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Policies to reduce tropical deforestation and degradation: a computable general equilibrium analysis for Cameroon
Abstract
This paper addressed specific questions within the much broader discussion on policies to reduce tropical deforestation and degradation in developing countries. The short- to medium-run consequences of resource policies and trade liberalization for aggregate output and the volume of standing timber were analyzed numerically using a computable general equilibrium model featuring an intertemporal treatment of the forestry sector's supply decisions. The results show that resource policies can be powerful tools to achieve a forest set-aside target specified in volume terms. Significant contractions of the timber industry are unavoidable and lead to sizeable reductions in total exports and real GDP. The trade-off between ecological and economic objectives can be minimized by providing long-term logging concessions. A liberalization may not only be environmentally friendly but also may increase efficiency. A partial liberalization of agricultural markets is not sufficient to reach the target in Cameroon, because the agricultural sub-sectors are discriminated by the current pricing policies. By contrast, an across-the-board liberalization would promote labour-rather than resource-intensive manufacturing activities. The best policy mix would combine a general trade liberalization with long-term logging concessions. -from Authors
... 38 Government consumption is exogenous, with differences between government income and expenditures reflected in savings. Net capital flows can be either exogenous (Wiebelt 1994) or endogenous (Thiele and Wiebelt 1994). ...
... Reducing agricultural export taxes generates many of the same effects as currency devaluations. L-pez (1993) Ð as reported in MŠler and Munasinghe 1996 Ð and Thiele and Wiebelt (1994) conclude that eliminating agricultural Panayotou and Sussengkarn (1992) reach a similar conclusion with respect to rubber export taxes in Thailand. Trade liberalisation is also said to increase deforestation. ...
... A study by Boyd (1994), cited in Barbier and Burgess (1996), concludes that the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA) is likely to reduce industrial employment in Mexico, swelling the ranks of the rural labour force and thus lead to greater deforestation. Thiele and Wiebelt (1994), on the other hand, predict trade liberalisation would reduce deforestation in Cameroon, but base their prediction on a very optimistic view of the competitiveness of CameroonÕs industry. ...
... 38 Government consumption is exogenous, with differences between government income and expenditures reflected in savings. Net capital flows can be either exogenous (Wiebelt 1994) or endogenous (Thiele and Wiebelt 1994). ...
... Reducing agricultural export taxes generates many of the same effects as currency devaluations. L-pez (1993) Ð as reported in MŠler and Munasinghe 1996 Ð and Thiele and Wiebelt (1994) conclude that eliminating agricultural Panayotou and Sussengkarn (1992) reach a similar conclusion with respect to rubber export taxes in Thailand. Trade liberalisation is also said to increase deforestation. ...
... A study by Boyd (1994), cited in Barbier and Burgess (1996), concludes that the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA) is likely to reduce industrial employment in Mexico, swelling the ranks of the rural labour force and thus lead to greater deforestation. Thiele and Wiebelt (1994), on the other hand, predict trade liberalisation would reduce deforestation in Cameroon, but base their prediction on a very optimistic view of the competitiveness of CameroonÕs industry. ...
... Annual deforestation in Cameroon is estimated to range between 80 000 to 200 000 ha 2 (Ndoye & Kaimowitz 2000), or 0.4-1.0% of forest cover. Population growth and shifting cultivation tend to be viewed as the main cause and agent, respectively, of deforestation in Cameroon (Amelung & Diehl 1992;Hoogeveen & van Soest 1993;Thiele & Wiebelt 1994). Other factors include logging (Amelung & Diehl 1992;Thiele & Wiebelt 1994), the construction of transportation infrastructure (Mamingi et al. 1996), and the establishment of agricultural plantations. ...
... Population growth and shifting cultivation tend to be viewed as the main cause and agent, respectively, of deforestation in Cameroon (Amelung & Diehl 1992;Hoogeveen & van Soest 1993;Thiele & Wiebelt 1994). Other factors include logging (Amelung & Diehl 1992;Thiele & Wiebelt 1994), the construction of transportation infrastructure (Mamingi et al. 1996), and the establishment of agricultural plantations. ...
The rate of forest cover loss in the humid tropics of Cameroon is one of the highest in Central Africa. The aim of the large-scale, two-year research project described here was to understand the effect of the country's economic crisis and policy change on small-scale agricultural systems and land-clearing practices. Hypotheses were tested through surveys of more than 5000 households in 125 villages, and through time-series remote sensing analysis at two sites. The principal findings are that: (1) the rate of deforestation increased significantly in the decade after the 1986 onset of the crisis, as compared to the decade prior to the crisis; (2) the main proximate causes of this change were sudden rural population growth and a shift from production of cocoa and coffee to plantain and other food crops; and (3) the main underlying causes were macroeconomic shocks and structural adjustment policies that led to rural population growth and farming system changes. The implication of this study is that it is necessary to understand and anticipate the undesirable consequences of macroeconomic shocks and adjustment policies for forest cover. Such policies, even though they are often not formulated with natural resource consequences in mind, are often of greater relevance to the fate of forests than forest policy.
... There are a few CGE models that put emphasis on the forestry sector (Bruce 1988;Persson & Munasinghe 1995;Persson 1994;Thiele & Wiebelt 1994;Thompson, van Kooten & Vertinsky 1997;Wiebelt 1995;Xie, Vincent & Panayotou 1996). There are also quite a few CGE models constructed for the Philippines. ...
... (p. 284) And Thiele and Wiebelt (1994) estimate that at current rates of deforestation, Cameroon's forests would be 'depleted' in about 130 years. FAO (1990) 203,500 km 2 (1990) Wilkie andLaporte (2001) FAO (1996) 240,800 km 2 (1990) FAO (2001) 202, 440 km 2 (1990) WRI (2001) 242,958 km 2 (1998) Laporte et al. (1998Laporte et al. ( ) 195,980 km 2 (1995 WRI (2001) 238,580 km 2 (2000) FAO (2001) According to Myers (1994), of Cameroon's approximately 475,000 km 2 of territory, 220,000 km 2 was 'originally' covered in forest. ...
... An example from Cameroon highlights the difficulty in arguing for any simple forest cover change narrative with confidence even for the period where data are of 'higher quality'. Based on some commonly cited forest cover statistics, Thiele and Wiebelt (1994) estimate that at current rates of deforestation, Cameroon's forests would be 'depleted' in about 130 years. Sunderlin et al. (2000: 284) conclude that 'the rate of forest cover loss in the humid tropics of Cameroon is one of the highest in Central Africa'. ...
Shifting cultivation is the agricultural technique employed by the majority of farmers in the tropical regions of Africa. The dominant narrative recited by policy experts, non-governmental organizations and many scientists is that this practice is a principal cause of deforestation in tropical Africa. This article unpacks the various elements of this narrative and explores whether there is any evidence to substantiate it in West and Central Africa. The results challenge the conventional wisdom that shifting cultivation is leading to accelerating deforestation in tropical Africa.
... Sunderlin et al. (2000) claim that the deforestation rate in Cameroon is one of the highest in Central Africa. Thiele and Wiebelt (1994) ...
Abstract Shifting cultivation is often blamed as a principal cause of deforestation in tropical Africa. It is claimed that the practice is unsustainable because shortened fallow lengths result in soils too degraded to support forest vegetation. The decline in fallow lengths is often attributed to increases in population density and greater market participation. The conventional wisdom makes several claims that are as yet unsubstantiated. This article investigates whether there is evidence to support two of these claims in southern Cameroon. First, using both cross-sectional and panel data, I find that there is indeed a robust negative association between fallow lengths and population density in the study area and weaker evidence for a negative relationship between fallow lengths and market participation. Second, a stochastic frontier production function approach is used to investigate the marginal contribution of fallow to output. Results indicate that fallow lengths are not low enough to be affecting yields and therefore do not appear to be resulting in declines in soil fertility. Thus overall, while some of the assumptions of the conventional wisdom appear to be true, there is little evidence to support its dramatic conclusion that shifting cultivators are causing deforestation in the forested region of Cameroon.
... This lowland agricultural production model is combined with a labor allocation model to form a representative lowland farm which is used to illustrate how labor productivity, agricultural wages, and the returns from upland activities determine the rate of forest clearing. The empirical analysis based on farm level data from the Philippines demonstrates how agricultural intensification in the form of lowland irrigation development led to an increase in 1 Raising incomes and returns to agricultural activities may also provide incentives to convert forestland to farmland (see Faris, 1999;Mattos and Uhl, 1994;Nickerson, 1999;Theil and Wiebelt, 1994;Barbier and Burgess, 1996;Wunder, 2001). According to these studies, deforestation is assumed to be an increasing function of agricultural yield. ...
A number of empirical studies on tropical forests have focused on the issues of agricultural development and deforestation. According to these studies, deforestation is assumed to be an increasing function of agricultural yields hence implying a negative external effect. Contrary, this article presents a case which explores the trade-off between agriculture and extraction of forest products. We measure the technical efficiency of agriculture in natural forest peripheries and test the results from forest resource extraction. The study findings show that non-timber forest product extraction is a decreasing function of agricultural efficiency, hence producing a positive externality in the conversion of forest resources. This study also determines the level of efficiency improvement necessary to compensate the current income generated by non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Improving agricultural efficiency in forest peripheries should be an integral component of forest conservation policy.
... Technologies that increase the returns to agriculture can reduce the need for subsistence-driven land clearing. However, raising incomes and returns to agricultural activities may also provide incentives to convert forestland to farmland or other uses (see Faris, 1999;Mattos and Uhl 1994;Nickerson, 1999;Theil and Wiebelt, 1994;Barbier and Burgess, 1996). According to these studies, deforestation is assumed to be an increasing function of agricultural yield. ...
Households living in peripheral villages of the natural forests are primarily dependent on agriculture and secondarily dependent on forest gatherings. High rates of forest dependency occur, in part, from the efforts of inefficient farmers securing subsistence. Due to excessive use, the productivity of the remaining forests is at a critical stage. Technical efficiency in agriculture in forest peripheries is one aspect in which agricultural capacity and rural incomes can be enhanced. The study's main objective was to assess the efficiency of farming in forest margins and to determine its effect on dependency on forest resources by rural households. The findings of the study showed that the mean technical efficiency in agricultural farming in forest peripheries ranges between 67 - 73 percent. Factors such as age, education, experience, extension, and the nutrition status of the household head are mainly responsible for determining the level of inefficiency. Further, study findings showed factors such as technical efficiency in agriculture, off-farm income, wealth and the diversification index had negative and significant effects on dependency of rural households on forest resource extraction. It is estimated that on average, an increase in mean technical efficiency in agriculture by 10 percent would increase agricultural revenue by 2,142 - 3,987 rupees/farm. Based on the threshold efficiency levels needed to arrest forest dependency, it is estimated that increasing agricultural income through increasing technical efficiency can be partly compensated for forest resource extraction. Compared to the measured efficiency levels, the efficiency gaps needs to be addressed by policy measures range from 2-14 percent for NTFP categories and 10-26 percent for the fuelwood category. Technical efficiency in agriculture can be minimized via policies to enhance farmer education, extension and nutrition status of households.
... Actualmente, se considera que algunas medidas ya concertadas a nivel mundial para la mitigación de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero como la reducción de las tasas de deforestación, la restauración de áreas degradadas y el uso de sistemas forestales y agroforestales, no se han ejecutado con éxito, pero estas acciones, podrían permitir capturar a mediano plazo (50 años), alrededor de mil millones de toneladas de carbono anualmente (Thiele y Wiebelt, 1994;Brown, et al., 2000, Steffent et al., 1992. ...
This paper presents a thorough revision of the literature regarding tropical deforestation. Tropical forests are megadiverse ecosystems that offer ecosystemic goods and services to the human being. Nonetheless, tropical forests are being deforested, burnt and disturbed at an alarming rate worldwide. Mexico is the country with the second highest deforestation rate in Latin America after Brasil. Southeast Mexico, Peten region in Guatemala and Belize present deforestation rates that endanger Mesoamerican biodiversity. 20% of the emissions of CO2 in the world are caused by deforestation. Mexico participates with 363 million tons (2%) per year of the carbon dioxide emission to the atmosphere, 70% caused by energy and transportation industries. The causes of deforestation are divided in two categories: proximate causes and underlying driving forces both of which vary and interact depending on the geographical and historical context of each region. Some of the effects of deforestation are the extinction of species, the fragmentation and loss of habitats, soil degradation, modification of biochemical and hydrological cycles and global warming. The tropical deforestation caused a permanent ecological disequilibrium, which is an inhibitor that keeps the sustainability tropical zones collapsed. Although deforestation itself is not a major contribution to climatic change, the latter could cause physiological and ecological changes in tropical forest remnants, that would affect the currently critic environmental situation in the tropics, which would likewise affect the live quality of the human kind. Este escrito presenta una revisión exhaustiva de literatura, sobre la deforestación tropical. Los bosques tropicales son ecosistemas megadiversos, que proporcionan bienes y servicios ecosistémicos vitales para la humanidad. Sin embargo, están siendo deforestados, quemados y perturbados en forma alarmante a nivel global. México es el segundo país latinoamericano con mayor deforestación después de Brasil. El sureste mexicano, el peten en Guatemala y Belice presentan tasas elevadas de deforestación que amenaza la biodiversidad mesoamericana. Mundialmente, las emisiones de CO2 por la deforestación es de 20 %. México contribuye con 363 millones de toneladas (2 %) de carbono a la atmósfera cada año, del cual el sector energético y el transporte emiten el 70 %. Se reconocen dos grupos de factores, considerados como los agentes causales de la deforestación, estos son, las fuerzas proximales �proximate causes� y las fuerzas impulsoras subyacentes �Underlying driving forces�, las cuales varían y se conjugan de acuerdo al contexto geográfico e histórico de cada región. Entre los efectos de la deforestación están la extinción de especies y habitats, fragmentación, la degradación de suelos, la modificación de los ciclos biogeoquímicos e hidrológico y el calentamiento atmosférico global. La deforestación tropical asegura un permanente desequilibrio ecológico, el cual es un inhibidor que mantiene colapsada la sustentabilidad en las zonas tropicales. Aunque la deforestación contribuye poco al cambio climático global, éste último podría provocar severos cambios fisiológicos y ecológicos en los remanentes de bosques tropicales, lo que agudizaría la crisis ambiental en los trópicos, que su vez afectaría aun más la calidad de vida de la humanidad.
... Impostos sobre a terra reduziram substancialmente o desmatamento nos modelos de Wiebelt (1994) para o Brasil e Persson e Munasinghe (1995) para a Costa Rica. Porém, Angelsen e Kaimowitz (1998), alertam que muitas vezes esses impostos são impossíveis de serem cobrados por motivos políticos ou administrativos. ...
Nesse trabalho, estudamos o papel que a percepção de impunidade tem sobre os agentes que escolhem invadir áreas públicas na Amazônia para explorar de forma predatória os recursos florestais e ocupar a terra. Para isso, foi desenvolvido um modelo microeconômico de escolha sob incerteza, em que os fazendeiros comparam os payoffs provenientes da invasão ou de seguir a lei. O payoff da invasão foi calculado do ganho/perda resultante de ser pego ou não no ato ilegal, pesando as probabilidades de cada um desses eventos ocorrer (que é função dos gastos do governo com fiscalização na região). Em seguida, foi calculado a quantidade ótima de gastos do governo em fiscalização, levando em conta um governo interessado em maximizar a produção agropecuária regional, já que, por um lado, o desmatamento resulta em maior disponibilidade de terra para o setor agropecuário, porém, por outro, diminui a produtividade dado seu impacto sobre a qualidade ambiental. Depois, fazemos uma analise sobre desenho de mecanismo e desmatamento, desenvolvendo o melhor mecanismo direto de um Equilíbrio de Nash no jogo de informação perfeita, para em seguida descrever as opções de mecanismos possíveis para o governo brasileiro lidar com o desmatamento na Amazônia.
... Others pay particular attention to the property regime (Persson and Munasinghe 1995;Unemo 1995). A third group applies a forest rotation (Faustmann) approach (Thiele and Wiebelt 1994;Thiele 1995). CGE models can be criticized for the poor quality of their data and the parameters commonly used, their questionable assumptions about perfect markets, and (particularly in the case of the forest rotation approach) their descriptions of farmers' or loggers' behavior. ...
PIP
Concern is rising over the deleterious effects of tropical deforestation. For example, the loss of forest cover influences the climate and reduces biodiversity, while reduced timber supplies, siltation, flooding, and soil degradation affect economic activity and threaten the livelihoods and cultural integrity of forest-dependent people. Such concerns have led economists to expand their efforts to model why, where, and to what extent forests are being converted to other land uses. This synthesis of the results of more than 140 economic models analyzing the causes of tropical deforestation brings into question many conventional hypotheses upon deforestation. More roads, higher agricultural prices, lower wages, and a shortage of off-farm employment generally lead to more deforestation. However, it is not known how technical change, agricultural input prices, household income levels, and tenure security affect deforestation. The role of macroeconomic factors such as population growth, poverty reduction, national income, economic growth, and foreign debt is also unclear. The authors nonetheless determine through their review that policy reforms included in current economic liberalization and adjustment efforts may increase pressure upon forests.
This paper assesses the impacts of productive activities on macroeconomic conditions and deforestation using a two-region CGE model. The object ofstudy is the interaction between productive sectors (especially agriculture, livestock, timber and pig iron) and deforestation in the Eastern Amazon region ofBrazil. This region, also known as the Carajas Comdor, has experienced rapid growth and settlement over the last three decades. Over this same period a significant portion of its natural resources (particularly forest) has been depleted. The growth simulations reveal that expansion and development of the metals sector only indirectly result in higher levels of deforestation by stimulating the expansion of agriculture and livestock production. The expansion of agricultural activities results in sufficient wood by-products to meet the greater demand for charcoal production caused by development of the metals sector.
Proper management of finances in secondary schools is very imperative to their operations. There are, however, serious financial challenges in public secondary schools in Kenya as characterized by unprecedented high fees charged on students. This study evaluated the factors influencing financial management in public Secondary Schools in Nakuru County. Specifically, it analyzed the influence of budget management and financial controls on financial management. The study was guided by budget, financial control, and agency theories. The study adopted a cross-sectional survey research design. The study targeted heads and bursars of public secondary schools in Kenya. The accessible population constituted all the 172 school heads and 172 bursars of public secondary schools in Nakuru County. Stratified random sampling method was adopted to draw a sample of 78 from the accessible population. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data. A pilot study was conducted before the main study in order to examine the reliability and validity of the research questionnaire. The Cronbach alpha coefficient was used to text reliability while the university supervisor was consulted to determine the content validity of the research questionnaire. Data analysis was aided by the Statistical Package for Social Sciences analytical tool. Data analysis encompassed both descriptive and inferential statistics. Study findings were presented in form of tables. The study © Munge, Kimani & Ngugi Licensed under Creative Common Page 92 established that budget management and financial controls positively and significantly influenced financial management. The study recommended that public secondary schools should have effective budget management mechanisms and strong financial controls.
The rate of forest clearing by small farmers in the humid forest zone (HFZ) of Cameroon increased significantly in a period of economic crisis dating from 1986. A random sample survey of 648 households was conducted in 54 villages in the HFZ to understand the effect of the crisis and of a 1994 currency devaluation on the practices of small farmers, and the effect of these practices on forest cover change. Three hypotheses were tested concerning: (1) the balance between export crop and food crop production; (2) the degree of market-orientation of food crop production; and (3) the gender division of labour. Among the key results are that: (1) the area of cocoa production has stagnated while that of coffee, plantain and other food crops has tended to increase; (2) food crop production is now more market-oriented; and (3) men are now far more involved in food crop production than in the past. The results corroborate other studies showing that increased deforestation in the HFZ is largely a product of these three factors and also of: increased rural population, partly resulting from urban-rural migration; decline of food imports and corresponding increase in food crop production; decreased government subsidies for agricultural inputs; and increased logging. The study concludes that: (1) macroeconomic instability can lead to unforeseen and grave consequences not only for the well-being of farmers but also for efforts to protect remaining tropical forests; and that (2) crop diversification might be one way to help avert future income shocks to farmers and minimize forest clearing activity.
Despite an extensive conceptual literature on trade and environment, empirical work remains limited. Forest products and their distinguishing market characteristics have received little attention within this literature. The theories of comparative advantage and externalities link trade and environmental economics, providing a framework for analyzing the environmental effects of freer trade and the trade effects of environmental restrictions. The review assesses the state of the forest economics literature on these issues, suggesting empirical work to support more informed deliberation of trade and other forest sector policies.
Reduction in the size of the world's remaining rainforests is an issue of huge importance for all societies. This new book - an analysis of the impact of oil wealth on tropical deforestation in South America, Africa and Asia - takes a much more analytical approach than the usual fare of environmental studies. The focus on economies as a whole leads to a more balanced view than those that are often put forward and therefore, vitally, a view that is more valid. Of use to those who study environmental issues and economics, this book is potentially an indispensable tool for policy-makers the world over.
The deterioration of forest resources and poor economic performance in the Philippines calls for a serious rethinking in economic policies addressing both environmental and economic objectives. In order to protect the Philippine forests, the government implemented the Master Plan for Forestry Development covering a 25-year period (i.e. 1991-2015). However, after 16 years of implementation, the Philippine forestry industry has experienced a further reduction in production and in areas devoted to old-growth forests. The annual allowable cut remains excessive as it was prior to 1990. This proves to be an important forestry policy instrument as the findings in this book suggest that the volume of timber or the rate of deforestation is directly affected by the annual allowable cut rather than by population growth and poverty.
ISBN: 978-1-60692-250-7
The literature on deforestation in Malawi points to a number of causes, including high population in relation to available land, poverty, market and policy failures, drought, and the severity of structural adjustment policies.Agricultural statistics from Malawi indicate substantial increases in area under maize and tobacco between 1970 and 1994. Maize is the main staple crop, occupying about 69% of the cultivated land while tobacco is the main export and cash crop. A regression model was employed to highlight factors responsible for this expansion. The analysis suggests that the structural adjustment policies aimed at liberalization of tobacco production, marketing of maize and tobacco, as well as increasing accessibility to foreign currency, had a positive and moderately significant influence on the expansion of the land area under maize but less on that under tobacco. Given declining real producer prices for both crops, the driving force for the increasing area seems to be the desire by farmers to maintain their income from the sale of these two crops combined, rather than their prices.A household survey in three study areas chosen to cover a range in distance from the nearest town, confirmed significant increases in household land holdings in the recent past. Villagers living around the forest reserves were identified as being key agents of deforestation, mainly through careless cutting of trees, opening up of gardens, grazing livestock and charcoal burning. These four activities constitute 84% of the reasons given by farmers for the increasing environmental degradation.The regression analyses provide some indication of factors associated with agricultural land expansion. The household study provided some insights on the agents of deforestation and to a limited extent how the increasing population is reacting to land famine.
Southern Africa is essentially a woodland region. The woodlands are home to some of the largest herds of wildlife in the world, support a vast livestock industry, play a pivotal role in the hydrological functioning of the region, support the livelihoods of millions of people through agriculture, forest products and other services. However, there is scanty scientific information to guide their development and management. Given the numerous end uses and many stakeholders, it is not possible to rely exclusively on conventional forestry approaches and tools to manage the woodlands. This book highlights different facets of local community governance of woodlands. The outcomes for people and forest are often dependent on local institutional arrangements (rules, regulations, organisational dynamics). The book explores the role of local institutional arrangements in woodland management, in community-based approaches and in conflict resolution. It documents approaches and tools to reconcile the demands of the three key stakeholders on the woodlands (the local communities, government and private sector) in the framework of the three prominent rural development goals of food security, increased rural incomes and biodiversity or forest conservation. It also highlights tradeoffs between the goals and between five potential woodland management options by: (i) local communities, as a result of devolution of authority and management from central government, (ii) government but with a strict biodiversity conservation focus, (iii) government with access given to local communities for basic needs, (iv) government with a combined conservation focus and limited local community access for basic needs, and (v) perpetuating the present situation of open access.
The environmental effects of agricultural trade liberalization are potentially large compared to the effects of manufacturing trade liberalization, and include changes in land use. The principal agents of deforestation are developing-country farm households, especially those practicing shifting cultivation, with the activity of loggers also potentially significant. There are numerous channels through which trade liberalization, by changing relative prices and incomes, can affect household land clearing decisions. CGE models with forest submodels may be useful for analyzing the effects of trade policy on deforestation.
Purpose
The paper reviews recent developments in utilising computable general equilibrium (CGE) models to analyse forestry policies. The paper highlights the application of CGE modelling to deforestation and forestry issues.
Design/methodology/approach
The analysis is carried out by comparing different CGE models available in the literature, which have analysed the economic consequences of deforestation and changes in forestry policies.
Findings
The use of CGE models in analysing forestry issues is still in its early stages. There is room for innovation and improvement in the various models used.
Practical implications
The paper emphasises the relevance of general equilibrium analysis in the evaluation of both micro‐ and macro‐economic policies on forestry. It encourages researchers to use general equilibrium analysis in their study of environmental problems.
Originality/value
The paper highlights the contribution and possible benefits of utilising CGE models in analysing environmental problems such as deforestation, especially in the context of environment‐economics trade‐off.
This study assesses the incremental economic and environmental impacts resulting from changes in the timing and scope of forest products tariff reductions as proposed in the Accelerated Tariff Liberalization (ATL) initiative in forest products. This initiative was proposed for agreement among member countries of the World Trade Organization. The analysis of environmental effects focuses on possible changes in timber harvest, in the United States and worldwide, and rests directly on an analysis of the economic (trade, production, and consumption) effects of the initiative. The analysis is based on four sources of information: (1) simulation results using large-scale forest products sector and trade models, (2) literature describing analysis of the general effects of tariff and tariff reduction on trade, (3) literature that specifically addresses the role of tariffs and tariff changes on forest products trade, and (4) a review and assessment of information provided through public comments on the initiative. The ATL initiative likely will have no distinguishable impacts on aggregate U.S. timber harvest; the initiative is likely to modify the composition of products manufactures from timber harvested in the United States. United States consumption of most forest products is projected to change by less than 1 percent as a consequence of the ATL. At the world scale, the ATL is projected to increase aggregate world trade in forest products by a maximum of 2 percent. World timber harvest is projected to increase by about 0.5 percent because of the ATL, and aggregate world production and consumption of forest products is projected to increase by less than 1 percent.
Most forest habitats in Cameroon support villages whose inhabitants are heavily reliant on the forests for their everyday needs. We assessed the socio-economic status and natural resource use of 3 villages bordering Mawambi Hills, an unprotected forest in southwest Cameroon, home to both the Critically Endangered Cross River gorilla Gorilla gorilla diehli and the Endangered Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee Pan troglodytes ellioti. This forest likely hosts one of the largest sub-populations of Cross River gorillas in Cameroon and is vulnerable to human influence given that it lies in close proximity to surrounding villages and is less hilly than other Cross River gorilla habitats. We show that employment opportunities in surrounding villages are rare, and people rely on agriculture and the collection of non-timber forest products (NTFPs), such as eru Gnetum spp. and bush mango Irvingia spp., for food and income. We also show that areas of heavy human activity coincide spatially with great ape nest sites and raise concerns about the potential impact of human activities on great ape survival at the site. We call for (1) sustainable harvesting and marketing of NTFPs, (2) the introduction of alternative livelihood opportunities (e.g. beekeeping and on-farm production of NTFPs), (3) active wildlife law enforcement to safeguard the persistence of great apes, and (4) the introduction of a community-based forest management programme that will enable communities to secure the rights to use and manage surrounding forest resources legally.
This paper studies the links between agricultural employment and upland activities at a tropical forest margin. A model of lowland agricultural production is combined with a model of labor allocation on a representative upland farm to show how labor productivity, agricultural wages, and the returns from upland activities determine rates of forest clearing. Farm level data from the Philippines demonstrate how agricultural intensification - in the form of lowland irrigation development - led to an increase in labor demand, an increase in employment of upland inhabitants, and small but statistically signi ficant reductions in rates of forest clearing.
"Une etude basee sur un echantillon aleatoire de 648 menages a ete effectuee en 1998 dans 54 villages de la zone forestiere humide du Cameroun. L'etude avait pour objectif majeur de mieux comprendre les effets de la crise economique qui a debute en 1986, et la devaluation du Franc CFA survenue en janvier 1994, sur les pratiques agricoles des petits paysans et les effets de ces pratiques sur les changements du couvert forestier. Quatre hypotheses ont ete testees concernant : l'equilibre entre la production des cultures de rente et les cultures vivrieres; le degre de commercialisation de production vivriere; la division sexuelle du travail; et le degre de dependance des populations rurales vis-a-vis des produits forestiers non-ligneux."
One of the last upgrades in RTCM 3.1 messages definitions contains the data fields for geodetic transformation transport and real time computation in GNSS positioning of orthometric heights by received geoid undulations vía internet protocol. These parameters can be generated dynamically by a GNSS data center, encapsulated in RTCM messages and broadcasted to the rover location so the same frames transformations and geoid models are available to every user in the field, who can choose a stream with the geoid undulation as an additional service. This paper summarizes the functionality of the RTCM 3.1 transformation messages, describes the implementation in a control center and analysis in NTRIP transport, (Networked Transport of RTCM vía Internet Protocol), of several types of geodetic transformations and provides ideas for solving specific implementation problems. Test field campaigns are used to describe the real performance of these new RTCM 3.1 messages. Una de las últimas actualizaciones en la definición del formato estándar RTCM 3.1, contiene espacio reservado para transporte de transformaciones geodésicas y cálculo en posicionamiento GNSS en tiempo real de alturas ortométricas a través de ondulaciones de geoide recibidas vía Internet. Estos parámetros pueden ser generados dinámicamente por un centro de datos GNSS, encapsulados en los mensajes RTCM y transmitidos en tiempo real a una ubicación móvil proporcionando unicidad en transformaciones de marcos y modelos del geoide para cada usuario de campo, el cual podrá elegir un stream que le transporte la ondulación del geoide como un servicio más. Este documento resume el funcionamiento de los mensajes de transformación RTCM 3.1, describiendo la implementación en un centro de control GNSS, y los análisis efectuados para transporte vía NTRIP, (Networked Transport of RTCM vía Internet Protocol), de diversos tipos de transformaciones geodésicas proporcionando ideas para posibles problemas específicos en su implementación. Las pruebas de campo han servido para contrastar su rendimiento en tiempo real y utilidad.
Recent satellite imagery time-series research has shown that the rate of net deforestation in the humid forest zone of Cameroon greatly increased in the 10-year period after the 1986 onset of a devastating economic crisis as compared with the 10-year period prior to the crisis. Benoît Mertens and Eric Lambin found that in a 110,000 hectares block in the region of Bertoua (East province), the average annual rate of net deforestation doubled in the period from 1986 to 1996 as compared with that of the period from 1973 to 1986. Nadine Laporte found that in a 42,000 hectares block surrounding Yaoundé (the capital city), net deforestation increased by a factor of two in the period from 1987 to 1995 as compared with that of the period from 1973 to 1988. Mertens et al. found that in a 70,000 hectares block in the Ndélélé region of the Eastern province, the rate of average annual net deforestation increased by more than four times in the period from 1986 to 1996 as compared with that of the period from 1973 from 1986. This article attempts to explain how changes in population dynamics and smallholder agriculture have led to increased deforestation in the period of the crisis. These foci are justified by the fact that population growth and shifting cultivation are generally viewed, respectively, as the main cause and agent of deforestation in Central Africa in general and in Cameroon in particular. Other factors contributing to deforestation and forest degradation in Cameroon are logging and the construction of transportation infrastructure.
In theory, economic instruments should overcome the market failures that lead to excessive deforestation. Secure property rights could be established and enforced to eliminate the open access problem. In practice, the size of the welfare loss that arises from market failures in the forest sector in the absence of such first-best policies is determined by the incentives, prices, and policies faced by those who make decisions about land use. In many cases, the effects of policies on deforestation are not straightforward. For example, there are conflicting views on whether an increase in the price of logs leads to an increase or a decrease in deforestation. The effect of a change in the price of logs has particular relevance for the controversial debate about the effect on deforestation of a ban on log exports or other trade restrictions that lower the domestic price of logs.
This article provides an analytical framework for determining the effects of changes in economic policies and parameters on deforestation. It models dynamic, profitmaximizing land-use choices and obtains unambiguous comparative static results by distinguishing between unmanaged and managed forests. The results suggest that measures to reduce the producer price of logs could be a second-best policy to reduce the pressures on the frontiers of unmanaged forests and to protect biodiversity.
This paper provides a critical examination of the implicit assumption in steady-state forestry modelling, particularly those employed in CGE models. That is, forests are characterised by steady-state conditions. Therefore, a conceptual model is developed to examine if there is a tendency for forest areas to reach some sort of steady-state. The results from the model simulations show that steady-state does not characterise forest areas. Steady-state is reached after a long period of time, say, 200 years or when a sustainable harvesting regime and regeneration activities are constantly applied and formulated to maintain a set timber volume target.
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