food), because of the HMs contents in the raw materials. On HMs polluted soils, a single‐use fibre production destined to high‐added value applications such as bio‐based composites is the most suited production. Under dry climate, hemp productivity might be particularly affected depending on the soil quality and on the severity of the dryness. Hemp can be suited for mountain environments, in which the potential for harvesting the threshing residues as a source for medical application of cannabinoids might provide a supplemental added‐value to the crop. Overall, though hemp has often been considered as able to grow in harsh conditions, this review highlights that care should be given to such statements and hemp appears to be more suited for integrating conventional agro‐systems, in particular considering that it can be considered both as a food and industrial crop.
... 97 Metal accumulator plants have attracted the interest of scientists, industry, 98 environmentalists, decision-makers, and engineers because the biomass produced during 99 phytoremediation technologies can be detoxified and simultaneously has the potential to 100 produce energy, extract high-value metallic elements, and shape sustainable 101 development. 102 For these reasons, in this review, it was outlined the incorporation of biomass from 103 potential toxic metals phytoremediation into bioenergy production processes and 104 biomass pretreatments that increase biofuel yields and reduce the transfer of pollutants to 105 the environment 106 107 2. Management of biomass from phytoremediation processes 108 Since the early proposals of phytoremediation as an integrated environmental 109 biotechnology, the fate of residual biomass posed a research challenge; in special the case 110 of pollutants like heavy metals [23]. Initial ideas for processing were framed in traditional 111 processes guided by decades-long experiences with radioactive waste, i.e., a concentration 112 method and enclosed disposal. ...
... However, to increase the added value of 472 these fuels, the incorporation of biomass from phytoremediation has gained interest and 473 some studies have been done, for example, the versatile plant hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) 474 has been reported as a multi-use crop used to phytoremediate soils polluted with toxic 475 metals, radionuclides and organic compounds and also, as a potential feedstock for 476 bioenergy production [106]. 477 In this sense, there are reports mentioning that oil content in hemp seeds comprised 478 between 25%-35% w/w [107], making them promissory feedstock to biodiesel production 479 processes [108]. Biodiesel produced from hemp seed oil presented physicochemical 480 properties comparable to values reported in the fuels standard specifications for biodiesel 481 fuel blendstock, i.e., ASTM D6751 [109,110]. ...
Abstract: Phytoremediation is an attractive strategy for cleaning soils polluted with a wide spectrum of organic and inorganic toxic compounds. Among these pollutants, heavy metals have attracted global attention due to their negative effects on human health and terrestrial ecosystems and as a result of this, numerous studies have been carried out in order to elucidate the mechanisms involved in the removal processes. These studies have employed a multitude of plant species which might be used for phytoremediation and the obtention of end bioproducts such as biofuels and biogas useful in combustion and heating.
The phytotechnologies represent an attractive segment that is increasingly gaining attention around the world due to their versatility, economic profitability and environmental co-benefits such as erosion control, improvement of soil quality and functionality.
In this review, the process to valorize biomass from phytoremediation is described, also relevant experiments where polluted biomass is used as feedstock or produce bioenergy via thermo- and biochemical conversion are analyzed. In addition, pretreatments of biomass to increase yields and treatments to control the transfer of metals to environment are also mentioned. Finally, aspects related to the feasibility, benefits, risks and gaps about the conversion of toxic metals-polluted biomass are discussed.
... The authors concluded that hemp oil biodiesel was clean, environmentally friendly and exhibited fuel properties within the range of the American Standard for Testing Material. Another feasibility study was carried out by Li et al. [64] on converting hemp oil into biodiesel through base-catalysed transesterification. They reported a conversion factor greater than 99.5% and a biodiesel yield of 97%. ...
Background
The growing demand for eco-friendly food and industrial products have renewed interest in industrial hemp which is a low-cost, biodegradable, sustainable, and multi-purpose plant. Many countries in Europe and Asia have changed their laws to take advantage of the tremendous benefits that industrial hemp present. However, the development of the sector in Scotland is very slow due to stringent laws. The goal of the present study is to present policymakers with economic data on the current and potential market opportunities for industrial hemp, trends in new product development, and the state of the hemp supply chain. This study entails desk-based research primary and secondary data analysis. Primary data were collected from farmers in Aberdeenshire and Scottish borders, and secondary data were collected from the FAOSTATS Office of National Statistics and the Global New Product Database.
Results
The results of this study show that the opportunities from hemp seed and fibre are vast: hemp can sequester more carbon dioxide than traditional crops can, improve soil biodiversity, extract toxins from soil through phytoremediation, be used as an eco-friendly insecticide and pesticide, and provide an excellent source of protein, fibre and micronutrient vitamins and minerals, as well as a range of bioactive phytochemicals. The GNPD reveals that over 4000 hemp-based products have been launched worldwide. However, the supply chain for Scottish-grown hemp faces significant bottlenecks. The sector lacks a well-established market route, faces a high licensing costs, lacks hemp seed-pressing centres, etc.
Conclusion
This study is relevant because it is the first study to provide a comprehensive analysis of the industrial hemp sector in Scotland. This study makes time-bound recommendations to grow the hemp sector in Scotland, which include regular extension services, easy access to licences for production, the establishment of a hempseed and fibre processing plants, and seed production centre.
... In a study conducted by Li S.-Y. et al., biodiesel was produced from hemp oil through a potassium hydroxide-catalyzed transesterification process, resulting in a conversion rate exceeding 99.5% [62]. The biodiesel was produced via a two-step transesterification process utilizing methyl alcohol and a potassium hydroxide catalyst in both stages. ...
Organic matter is converted into a variety of fuels, including potential replacements for transport fuels. New sources of raw materials are being sought for their acquisition. One such raw material that is currently attracting a growing degree of attention is hemp. The objective of this study was to produce biodiesel from hemp oil to ascertain its selected properties and to compare them with the properties of biodiesel obtained from rapeseed oil and the properties of diesel fuel. A reactor designed for the non-industrial, local conversion of available raw materials into fatty acid esters was used for the manufacture of biodiesel. The properties of hemp oil biodiesel were evaluated in comparison with those of rapeseed oil biodiesel, with properties of diesel fuel, and with the requirements set forth in the EN 14214 standard, pertaining to the specification of fatty acid methyl esters for utilization in compression-ignition internal combustion engines. The kinematic viscosity value of the hemp oil biodiesel yielded just below the upper limit defined in the standard. Furthermore, research has demonstrated that such biodiesel contains a considerable proportion of esters of linoleic and linolenic acids, which are susceptible to oxidation. The content of linolenic acid ester in esters produced from hemp oil is clearly higher than the content of this ester in esters obtained from rapeseed oil. This higher content contributes to the high value of the iodine number, significantly exceeding the standard requirements. The remaining designated properties of hemp oil biodiesel are in accordance with the requirements laid down in the standard and exhibit similarities to those of rapeseed oil biodiesel. Further research is recommended to enhance the characteristics of hemp oil biodiesel and its utilization in compression-ignition engines.
... The same is with red currant, gooseberry, and pomegranate seed oil biodiesel [25]. However, the stability of biodiesel does not depend only on the iodine value, i.e. the number of the double bonds in the molecules, but also on their position, as well as on the presence of natural antioxidants in the oil and can be increased by the addition of additives [39][40][41]. In addition, the cetane number is influenced by other physical properties of the fuel, such as, viscosity, density, and boiling range [42]. ...
Strawberry pomace is the beverage industry waste and should be utilized as circular economy feedstock, animal feed, or a fertilizer following environmental regulations. This work aimed to characterize and implement strawberry pomace oil in the biodiesel industry. Oil was extracted from the strawberry seed by a maceration method for physicochemical characterization. Two seed/solvent ratios were used to achieve the maximum oil yield. The yield of strawberry seed oil by n-hexane extraction at the seed/solvent ratio of 1:3 was 0.11 g/g. Extracted strawberry oil was used for biodiesel production by a two-step process that included the acid (H 2 SO 4)-catalyzed pre-esterification of strawberry oil, followed by the base (KOH)-catalyzed transesterification of the pre-esterified strawberry oil. Further, the methanolysis ensured a biodiesel content of 97.2% in 30 min. However, the low yield of this technology's final product and physicochemical characterization showed that strawberry oil should be used in a mixture with other oils (hybrid oil) for biodiesel production, or in the cosmetics and food industry.
... In another study, Ullah and Hassan [102] discussed about biodiesel production from hemp biomass. Li et al. [103] reported a total biodiesel Fig. 4. Methane production using lignocellulosic biomass. yield of about 97 % from Cannabis sativa seed oil. ...
Fossil fuel supplies are becoming scarce as a result of the growing world’s population. The increasing use of fossil fuels also pose a threat to ecosystem. Renewable energy sources should be revived in order to meet future energy demands, and minimize the adverse effects on environment. Biofuels and biochemicals can be made from a wide variety of lignocellulosic biomass, which has been studied for decades. Several useful bioproducts can now be made from hemp's lignocellulosic biomass (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, protein, and others). Hemp has considerable commercial potential as it can be used in biorefinery applications for the production of bioethanol, biodiesel, biohydrogen, biogas, organic acids, biomaterials, bio-oil and various pharmaceutical and nutraceuticals compounds. Effective conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to value-added bioproducts for biorefinery and other potential applications relies on a wide range of pretreatment processes. This article aims to highlight recent developments in hemp lignocellulosic conversion technologies for biorefinery applications and other value-added products development with the goal of bolstering future industries in a manner that is more environmentally friendly and secure.
... Adamovics et al. [121] reported that hemp leaves are the best fit for biogas production. Li et al. [122] and Rashid et al. [123] tested the physical and chemical properties of hemp biodiesel and the results matched with biodiesel specifications of American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) methods (ASTM D6751) and European standards (EN 14214). ...
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L. ssp. sativa) has a long history of domestication due to its versatile use. Recently, different sectors in the economy are investigating hemp cultivation to increase agronomic production and to limit delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Despite the rapid growth of hemp literature in recent years, it is still uncertain whether the knowledge gained from higher latitude regions is applicable to low latitude and tropical regions where hemp has not been grown traditionally. This review provides a comprehensive and updated survey of hemp agronomy, focusing on environmental and management factors influencing the growth and yield of hemp, methods of cannabinoids detection and quantification, and hemp breeding. This review suggests that some previous claims about hemp as a low input crop may not hold true in low-latitude regions. Additional research strategies, such as the integration of experimentation and modeling efforts, are encouraged to hasten new discoveries. Furthermore, to effectively increase the outputs of value products (cannabinoids, seeds, fiber and biomass, etc.) while limiting the THC level, new collaborations between hemp agronomists and economists may streamline the production process by increasing the efficiency of the total production system of hemp as a multifaceted crop.
... De uma forma geral, industrialmente a remoção de impurezas de sementes e/ou grãos, de qualquer gênero, se dá com o uso de peneiras e ventilação forçada, sendo ainda a secagem um processamento posterior comum [29] . Devido seu potencial em ácidos graxos a eliminação de canabinóides das sementes pode expandir a utilização dessa matéria prima no Brasil para outras áreas industriais [30] , como alimentos [31] , combustíveis [32] , cosméticos [33] , polímeros [34] e etc. A quantidade de 9 -THC por via oral, em seres humanos, segura para não induzir efeitos neurológicos e psicomotores não podem ultrapassar 1 a 2 μg de por quilograma corporal [35] . ...
... Yağın dönüşüm verimliliği %99.5'in üzerinde ve biyodizel verimi yaklaşık %97 olarak rapor edilmiştir. Ayrıca, kenevirden elde edilen biyodizelin düşük bulutlanma noktasına ve düşük kinematik viskoziteye sahip olduğunu belirtmiştir (48). Bu da kenevir yağının biyodizel üretmek için etkin bir şekilde kullanılabileceğini düşündürmektedir. ...
... In the table, it is observed that -linolenic, and oleic acids, which constitute 85.17% of total fatty acids and are unsaturated fatty acids. Similar fatty acid compositions related to hemp seed -linolenic, and oleic acids were reported in The values of some physical and chemical properties of the hemp seed oil such as density, kinematic viscosity, calorific value, flash point, cloud point, pour point, firing point and acid value have been adopted from different publications are given in Table 4. Li et al. (2010), Ragit et al. (2012), Gupta et al. (2018), Mohammed et al. (2018), Anwar (2009), Anwar et al. (2006), Su et al. (2013) 4. Production of biodiesel from hemp seed oil The use of hemp seed oil, which has high essential fatty acids, as fuel in diesel engines due to its high viscosity like many vegetable oils may lead to some problems. In order to overcome it, the viscosity of the hemp seed oil is taken by esterification, and thus, the fuel properties are also improved. ...
Due to the enhancement of industrialization along with the modernization resulting from a jump of the population, the requisition for petroleum-based sources has swiftly ascended all over the world. In this context, the development of the economy has caused a considerable demand for energy in which the main percentage of that energy has been supplied from fossil-based resources like coal, natural gas, and especially petroleum. On the other hand, many researchers have paid attention to look into alternative fuels that can be derived from renewable raw materials available and cultivated within the countries because of the finite reserves of the aforementioned fossil-based fuels. Amongst the alternative fuels used in compression-ignition engine applications, there is a great potential of biodiesel owing to its environmental advantageous and it can be produced from renewable and sustainable feedstocks such as vegetable oils, animal fats, or their wastes. Although there are various types of production methods (dilution, micro-emulsification, pyrolysis, and transesterification) so as to get biodiesel, the most frequently preferred technique is the transesterification where the triglycerides react with the alcohol in the presence of a catalyst. This paper presents a critical review regarding the evaluation of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seed oil in the derivation of biodiesel and its fuel characteristics. The hemp, which has been produced and used in the Anatolian lands for centuries, has recently reached a level of extinction. As is well-known, the consumption of the hemp seed oil by people as food in Turkey is limited even though the hemp seeds possess high oil concentration, varied from 25% to 35%. The outcomes coming from the present examination resulted in that the production of biodiesel from hemp seed oil is conceivable and the literature survey set out comparable fuel characteristics with those of conventional diesel fuel.
... There are other energy uses from industrial hemp. Some of them are [105] from chemical processes, and the biodiesel from cannabis seed oil by the transesterification process with methanol [106,107]; in the biochemical process, are the biogas from AD [108][109][110][111][112] and bioethanol obtained through fermentation of biomass [113], and lastly, for thermochemical process, the heat from direct combustion utilizing solid fuels [110] as briquettes [97,108] or pellets produced from cannabis hurds and stems or electricity in systems like Combined Heat and Power (CHP) from cannabis biomass and pyrolysis [114]. ...
Energy crops are dedicated cultures directed for biofuels, electricity, and heat production. Due to their tolerance to contaminated lands, they can alleviate and remediate land pollution by the disposal of toxic elements and polymetallic agents. Moreover, these crops are suitable to be exploited in marginal soils (e.g., saline), and, therefore, the risk of land-use conflicts due to competition for food, feed, and fuel is reduced, contributing positively to economic growth, and bringing additional revenue to landowners. Therefore, further study and investment in R&D is required to link energy crops to the implementation of biorefineries. The main objective of this study is to present a review of the potential of selected energy crops for bioenergy and biofuels production, when cultivated in marginal/degraded/contaminated (MDC) soils (not competing with agriculture), contributing to avoiding Indirect Land Use Change (ILUC) burdens. The selected energy crops are Cynara cardunculus, Arundo donax, Cannabis sativa, Helianthus tuberosus, Linum usitatissimum, Miscanthus × giganteus, Sorghum bicolor, Panicum virgatum, Acacia dealbata, Pinus pinaster, Paulownia tomentosa, Populus alba, Populus nigra, Salix viminalis, and microalgae cultures. This article is useful for researchers or entrepreneurs who want to know what kind of crops can produce which biofuels in MDC soils.
... Sodium hydroxide used in pretreatment can be recovered and reused consequently minimizing chemical waste disposal (Karimi et al. 2013). Besides, it generally utilizes lower temperatures, pressure, and residence time and produces lower concentration of inhibitors (Li et al. 2010). Pretreatment with solvent is more useful compared to thermal pretreatment by producing less inhibitory compounds and less degradation of carbohydrates (Zadeh et al. 2011). ...
This chapter deals with the solid biomass which is an economically feasible, eco-friendly, potentially renewable, and sustainable source of energy. In this chapter we tried to evaluate biomass resources (agricultural, forest, and other waste biomass) for bioethanol production from first-, second-, third-, and fourth-generation feedstock. Biomass conversion technologies have been reviewed. Conversion of carbohydrate-based biomass into bioethanol by fermentation using yeast or other microorganisms is the most promising alternative to meet demand of biofuel production. Presently, molasses (a by-product of sugar) is the most commonly used biomass for bioethanol production. There is substantial availability of both food and nonfood agricultural and forest biomass resources worldwide that can address to energy crises, reducing the cost of fossil fuel by providing ethanol to existing petroleum refineries for blending. There are great research prospects for the production of bioethanol concerning high value added products, using stress resistant strains of yeast and bacteria and cost reduction for installed distilleries. It is suggested that new refineries should be installed along with advancement of the existing ones and additional research is to be carried out to assess bioethanol-based fuel and petroleum products in the world.
... For phytoremediation purposes, these traits include high biomass yield, an extensive root system, high tolerance to soil contaminants, microbial resistance, high land use efficiency, improving of soil health, the short growing season, use in organic crop rotation, and the ability to adapt to various climatic conditions and different type of soil (Linger et al. 2002;Citterio et al. 2013). Hemp is also considered a low-input and low-impact crops, as it has low management and feedstock costs, which make it a promising species for the phytomanagement of contaminated sites Rehman et al. 2013;Li et al. 2010 The various uses of C. sativa have been reported in several studies. Its ability to decontaminate polluted soils by heavy metals or petroleum hydrocarbons has been reported, and Linger et al. (2005) showed the ability of hemp to remove a considerable amount of Cd from soil. ...
The remediation of contaminated soils started years ago using consolidates technologies (incineration, inertization, etc.) usually employed in the waste treatment. This has contributed to consider a contaminated soil as a hazardous waste. This approximation was unfortunately transferred in many European legislations and on this basis soil quality have been used only marginally considered in the clean-up procedures. For many years, soil quality has been identified by the concentration values of contaminant and excavation and landfill disposal of soil has been largely used.In recent years, the knowledge of technologies has rapidly grown and soil remediation is now based on innovative technologies, which are largely dependent on soil properties. The new environmental policies are increasingly promoting “Green remediation” and “Natural Based Solution” strategies: which consider all environmental effects of remedy and incorporate all the options to maximize environmental benefit. These remediation strategies restore contaminated sites to productive use with a great attention to the global environmental quality, including the preservation of soil functionality by the use of minimally invasive technologies such as bioremediation and phytoremediation.Moving from the definition of remedial targets based on contaminant concentrations, it is essential to select technologies with low environmental impact to avoid the destruction in a very short time of an essential non-renewable resource, such as the soil.KeywordsSoil contaminationSoil qualityRemediation technologiesNatural based solutionGreen remediationPhytoremediationBiomass valorization
... However, the IV is not prescribed by the ASTM biodiesel standard. Also, some researchers argue that the restriction of IV by the biodiesel standard is not indispensable (Costenoble et al., 2008) as the necessary oxidation stability can be provided by an addition of the proper additives to the biodiesel product (Li et al., 2010). Peroxide values also fall in a wide range of 0.47-15.5 mmol O 2 /kg but some of them are above the acceptable limit of 7.5 mmol O 2 /kg for pressed and virgin oils (Alimentarius, 2001). ...
Camelina [Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz] is cultivated worldwide as a rotational oilseed crop under a range of agronomic and environmental conditions. In recent years, interest in camelina has increased due to its short vegetation season, modest agricultural and environmental requirements for cultivation, high seed and biomass (straw) yield, high seed oil content, high polyunsaturated fatty acids content in the oil, and multiple uses. This paper is an overview of the initial steps of any camelina-based production process, such as plant cultivation and harvesting, seed pretreatment, and oil recovery. The main features of the camelina plant and seed are shortly described. The prominent issues of harvesting, cleaning, drying, storing, and pretreating of camelina seed are discussed. The main part of the paper is focused on oil recovery from the pretreated seed. The traits of various camelina oil recovery methods are stressed. The physicochemical properties and composition of camelina oil, with an emphasis on fatty acid profile and bioactive substances (tocopherols, vitamins, polyphenols, sterols, glucosinolates, etc.) contents, are considered. The traditional, actual, and prospective uses of camelina seed, oil, meal, and straw are briefly overviewed. Based on the fatty acid profile of the oil, the bioactive constituents of the meal, and the lignocellulosic content of straw, the camelina plant can be utilized in the biofuels, food, feed, and pharmaceutical industries. Future valorization of camelina should be based on full exploitation of its whole biomass in a biorefinery as it will give the high-added-value to its oil, meal, and straw.
... Hemp oil is a new potential feedstock for biodiesel production because of its high oil content (25-35%), which is 37% higher than soybean oil (18-22% oil content) (Clemente and Cahoon, 2009;Leizer et al., 2000). Li et al. transformed hemp oil into biodiesel using base-catalyzed transesterification at 50°C (Li et al., 2010). They obtained a high biodiesel yield of 97% with 100% hemp oil conversion. ...
Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa), a member of the family that includes marijuana, has great potentials as a renewable feedstock for a sustainable society. Unlike marijuana, industrial hemp has a high cannabidiol (CBD) content and only < 0.3% tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the psychoactive compound in marijuana. Moreover, every part of hemp can be used. For instance, hemp bast can be used as a fiber source for textile and paper production. Hemp seeds are a good source of oil, which is rich in omega-3, omega-6, and unsaturated fatty acids for cooking and supplements. Hemp flowering materials (leaves and flowers) are rich in CBD oil, which has medicinal properties for the treatment of Dravet syndrome, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and anxiety disorder. Last but not least, hemp hurd, a soft inner core of hemp stalks and stems, can be used as a starting material for biofuel, bioproducts, and construction materials. Considering the hemp's versatility, the cultivation of industrial hemp and hemp-derived products have increased rapidly. In this chapter, we described selected potential uses of industrial hemp in the following aspects: (1) value-added materials, (2) foods and bioproducts, and (3) biofuels and biochemicals.
... Thus, impeding the cannabis bioeconomy. Nonetheless, repurposing radioactive cannabis biomass for electricity and ethanol production could be a possibility to salvage grower's investment, even though poor oxidation stability in biodiesel production has been reported (Li et al. 2010). ...
The intrinsic signatures of Cannabis species to bioaccumulate non-essential harmful heavy metals (HMs) such as As, Pb, Cr, and Hg are determined by their high tolerance, weedy propensities, phenotypic plasticity attributes, and pedoclimatic stress adaptation in a biota. This unstructured meta-analysis study provides details of cannabis involvement in HMs phytoremediation, new insights into HMs transportation and distribution, homeostasis, and health implications of HMs contaminated product. A blueprint of agronomic strategies to alleviate HMs uptake by cannabis is proposed. We show revamping cannabis global production necessitates a rethinking of agronomic best practices and post-harvest technologies to remove metal contaminants.
... Das et al. (2017) also reported that industrial hemp can be promising specie for the production of biofuels and value-added products. According to Li et al. (2010) hemp can be used in bioethanol, biogas, solid fuel, biohydrogen, and biodiesel production. Hemp cultivated for bio-energy production in western countries such as Finland (Sankari, 2000), Ireland (Rice 2008), Poland (Burczyk et al. 2008), Latvia (Balodis et al. 2011), Spain (Casas andPons 2005), and USA (Castleman 2006). ...
Rising human population has increased the utilization of available resources for food, clothes, medicine, and living space, thus menacing natural environment and mounting the gap between available resources, and the skills to meet human desires is necessary. Humans are satisfying their desires by depleting available natural resources. Therefore, multifunctional plants can contribute towards the livelihoods of people, to execute their life requirements without degrading natural resources. Thus, research on multipurpose industrial crops should be of high interest among scientists. Hemp, or industrial hemp, is gaining research interest because of its fastest growth and utilization in commercial products including textile, paper, medicine, food, animal feed, paint, biofuel, biodegradable plastic, and construction material. High biomass production and ability to grow under versatile conditions make hemp, a good candidate species for remediation of polluted soils also. Present review highlights the morphology, adaptability, nutritional constituents, textile use, and medicinal significance of industrial hemp. Moreover, its usage in environmental conservation, building material, and biofuel production has also been discussed.
... Different hemp varieties have been used for fiber, seeds, medicine, and recreation for thousands of years (Russo, 2007). Hemp has also recently been used to produce biofuels (Li et al., 2010), plastics (Wretfors et al., 2009;Khattab and Dahman, 2019), and building composites (Sassoni et al., 2014;Hussain et al., 2019). Similar to other crops, different hemp varieties serve specific uses. ...
High consumer demand for cannabidiol (CBD) has made high-CBD hemp (Cannabis sativa) an extremely high-value crop. However, high demand has resulted in the industry developing faster than the research, resulting in the sale of many hemp accessions with inconsistent performance and chemical profiles. These inconsistencies cause significant economic and legal problems for growers interested in producing high-CBD hemp. To determine the genetic and phenotypic consistency in available high-CBD hemp varieties, we obtained seed or clones from 22 different named accessions meant for commercial production. Genotypes (∼48,000 SNPs) and chemical profiles (% CBD and THC by dry weight) were determined for up to 8 plants per accession. Many accessions–including several with the same name–showed little consistency either genetically or chemically. Most seed-grown accessions also deviated significantly from their purported levels of CBD and THC based on the supplied certificates of analysis. Several also showed evidence of an active tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCa) synthase gene, leading to unacceptably high levels of THC in female flowers. We conclude that the current market for high-CBD hemp varieties is highly unreliable, making many purchases risky for growers. We suggest options for addressing these issues, such using unique names and developing seed and plant certification programs to ensure the availability of high-quality, verified planting materials.
... Como produção de biocombustíveis a partir da biomassa (Kuglarz et al., 2016). Produtos de alto valor agregado como nanocristais de celulose, produzidos com as fi bras de baixa qualidade (Li et al., 2010) no desenvolvimento de nano compostos de alto desempenho (George;Sabapathi, 2015). ...
A Cannabis sativa L. constitui-se de uma única espécie com altíssima variação intraespecífi ca, isso ocorre porque os espécimes do gênero não encontram nenhum impedimento a reprodução sexuada. São duas variedades de Cannabis spp., uma com maior propensão a produção de fi bras e outra para produção de metabólitos secundários (psicoativos). O cânhamo, produtor de fi bras, é uma commodity potencialmente lucrativa adequada a sistemas de produção sustentáveis. O interesse renovado por esta cultura tem aumentado em todo mundo. A atualização do conhecimento a respeito desse cultivo é importante para entender se é realmente sustentável, legal e uma alternativa economicamente compensadora. Por outro lado, a contribuição do melhoramento de plantas, as práticas agrofl orestais e as técnicas de processamento, podem ajudar a melhorar as características relevantes deste produto. O caule do cânhamo pode ser separado em dois componentes principais: os tecidos dispostos externamente ao câmbio vascular (composto por epiderme, córtex e fl oema) e os tecidos localizados internamente ao câmbio (xilema e medula). A produtividade do cânhamo em biomassa (base massa seca) varia consideravelmente na literatura, com valores que vão de 7 a 34 ton/ha/ ano, a percentagem de fi bras do fl oema primário (fonte das valiosas fi bras longas do cânhamo) é estável, fi cando em torno de 30%, do total dessa biomassa. Devido, principalmente as diferenças entre os genótipos, as práticas agronômicas, condições ambientais, e técnicas empregadas no processamento. O cânhamo industrial é uma cultura escalável que pode fornecer benefícios econômicos e ambientais signifi cativos. Entretanto, a verdadeira valorização do cânhamo industrial dependerá de inovações signifi cativas e do desenvolvimento de aplicações de alto valor. A colaboração do setor fl orestal, universidades e indústria é indispensável para o estabelecimento de um programa de cânhamo industrial robusto voltado às necessidades brasileiras. É critico o desenvolvimento de pesquisas tanto nas ciências agrárias, bem como na área de tecnologia de materiais. Buscando, desde cultivares mais produtivos e adaptados as condições locais, até o desenvolvimento de bioprodutos que permitam o escoamento dessa produção para o mercado global. A Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV) será um grande player no desenvolvimento dessas tecnologias em parceria com empresas fl orestais e agrícolas.
... Thus, impeding the cannabis bioeconomy. Nonetheless, repurposing radioactive cannabis biomass for electricity and ethanol production could be a possibility to salvage grower's investment, even though poor oxidation stability in biodiesel production has been reported (Li et al. 2010). ...
The intrinsic signatures of Cannabis species to bioaccumulate non-essential harmful heavy metals (HMs) are substantially determined by their high tolerance, weedy propensities, phenotypic plasticity attributes, and pedoclimatic stress adaptation in an ecological niche. The detection trends of HMs contaminants in cannabis products have reshaped the 2027 forecast and beyond for global cannabis trade valued at $57 billion. Consumer base awareness for the cohort of HMs contaminants viz., lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), and radioactive elements, and the associative dissuading effects significantly impact cannabis bioeconomy. On the premise that fiber hemp ( Cannabis sativa L.) could be repurposed to diverse non-consumable products, concerns over HMs contamination would not significantly decrease fiber trade, a trend that could impact globally by 2025. The economic trend will depend on acceptable consumer risk, regulatory instruments, and grower's due diligence to implement agronomic best practices to mitigate HMs contamination in marketable cannabis-related products. In this unstructured meta-analysis study based on published literature, the application of Cannabis species in HMs phytoremediation, new insights into transportation, distribution, homeostasis of HMs, the impact of HMs on medical cannabis, and cannabis bioeconomic are discussed. Furthermore, a blueprint of agronomic strategies to alleviate HMs uptake by plant is proposed. Considering that one-third of the global arable lands are contaminated with HMs, revamping global production of domesticated cannabis requires a rethinking of agronomic best practices and post-harvest technologies to remove HMs contaminants.
... In this sense, there are reports mentioning that the oil content in hemp seeds is between 25 and 35% w/w [106], making them promissory feedstock for biodiesel production processes [107]. Biodiesel produced from hemp seed oil presents physicochemical properties comparable to values reported in the fuel standard specifications for biodiesel fuel blendstock, i.e., ASTM D6751 [108,109]. ...
Phytoremediation is an attractive strategy for cleaning soils polluted with a wide spectrum of organic and inorganic toxic compounds. Among these pollutants, heavy metals have attracted global attention due to their negative effects on human health and terrestrial ecosystems. As a result of this, numerous studies have been carried out to elucidate the mechanisms involved in removal processes. These studies have employed many plant species that might be used for phytoremediation and the obtention of end bioproducts such as biofuels and biogas useful in combustion and heating. Phytotechnologies represent an attractive segment that is increasingly gaining attention worldwide due to their versatility, economic profitability, and environmental co-benefits such as erosion control and soil quality and functionality improvement. In this review, the process of valorizing biomass from phytoremediation is described; in addition, relevant experiments where polluted biomass is used as feedstock or bioenergy is produced via thermo- and biochemical conversion are analyzed. Besides, pretreatments of biomass to increase yields and treatments to control the transfer of metals to the environment are also mentioned. Finally, aspects related to the feasibility, benefits, risks, and gaps of converting toxic-metal-polluted biomass are discussed.
... Rights reserved. Biodiesel production Hemp seed Hemp seed oil was processed to biodiesel through a basecatalyzed transesterification reaction Lab test Because of the high portion of unsaturation fatty acid in hemp seeds, the oxidation stability of biodiesel will be poor Li et al. (2010) Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved. ...
The presence of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in wastewater treatment plant effluents is a significant underlying health risk and environmental concern. CECs consist of a wide variety of contaminants, including pharmaceuticals and personal care products, hormones, steroids, alkyl-phenols, flame retardants and pesticides. Their impact is of particular relevance to agricultural settings due to CEC uptake and accumulation in food crops and consequent diffusion into the food-chain. Meanwhile, marijuana reform is accelerating in the US, based on the scope and pace of legalization efforts and on wider acceptance in polls of voters. In this review, the effectiveness of industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) in phytoremediation and hyperaccumulation of organic contaminants (e.g., benzo(a) pyrene, Naphthalene, and Chrysene) and heavy metal (e.g., Selenium and Cobalt) from either aqueous solutions or contaminated soils has been reviewed. The potential of industrial hemp as a renewable resource to biodegrade and/or decontaminate CECs is explored. Disposal strategies of this new phytoremediation crop that promote circular economy are also discussed. According to this current review, we believe the use of industrial hemp for phytoremediation is promising to have a sustainable, environmentally friendly and economically viable future.
... Virgin hemp seed oil is niche product and is recommended during mild processing of food without heat (Matthaus and Bruhl 2008). Hempseed oil can also be converted into biodiesel efficiently (Li et al 2010). ...
Having originated in Central Asia, Cannabis plant also known as Bhanga, Indrasana, Vijaya or Jaya in hindi and Sanskrit is a popular plant in India despite of its notorious property. It enjoys unique cultural significance apart from its food, medicinal and fiber properties for long. Traditional use of Cannabis (bhanga) seed in cuisine of Kumaun region is still very popular. Scanty archaeobotanical reports as well as literary evidences are available to give the antiquity of Cannabis in India that traces its antiquity in India to the third millennium BCE. Yet, the results are inadequate to decipher its use as seed or fiber. Based on literature search this paper aims to evaluate efficacy of Cannabis seed concerning its ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and other ethnobotanical uses. Although studies supporting health benefits of cannabis seed consumption are few, researches available on nutritional profile indicate promise for future. As food, the species has tremendous nutritional potential for human well-being as well as animal and poultry feed. However there are few incidences recorded for the allergic reaction to either hemp pollen or THC. Despite its prehistoric significance, limited researches have been done as it was banned for cultivation.Keeping its future potential in view, there is a need to undertake more coordinated researches to establish its significance in nutrition and also validation studies so that applicability of cannabis could be established properly against various diseases.
Since the commencement of the industrial revolution in the eighteenth century, fossil fuels have provided a solution to our energy concerns. However, the globe has experienced an unprecedented and unregulated usage of fossil fuels in the recent decades. We currently rely significantly on fossil fuels to meet our energy needs. It is definitely true that fossil fuels have shaped our world but at the expense of environmental and other risks. The detrimental environmental effects of fossil fuels are increasingly becoming apparent, and the quest for alternative energy sources has started. Bioenergy crops are one such energy source that has the potential to benefit the environment and help to climate change mitigation by substituting for fossil fuels; nevertheless, considerable greenhouse gases (GHG) saving will necessitate significant land-use change globally. The production of biofuels from bioenergy crops with rapid growth and high photosynthetic efficiency is developing as a viable alternative to fossil fuels. Although it is considered that bioenergy crops have a favorable impact on the environment and can contribute significantly to future energy budgets, they cannot be grown on arable land due to environmental, social, and economic constraints. Growing energy crops on marginal lands is a possible alternative. Due to inherent climatic constraints or vulnerability to erosion and other environmental problems, marginal lands are unsuitable for agricultural practices due to low production and profitability. Energy crops produced on marginal areas will not only offer cellulosic biomass without competing with food crops but will also help to restore those lands while significantly reducing GHG emissions without jeopardizing food security. Identifying proper cultivation locations, bioenergy crop kinds, and optimal management approaches can be beneficial to the environment and the long-term development of bioenergy.
Biodiesel to replace fossil diesel demand by 10–20 % has made it meet sustainability goals worldwide. Various feedstocks like edible and non-edible have been experimented with for biodiesel production and are still of research interest, but the biodiesel production processes are time-consuming and energy intensive. In the present study, non-edible feed, namely Cannabis Sativa L. and Sapium sebiferum L., was explored and the fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) was synthesised at ambient temperature using a novel solvent with FAME yield of 98.7 and 97.8 %, respectively. The three plausible mechanisms and technical innovation of novel solvent were also discussed. All the physicochemical properties for the produced biodiesel and prepared biodiesels blends were found as per ASTM/BIS specifications and corroborated by spectroscopic and analytical techniques. The characteristic ester peak (C=O) at 1740 cm-1 and methoxy (O-CH3) at 1485 cm-1 using FTIR confirmed the successful biodiesel production.
Historically, cannabis has always constituted a component of the civilized world; archaeological discoveries indicate that it is one of the oldest crops, while, up until the 19th century, cannabis fibers were extensively used in a variety of applications, and its seeds comprised a part of human and livestock nutrition. Additional evidence supports its exploitation for medicinal purposes in the ancient world. The cultivation of cannabis gradually declined as hemp fibers gave way to synthetic fibers, while the intoxicating ability of THC eventually overshadowed the extensive potential of cannabis. Nevertheless, the proven value of certain non-intoxicating cannabinoids, such as CBD and CBN, has recently given rise to an entire market which promotes cannabis-based products. An increase in the research for recovery and exploitation of beneficial cannabinoids has also been observed, with more than 10 000 peer-reviewed research articles published annually. In the present review, a brief overview of the history of cannabis is given. A look into the classification approaches of cannabis plants/species as well as the associated nomenclature is provided, followed by a description of their chemical characteristics and their medically valuable components. The application areas could not be absent from the present review. Still, the main focus of the review is the discussion of work conducted in the field of extraction of valuable bioactive compounds from cannabis. We conclude with a summary of the current status and outlook on the topics that future research should address.
Introduction of waste and non-edible oil seeds coupled with green nanotechnology offered a pushover to sustainable and economical biofuels and bio refinery production globally. The current study encompasses the synthesis and application of novel green, highly reactive and recyclable bismuth oxide nanocatalyst derived from Euphorbia royealeana (Falc.) Boiss. leaves extract via biological method for sustainable biofuel synthesis from highly potent Cannabis sativa seed oil (34% w/w) via membrane reactors. Advanced techniques such as X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Diffraction X-Ray (EDX), and FT-IR were employed to illustrate the newly synthesized green bismuth oxide nanoparticles. 92% of FAMEs were produced under optimal reaction conditions such as a 1.5% w/w catalyst weight, 1:12 oil to methanol molar ratio, and a reaction temperature of 92 ⸰C for 3.5 h via membrane reactor. The synthesized Cannabis biodiesel was identified using the FT-IR and GC-MS techniques. The fuel properties of synthesized biofuels (acid number 0.203 mg KOH/g, density 0.8623 kg/L, kinematic viscosity 5.32 cSt, flash point 80 °C, pour point -11 °C, cloud point -11 °C, and Sulfur 0.00047 wt %, and carbon residues 0.2) were studied and established to be comparable with internationally set parameters. The experimental data (R2 = 0.997) shows that this reaction follow pseudo first-order kinetics. These findings affirm the application of green bismuth oxide nanoparticles as economical, highly reactive and eco-friendly candidate for industrial scale biodiesel production from non-edible oil seeds.
Three feedstocks, hemp, jatropha, and kenaf, are economically evaluated to produce biodiesel for Malaysia and whether they could improve its sustainability and reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the transportation sector. This study uses a partial equilibrium model, called the Malaysian Agriculture and Plantation Greenhouse Gas Model, to evaluate the potential feedstocks. The model represents the major agricultural commodities of Malaysia and forecasts market prices and quantities between 2024 and 2064. The results show that hemp and kenaf biodiesel can compete with the retail diesel price at the pump. Both hemp and kenaf are sustainable, and these two commodities produce two valuable coproducts: fiber and seed cake. The seed cake helps Malaysia offset some animal feed imports since Malaysia relies on imported feed to support its poultry and cattle industries. Furthermore, hemp and kenaf biodiesel production increases agricultural employment and mitigates some carbon dioxide equivalent emissions in the transportation sector. Jatropha biodiesel is not economically feasible because this commodity produces biodiesel and no valuable coproducts. If jatropha could be genetically altered to make less toxic seed cake or yield other valuable coproducts, then jatropha biodiesel could become economically viable.
Algal biofuels are considered a possible source of renewable energy. The combination of microalgal cultivation and biofuel production using a biorefinery approach is projected to dramatically increase the overall cost effectiveness of biofuel production. Technological advances—including optimization of crop conditions, safeguarding algal crops from predators, microalgal biomass harvesting, and other downstream processing technologies—are important and can lead to improved cost effectiveness. Therefore, this chapter will focus on algal-based biofuel and potential challenges, including the crop protection from potential predators, the effect of various medium contents on biomass yield, and cost-effective algal harvesting and future perspectives as well. Since, the minimizing of the costs of biofuel production from microalgal biomass is effective away to attract the commercial application. In conclusion, the chapter provides algal farmers with promising strategies to overcome some potential challenges that limit the economic production of biofuels as clean energy.
Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) has a rich history of human use, and the therapeutic importance of compounds produced by this species is recognized by the medical community. The active constituents of cannabis, collectively called cannabinoids, encompass hundreds of distinct molecules, the most well-characterized of which are tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), which have been used for centuries as recreational drugs and medicinal agents. As a first step to establish a cannabis breeding program, we initiated this study to describe the HPLC-measured quantity of THC and CBD biochemistry profiles of 161 feral pistillate cannabis plants from 20 geographical regions of Iran. Our data showed that Iran can be considered a new region of high potential for distribution of cannabis landraces with diverse THC and CBD content, predominantly falling into three groups, as Type I = THC-predominant, Type II = approximately equal proportions of THC and CBD (both CBD and THC in a ratio close to the unity), and Type III = CBD-predominant. Correlation analysis among two target cannabinoids and environmental and geographical variables indicated that both THC and CBD contents were strongly influenced by several environmental–geographical factors, such that THC and CBD contents were positively correlated with mean, min and max annual temperature and negatively correlated with latitude, elevation, and humidity. Additionally, a negative correlation was observed between THC and CBD concentrations, suggesting that further studies to unravel these genotype × environment interactions (G × E interactions) are warranted. The results of this study provide important pre-breeding information on a collection of cannabis that will underpin future breeding programs.
Bioenergy and its varieties, which have been frequently mentioned in the twenty-first century on the basis of energy and respect to the environment, are becoming issues that need to be studied much more in terms of biodiesel fuel with uncertainties in oil prices and emission restrictions. Biodiesel production, especially from inedible oil sources, has not caused a shortage of raw material in the food stock. Besides that, the availability and quantity of feedstock to be produced biodiesel have to be another criterion for countries. In this context, optimization of transesterification process parameters from industrial-grade hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seed oil has been investigated in the present research using the Taguchi approach for the first time. Initially, catalyst concentration (0.6–1.2 wt. %), molar ratio of methanol to oil (6:1–12:1), reaction temperature (30–60 °C), and experimental duration (60–120 min) were taken into consideration to be as remarkable factors affecting the yield of methyl ester. The transesterification process was performed in the aforementioned reaction parameters by implementing an L9 orthogonal design matrix of the Taguchi technique. Besides that, the combination obtained using analysis of variance (ANOVA) on account of estimating the influencing process parameters was revealed thanks to the validation experiments. In conclusion, the maximum biodiesel yield was found to be 96.87% under the optimum reaction conditions given as follows: KOH loading of 0.9 wt. %, molar ratio of the methanol to oil of 12:1, reaction temperature of 45 °C, and reaction duration of 120 min. Among the optimized four variables, the highest contribution factor was calculated to be 47.08% with methanol:oil molar ratio, 35.02% with KOH loading, 10.56% with reaction temperature, and 7.34% with reaction duration. The fuel characteristics for synthesized hempseed methyl ester at the above-stated optimal reaction conditions were observed to be within the range of EN 14,214 global biodiesel specifications. It could be highlighted that industrial-grade hempseed oil can be evaluated as a potential and sustainable raw material for the production of biodiesel in near future.
Graphical abstract
Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a commonly used biowaste treatment technology. Biogas and digestate (also known as digestate) are two products. Digestate contains nutrients such as ammonia nitrogen. Recovering nutrients from digestate as marketable products are critical for AD plants to meet regulatory and market demands while generating additional revenue. Traditional digestate processing technologies, i.e., land application, require energy inputs and raise environmental risks. Alternatively, microalgae can remove various nutrients from digestate, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, while generating biomass for biochemicals and biofuels production. Microalgae can biosynthesize both inorganic and organic carbons derived from AD and sequestrate atmospheric CO2. Combining digestate treatment and microalgal cultivation has become a topic of interest in the past years, although the economic feasibility of such a project remains a challenge. This chapter covers the background, technology principles, and application schemes of integrating AD digestate treatment with microalgae cultivation.
Hemp is one of the significant sources of natural fiber, proteins, oils and
medicinal substances. In terms of the way it is used in industrial
processing and domestic handicrafts, hemp surpasses all other cultivated
plants and is indisputably one of the largest renewable sources of very
important raw materials. Throughout a long period of history, the
industrial processing of hemp has yielded significant products, but also
the employment of a large number of people. The paper analyzes the
most efficient ways of using crop residues, residues after cleaning of
hemp grain, residues after oil extraction, residues from grain, residues
after fiber separation and remnants of trees after mowing blooms with
apical leaves. It is predicted that hemp cultivation will be the basis for a
new chapter in the 21st century, especially if there are already more than
25,000 different industrial, food and pharmaceutical products obtained
by processing this textile-oil plant on the market today.
Keywords: biofuels, biooils, hemp, by-products, renewable source,
In this study, the economics of producing biofuels from an industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa) genotype – 19m96136 was investigated. A lignocellulosic biofuel plant, hourly consuming 85 metric tons of hemp biomass was modeled in SuperPro Designer®. The integrated bioenergy plant produced hemp biodiesel and bioethanol from lipids and carbohydrates respectively. The structural composition of the industrial hemp plant was analyzed in a previous study. The data obtained was used to simulate feedstock composition in SuperPro Designer®.
The simulation results indicated that Hemp containing 2% lipids can yield up to 3.95 million gallons of biodiesel annually. On improving biomass lipid content to 5 and 10%, biodiesel production increased to 9.88 and 19.91 million gallons, respectively. The breakeven unit production cost of hemp biodiesel with 2, 5, and 10% lipid containing hemp was 18.49, 7.87, and 4.13/gallon. Furthermore, sensitivity analysis revealed the possibility of a 7.80% reduction in unit production cost upon a 10% reduction in hemp feedstock cost. Furthermore, industrial hemp was capable of producing between 307.80 and 325.82 gallons of total biofuels per hectare of agricultural land than soybean.
High consumer demand for cannabidiol (CBD) has made industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa) an extremely high-value crop. However, high demand has resulted in the industry developing faster than the research, resulting in the sale of many hemp accessions with inconsistent performance and chemical profiles. To determine the genetic and phenotypic consistency in available CBD hemp varieties, we obtained seed or clones from 22 different named accessions. Genotypes (~48,000 SNPs) and chemical profiles (% CBD and THC by dry weight) were determined for up to 8 plants per accession. Many accessions--including several with the same name--showed little consistency either genetically or chemically. Most seed-grown accessions deviated significantly from their purported levels of CBD and THC based on the supplied certificates of analysis. Several also showed evidence of an active tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCa) synthase gene, leading to unacceptably high levels of THC in female flowers. We conclude that the current market for CBD-hemp varieties is highly unreliable, making many purchases risky for growers. We suggest options for addressing these issues, such using unique names and developing seed and plant certification programs to ensure the availability of high-quality, verified planting materials.
As societies place greater emphasis on sustainability, there is a move toward creating a circular economy in which renewable resources, such as agriculture and forestry residues, serve as feedstocks in the production of energy and chemicals. One emerging agricultural commodity that may potentially serve as a feedstock for numerous chemicals and materials is cannabis. For most of the last one hundred years the use of cannabis as a biomass feedstock has been all but impossible, due to its legal status. However, over the last 20 years the changing legal status of cannabis has resulted in a large number of studies which have investigated cannabis as a feedstock for diverse bioproducts, including polymers, pulp, and biofuels. Being a relatively new agricultural commodity, the literature on chemicals, fuels, and materials derived from cannabis is spread across numerous disparate disciplines, such as engineering, agriculture, chemistry, and biology. Thus, the purpose of this review is to compile and summarize the relevant studies that illustrate the use of cannabis as a feedstock in the production of chemicals, fuels, and materials as well as to highlight the challenges and possibilities for future research opportunities.
Reducing fossil fuel reliance is considered a great challenge for several progressive emerging economies. The development of alternative renewable fuels tends to improve energy security as well as diminish fuel supply vulnerability. This paper details an enhanced protocol intended for the manufacture of hemp biodiesel over two-stage base catalyzed transesterification from crude hemp oil (CHO). The estimation of fuel properties, along with the various spectrometric techniques like Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), Fourier Transform Infra-Red Spectrometry (FTIR), and Thermo Gravimetry-Differential Scanning Calorimetry/Derivative Thermogravimetry (TG-DSC/DTG) methodologies were used to properly assess the quality and quantity of hemp (Cannabis Sativa L.) biodiesel (HB). The density, kinematic viscosity, and cetane number of HB were found to be 876 kg/m³, 3.91 cSt, and 50, respectively. Since the estimated fuel properties fall well within the range of American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards, HB could be considered as a sustainable fuel alternative to conventional diesel. GC-MS results demonstrate that the HB contains unsaturated long-chain fatty acids like 9,15-Octadecadienoic acid methyl ester as dominant in the mixture. The FTIR spectrum of crude hemp oil and the synthesized biodiesel confirm the conversion of triglycerides in the CHO into methyl esters in the HB. The findings obtained from TG-DSC/DTG are in near agreement with the results of GC-MS and FTIR. It is therefore proven the hemp oil has abundant potential to be used as an inedible source for the manufacture of bio-diesel.
Biodiesel is the most widely accepted complement fuel for diesel engines due to its characteristic properties, environmental and strategic advantages. In recent years, the high cost of biodiesel and the competition with food has been reduced by using non-edible feedstocks. However, if further cost reduction is to be achieved, new methods of production should be adopted. In this study, an attempt has been made on cost reduction by producing biodiesels from non-edible oils (hemp seed oil and tobacco seed oil) in the laboratory using a domestic blender. Parametric studies were conducted to determine the optimal conditions such as KOH dosage (0.5–1.5 wt%), reaction duration (50–100 min). and methanol to oil molar ratio (4.0–8.0) for low fatty acid hemp seed oil methyl ester (HSOME) and tobacco seed oil methyl ester (TSOME) production and to establish density and viscosity correlation for the HSOME and TSOME with diesel blends. Regression models were adopted in predicting the basic properties of HSOME and TSOME, and their blends with diesel fuel. Optimum conditions of 0.9 wt% of KOH and 1.1 wt% of KOH and reaction time of 70 and 80 min were obtained with more than 95% conversion for both HSOME and TSOME with methanol/oil molar ratio of 6:1. The cost estimation for HSOME and TSOME was conducted and the commercial value detected as (1.35 USD/l) and TSOME (1.36 USD/l). The respective energy efficiencies for HSOME and TSOME were 0.044 × 10−3 g/J and 0.0396 × 10−3 g/J. The fuel properties correlated with a high regression coefficient with biodiesel fraction and were similar to those found in literature and complied with both ASTM D6751 and EN 1421 standards.
Genetic algorithm (GA)-coupled artificial neural network (ANN) model regularized with Bayesian ANN approach was employed in the prediction of Cannabis sativa (hemp) seed biodiesel through single-stage transesterification process. In this methodology, the central composite rotatable design (CCRD) was used to develop the trial experiments upto 20 runs with variations in the input process parameters such as methanol-to-oil molar ratio, catalyst loading, and reaction duration. The optimal yield of hemp seed biodiesel was predicted as 97.6% at 0.225 v/v molar ratio, 1.725 w/v catalyst loading and 60 min reaction duration. Moreover, the MSE, RMSE, SEP, and MRPD values using the statistical tool were noticed to be 0.160, 0.40, 0.4280, and 0.4115, respectively, which evidenced the developed model with higher accuracy and precision. Further, the physiochemical properties of hemp seed biodiesel were found to be within ASTM standards and suitable to be used in compression ignition engine.
The aim of this study was to determine carbohydrate recovery from hemp for ethanol production and quantify biodiesel from TAG (Triacylglycerol) present in hemp. The structural composition of five different hemp varieties (Seward County-SC, York County-YC, Loup County-LC, 19 m96136-19 m, and CBD Hemp-CBD) were analyzed. Concentration of glucan and xylan ranged between 32.63 to 44.52% and 10.62 to 15.48% respectively. The biomass was then pretreated with Liquid hot water followed by disk milling and then hydrolyzed enzymatically to yield monomeric sugars. High glucose (63-85%) and xylose (73-88%) recovery was achieved. Lipids were extracted from hemp using hexane and isopropanol and then transesterified to produce biodiesel. Approximately, 50% of total fatty acids in SC, LC, and CBD hemp were linoleic acid. Palmitic acid was present between 32 to 50% in varieties YC and 19 m. Highest TAG concentration at 25% of total lipids was observed in CBD hemp. The analysis on lipid composition and high sugar recovery demonstrates hemp as a potential bioenergy crop for ethanol and biodiesel coproduction.
Biodiesel is gaining more and more importance as an attractive fuel due to the depleting fossil fuel resources. Chemically biodiesel is monoalkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from renewable feed stock like vegetable oils and animal fats. It is produced by transesterification in which, oil or fat is reacted with a monohydric alcohol in presence of a catalyst. The process of transesterification is affected by the mode of reaction condition, molar ratio of alcohol to oil, type of alcohol, type and amount of catalysts, reaction time and temperature and purity of reactants. In the present paper various methods of preparation of biodiesel with different combination of oil and catalysts have been described. The technical tools and processes for monitoring the transesterification reactions like TLC, GC, HPLC, GPC, 1H NMR and NIR have also been summarized. In addition, fuel properties and specifications provided by different countries are discussed.
Characteristics of oil extracted from hempseeds subjected to microwave treatments were evaluated. Microwave treatment improved oil yield, increased carotenoid and other pigment contents and decreased p-anisidine value without significant changes in other properties. Hempseed oil showed absorbance in the UV-B and UV-C ranges with potential for use as a broad spectrum UV protectant. [beta]-Tocopherol concentrations increased, while the major tocopherol, [gamma]-tocopherol, and fatty acid composition of the oil were unaffected by microwave treatment of hempseed. Hempseed oil showed high kinetic stability during heating and cooling, as characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Microwave treatment shifted the melting range of oils to lower temperatures and increased oxidation temperatures, suggesting increased protective effect upon heating.
Biodiesel has become more attractive recently because of its environmental benefits and the fact that it is made from renewable resources. The cost of biodiesel, however, is the main hurdle to commercialization of the product. The used cooking oils are used as raw material, adaption of continuous transesterification process and recovery of high quality glycerol from biodiesel by-product (glycerol) are primary options to be considered to lower the cost of biodiesel. There are four primary ways to make biodiesel, direct use and blending, microemulsions, thermal cracking (pyrolysis) and transesterification. The most commonly used method is transesterification of vegetable oils and animal fats. The transesterification reaction is affected by molar ratio of glycerides to alcohol, catalysts, reaction temperature, reaction time and free fatty acids and water content of oils or fats. The mechanism and kinetics of the transesterification show how the reaction occurs and progresses. The processes of transesterification and its downstream operations are also addressed.
The acceptance of methylesters (biodiesel) as an alternative fuel has rapidly increased in recent years. This development has been followed by increasing research activities in the field of methylester processes. After listing reasons that supporte arguments for biodiesel and a survey of production methods, a low-waste process for biodiesel is introduced.
The effects of enzyme-assisted cold-pressing (EACP) on the physicochemical attributes of Cannabis sativa (hemp) seed oil were investigated using five enzyme preparations: Protex 7L, Viscozyme L, Kemzyme, Feedzyme, and Natuzyme. The oil contents (28.4–32.8%) offered by the enzyme-treated hempseeds were found to be significantly (p <0.05) higher than that determined for the control (26.7%). The protein, fiber, and ash contents of the seeds were unaffected by the enzyme treatment. There were no significant (p >0.05) variations observed for the values of iodine number, refractive index, density, unsaponifiable matter and fatty acid composition between the enzyme-extracted and control hempseed oils. The levels of saponification value, free fatty acids, iodine value and peroxide value were slightly varied between the oils tested. The color intensity of the enzyme-extracted oils was also higher than that of the control oil. A relatively higher level of tocopherols (724.4–788.8 mg/kg) was observed in the enzyme-extracted oils compared to the control (691.2 mg/kg), showing an enhancement of ca. 4.8–14.1% in the total tocopherols. The Rancimat profiles and sensory scores of the enzyme-extracted oils were noted to be improved compared to the control. The results of the present analysis (with respect to the control) showed that the enzyme added during the hempseed cold-pressing resulted in considerably higher oil yields, without adversely affecting the quality of the oil.
Virgin hemp seed oil is not widespread on the market, although it is characterised by an interesting fatty acid composition with a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Linoleic acid is the predominant fatty acid, which comes, together with α-linolenic acid (18:3n-3), to approximately 80% of the total fatty acids. From a nutritional point of view, up to 7% γ-linolenic acid (18:3n-6) and 2.5% stearidonic acid (18:4n-3) are very interesting. The total amount of tocopherols is high between 80 and 110 mg/100 g, with γ-tocopherol as the main tocopherol (85%). Due to the high amount of unsaturated fatty acids, hemp seed oil is very susceptible to oxidative deterioration, which results in a fast impairment of the oil during storage. In addition, the high amounts of chlorophyll in the oil due to harvesting of high amounts of immature seeds require light protection, which is often neglected because of merchandising purposes. The virgin oil is characterised by a nutty taste with a slightly bitter aftertaste. The use of virgin hemp seed oil is recommended during mild processing of food without heat.
Transesterification of soybean oil with methanol was investigated. Three stepwise and reversible reactions are believed to
occur. The effect of variations in mixing intensity (Reynolds number=3,100 to 12,400) and temperature (30 to 70°C) on the
rate of reaction were studied while the molar ratio of alcohol to triglycerol (6:1) and the concentration of catalyst (0.20
wt% based on soybean oil) were held constant. The variations in mixing intensity appear to effect the reaction parallel to
the variations in temperature. A reaction mechanism consisting of an initial mass transfer-controlled region followed by a
kinetically controlled region is proposed. The experimental data for the latter region appear to be a good fit into a second-order
kinetic mechanism. The reaction rate constants and the activation energies were determined for all the forward and reverse
reactions.
The oil content, the tocopherol composition, the plastochromanol-8 (P-8) content and the fatty acid composition (19 fatty acids) of the seed of 51 hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) genotypes were studied in the 2000 and 2001 seasons. The oil content of the hemp seed ranged from 26.25% (w/w) to 37.50%. Analysis of variance revealed significant effects of genotype, year and of the interaction (genotype year) on the oil content. The oil contents of the 51 genotypes in 2000 and 2001 were correlated (r = 0.37**) and averaged 33.19 1.45% in 2000 and 31.21 0.96% in 2001. The -tocopherol, -tocopherol, -tocopherol, P-8- and -tocopherol contents of the 51 genotypes averaged 21.68 3.19, 1.82 0.49, 1.20 0.40, 0.18 0.07 and 0.16 0.04 mg 100g–1 of seeds, respectively (2000 and 2001 data pooled). Hierarchical clustering of the fatty acid data did not group the hemp genotypes according to their geographic origin. The -linolenic acid yield of hemp (3–30 kg ha–1) was similar to the -linolenic acid yield of plant species that are currently used as sources of -linolenic acid (borage (19–30 kg ha–1), evening primrose (7–30 kg ha–1)). The linoleic acid yield of hemp (129–326 kg ha–1) was similar to flax (102–250 kg ha–1), but less than in sunflower (868–1320 kg ha–1). Significant positive correlations were detected between some fatty acids and some tocopherols. Even though the average content of P-8 in hemp seeds was only 1/120th of the average -tocopherol content, P-8 content was more closely correlated with the unsaturated fatty acid content than -tocopherol or any other tocopherol fraction. The average broad-sense heritabilities of the oil content, the antioxidants (tocopherols and P-8) and the fatty acids were 0.53, 0.14 and 0.23, respectively. The genotypes Fibrimon 56, P57, Juso 31, GB29, Beniko, P60, FxT, Flina 34, Ramo and GB18 were capable of producing the largest amounts of high quality hemp oil.
In the petroleum industry, cloud points are one of the main guides to evaluate the wax precipitation potential of a fluid. The planning of the exploration of a reservoir or the design of its pipelines are based on the measured cloud points for the reservoir oil. It is known that each measuring technique will provide a different cloud point temperature, yet although some of these techniques seem to be more accurate than others, no definite conclusion was established on how cloud points should be measured.On this work, several cloud point measurement techniques are discussed and compared. It will be shown that some of these techniques, such as viscosity, filter plugging, and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) can only be used under very favorable circumstances, but it will be argued that because every technique requires some finite, often large, amount of solid to detect the presence of a new phase, the cloud point, defined as the temperature for which the first solid appears in the oil, is not accessible experimentally, and unless a very detailed compositional analysis is available, it is also impossible to predict it accurately with a thermodynamic model. The effect of the paraffin distribution in the oils on the cloud point detection will be discussed, and it will be shown how the compositional information can be used to assess the uncertainty of the measured cloud points.
Biodiesel has become more attractive recently because of its environmental benefits and the fact that it is made from renewable resources. The cost of biodiesel, however, is the main hurdle to commercialization of the product. The used cooking oils are used as raw material, adaption of continuous transesterification process and recovery of high quality glycerol from biodiesel by-product (glycerol) are primary options to be considered to lower the cost of biodiesel. There are four primary ways to make biodiesel, direct use and blending, microemulsions, thermal cracking (pyrolysis) and transesterification. The most commonly used method is transesterification of vegetable oils and animal fats. The transesterification reaction is affected by molar ratio of glycerides to alcohol, catalysts, reaction temperature, reaction time and free fatty acids and water content of oils or fats. The mechanism and kinetics of the transesterification show how the reaction occurs and progresses. The processes of transesterification and its downstream operations are also addressed.
Vegetable oil fuels have not been acceptable because they were more expensive than petroleum fuels. With recent increases in petroleum prices and uncertainties concerning petroleum availability, there is renewed interest in vegetable oil fuels for Diesel engines. Dilution of oils with solvents and microemulsions of vegetable oils lowers the viscosity, but some engine performance problems still exist. The purpose of the transesterification process is to lower the viscosity of the oil. Pyrolysis produces more biogasoline than biodiesel fuel. Soap pyrolysis products of vegetable oils can be used as alternative Diesel engine fuel. Methyl and ethyl esters of vegetable oils have several outstanding advantages among other new renewable and clean engine fuel alternatives. The main factors affecting transesterification are the molar ratio of glycerides to alcohol, catalyst, reaction temperature and pressure, reaction time and the contents of free fatty acids and water in oils. The commonly accepted molar ratios of alcohol to glycerides are 6:1–30:1.
An integrated supercritical fluid technology with power cogeneration to produce biodiesel fuels, with no need for the costly separations involved with the conventional technology, is proposed, documented for technical and economic feasibility, and preliminarily designed. The core of the integrated system consists of the transesterification of various triglyceride sources (e.g., vegetable oils and animal fats) with supercritical methanol/ethanol. Part of the reaction products can be combusted by a diesel power generator integrated in the system which, in turn, provides the power needed to pressurize the system and the heat of the exhaust gases necessary in the transesterification step. The latter energy demand can also be satisfied by a fired heater, especially for higher plant capacities. Different versions of this system can be implemented based on the main target of the technology: biodiesel production or diesel engine applications, including power generation. The process options considered for biodiesel fuel production estimate break-even processing costs of biodiesel as low as 0.07/L) with a diesel power generator and 0.09/L) with a fired heater for a plant capacity of 15,000 gal/day (56,775 L/day). Both are significantly lower than the current processing costs of approximately 0.13/L) of biodiesel produced by conventional catalytic methods. A retail cost of biodiesel produced by the proposed method is likely to be competitive with the prices of diesel fuels.
Efficient liberation of fermentable soluble sugars from lignocellulosic biomass waste not only decreases solid waste handling but also produces value-added biofuels and biobased products. Industrial hemp, a special economic crop, is cultivated for its high-quality fibers and high-value seed oil, but its hollow stalk cords (hurds) are a cellulosic waste. The cellulose-solvent-based lignocellulose fractionation (CSLF) technology has been developed to separate lignocellulose components under modest reaction conditions (Zhang, Y.-H. P.; Ding, S.-Y.; Mielenz, J. R.; Elander, R.; Laser, M.; Himmel, M.; McMillan, J. D.; Lynd, L. R. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2007, 97 (2), 214- 223). Three pretreatment conditions (acid concentration, reaction temperature, and reaction time) were investigated to treat industrial hemp hurds for a maximal sugar release: a combinatorial result of a maximal retention of solid cellulose and a maximal enzymatic cellulose hydrolysis. At the best treatment condition (84.0% H3PO4 at 50 degrees C for 60 min), the glucan digestibility was 96% at hour 24 at a cellulase loading of 15 filter paper units of cellulase per gram of glucan. The scanning electron microscopic images were presented for the CSLF-pretreated biomass for the first time, suggesting that CSLF can completely destruct the plant cell-wall structure, in a good agreement with the highest enzymatic cellulose digestibility and fastest hydrolysis rate. It was found that phosphoric acid only above a critical concentration (83%) with a sufficient reaction time can efficiently disrupt recalcitrant lignocellulose structures.
Four different continuous process flowsheets for biodiesel production from virgin vegetable oil or waste cooking oil under alkaline or acidic conditions on a commercial scale were developed. Detailed operating conditions and equipment designs for each process were obtained. A technological assessment of these four processes was carried out to evaluate their technical benefits and limitations. Analysis showed that the alkali-catalyzed process using virgin vegetable oil as the raw material required the fewest and smallest process equipment units but at a higher raw material cost than the other processes. The use of waste cooking oil to produce biodiesel reduced the raw material cost. The acid-catalyzed process using waste cooking oil proved to be technically feasible with less complexity than the alkali-catalyzed process using waste cooking oil, thereby making it a competitive alternative to commercial biodiesel production by the alkali-catalyzed process.
The Biodiesel Handbook
- G Knothe
- J Van Gerpen
- J Krahl
Knothe, G., Van Gerpen, J., Krahl, J., 2005. In: Knothe, G., Van Gerpen, J.,
Krahl, J. (Eds.), The Biodiesel Handbook. AOCS Press, Urbana, Illinois, pp. 76164.