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Relativity: The Special and the General Theory
Abstract
Traducción de: Über die spezielle und die allgemeine Relativitätstheorie
... This empirical solution for the gravitational force between two masses m1 and m2, which are distance r apart, is given in the following mathematical form (Equation 1): 1 2 2 mm Gravitational Force G r = (1) where, G is the universal gravitational constant. Secondly, another major interpretation of gravity was given by Einstein in 1907 as General Relativity [11], which is the theory of gravitation where the observed gravitational effect between masses results from their warping of space-time. Therein, gravity is not considered as a force, it is a consequence of the curvature of spacetime caused by the presence of mass energy. ...
... Application of the relationship in Equation 11 to the two gas molecules in the box (Figure 4), in the 3 situations given below, is used to derive: ...
... Hence, FW [= FR -FA] may become negative and the gas may condense, when y ≈ 0.5 and T → 0; see Equation 11. The analysis was repeated for hydrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, yielding the same result irrespective of atomic mass m; information available on request. ...
Laboratory experiments and natural phenomena investigations in this research series experimentally revealed the existence of gravitational repulsion force dependent on thermal energy content, pervading our surroundings both microscopically and macroscopically. This paper presents an alternative mathematical model of both gravitational repulsion and attraction forces between two gaseous molecules, validated by experimental data. The model is self-standing and independent of existing models built on idealistic assumptions. While existing models considered gravitational interaction as a single force, the presented experimental model considers it the resultant of two distinct forces: gravitational repulsion and attraction. When established experimental data on nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide were applied, the model performed, both analytically and experimentally: (1) confirming the existence of both gravitational repulsion and attraction forces among gas molecules, (2) demonstrating that the two forces follow Inverse-Cube relationship with the distance between molecules, (3) revealing that repulsion force is linearly proportional to the absolute temperature, thus filling the critical gap between energy and fundamental forces. Orders of magnitude of gravitational repulsion and attraction forces are very large compared to the gravitational force between gas molecules calculated according to the classical theory, enabling manipulation to achieve hitherto unknown outcomes and developments.
... N Alcubierre's seminal paper [1] he describes the possibility of moving a ship through by compressing spacetime in front of the craft and expanding it behind the craft, thus producing an apparent velocity, vs, in a given direction. This warping of spacetime can produce apparent velocities that well exceed the speed of light yet does not violate Einstein's speed of light limit [2]. This has given many researchers and practitioners hope that we could build space vessels capable of reaching interstellar destinations within human lifetimes [3], [4], [5]. ...
... "top hat" shaping function described in equation (2). The function with respect to the radius is shown in fig. ...
... Einstein postulated that the gravitational pull between two bodies was due to the bending of space time that occurs due to the mass of the objects [2]. The Alcubierre metric was formulated from Einstein's gravitational field equation formalism. ...
p>We have established mathematically that there exists the potential to realize a positive required energy density in order to warp spacetime. By using a complex shaping function where the imaginary part is greater than the real part, the solution to the expression for the required energy density is positive. This ultimately makes it feasible to selectively bend spacetime for the purposes of propelling a craft.
We have devised an experiment that utilizes a material having the properties of possessing a greater imaginary component to the dielectric constant than real component. This material, introduced into a resonant cavity, sets up the conditions to realize a shaping function in the form as is utilized in the Alcubierre’s metric. We have established a potential structure from which to build better experiments.</p
... N Alcubierre's seminal paper [1] he describes the possibility of moving a ship through by compressing spacetime in front of the craft and expanding it behind the craft, thus producing an apparent velocity, vs, in a given direction. This warping of spacetime can produce apparent velocities that well exceed the speed of light yet does not violate Einstein's speed of light limit [2]. This has given many researchers and practitioners hope that we could build space vessels capable of reaching interstellar destinations within human lifetimes [3], [4], [5]. ...
... "top hat" shaping function described in equation (2). The function with respect to the radius is shown in fig. ...
... Einstein postulated that the gravitational pull between two bodies was due to the bending of space time that occurs due to the mass of the objects [2]. The Alcubierre metric was formulated from Einstein's gravitational field equation formalism. ...
p>We have established mathematically that there exists the potential to realize a positive required energy density in order to warp spacetime. By using a complex shaping function where the imaginary part is greater than the real part, the solution to the expression for the required energy density is positive. This ultimately makes it feasible to selectively bend spacetime for the purposes of propelling a craft.
We have devised an experiment that utilizes a material having the properties of possessing a greater imaginary component to the dielectric constant than real component. This material, introduced into a resonant cavity, sets up the conditions to realize a shaping function in the form as is utilized in the Alcubierre’s metric. We have established a potential structure from which to build better experiments.</p
... N Alcubierre's seminal paper [1] he describes the possibility of moving a ship through by compressing spacetime in front of the craft and expanding it behind the craft, thus producing an apparent velocity, vs, in a given direction. This warping of spacetime can produce apparent velocities that well exceed the speed of light yet does not violate Einstein's speed of light limit [2]. This has given many researchers and practitioners hope that we could build space vessels capable of reaching interstellar destinations within human lifetimes [3], [4], [5]. ...
... "top hat" shaping function described in equation (2). The function with respect to the radius is shown in fig. ...
... Einstein postulated that the gravitational pull between two bodies was due to the bending of space time that occurs due to the mass of the objects [2]. The Alcubierre metric was formulated from Einstein's gravitational field equation formalism. ...
In this paper we show that the use of a resonant cavity filled with a lossy dielectric we can overcome the negative energy density requirement in Alcubierre's warp field equations. By using an imaginary part equal to or greater than the real part in the shaping function we generate a positive, non-exotic energy density requirement to generate and sustain the warp bubble necessary to transport a craft through space. We show simulation results for various shaping functions, the resulting Yorke time deformation, and the energy density over the warp bubble required. We discuss potential realizations of a device which generates such a field using electromagnetic and rf theory. Finally, we propose and show results of a simple experiment that uses these principles.
... It is certain that, considering (37), the group effectively acts in two variables, in other words a, b, and c depend on two parameters. Now we will show the important connection previously deduced: Gaussians can be considered as families of invariant manifolds with three parameters, for the SL(2R) group, having associated the group given by (38), as a parameter group. ...
... Here X i are the infinitesimal generators of the variables group, A i are the ones of the parameters group and it is necessary for the two groups to be isomorphic, i.e., their Lie algebras to belong to the same and only algebra, as was, in our case, (13) and (38). In this case, if we take into account (19) and (38) for X i and A i , thus detailing Stoka's Equation (39), we indeed obtain for the three parameters invariant manifolds families the previous H(x, y) function, but, and we must emphasize this, only under the transitivity condition (37). ...
... Here X i are the infinitesimal generators of the variables group, A i are the ones of the parameters group and it is necessary for the two groups to be isomorphic, i.e., their Lie algebras to belong to the same and only algebra, as was, in our case, (13) and (38). In this case, if we take into account (19) and (38) for X i and A i , thus detailing Stoka's Equation (39), we indeed obtain for the three parameters invariant manifolds families the previous H(x, y) function, but, and we must emphasize this, only under the transitivity condition (37). ...
Possible implications and consequences of using SL(2R) as invariance groups in the description at any scale resolution of the dynamics of any complex system are analyzed. From this perspective and based on Jaynes’ remark (any circumstance left unspecified in the description of any complex system dynamics has the concrete expression in the existence of an invariance group), in the present paper one specifies such unspecified circumstances that result directly from the consideration of the canonical formalism induced by the SL(2R) as invariance group. It follows that both the Hamiltonian function and the Guassian distribution acquire the status of invariant group functions, the parameters that define the Hamiltonian acquire statistical significances based on a principle of maximizing informational energy, the class of statistical hypotheses specific to Gaussians of the same average acts as transitivity manifolds of the group (transitivity manifolds which can be correlated with the multifractal-non-multifractal scale transitions), joint invariant functions induced through SL(2R) groups isomorphism (the SL(2R) variables group, and the SL(2R) parameters group, etc.). For an ensemble of oscillators of the same frequency, the unspecified circumstances return to the ignorance of the amplitude and phase of each of the oscillators, which forces the recourse to a statistical ensemble traversed by the transformations of the Barbilian-type group. Finally, the model is validated based on numerical simulations and experimental results that refer to transient phenomena in ablation plasmas. The novelty of our model resides in the fact that fractalization through stochasticization is imposed through group invariance, situation in which the group’s transitivity manifolds can be correlated with the scale resolution.
... According to Einstein's special theory of relativity [1], spacetime and electromagnetics are different aspects of the same phenomenon. The general relativity theory also indicates that the presence of electromagnetic fields leads to curvature of spacetime [8]. ...
... In regards to this idea, within this work we have investigated the similarity and links between those two concepts by quantitative measurements of a vortex's gravitational properties (which may demonstrate a micro-scale spacetime model) and electromagnetic properties of a basic solenoid as shown in Table 1 and Figure 1 for a comparison. The link between gravitation and electromagnetism has been studied by several researcher earlier such as Einstein in 1961 [1] and Gupta in 1954 [2]. In regards to spacetime phenomenon, in the classical literature the curvature of spacetime has always been linked to huge masses like stars, planets, etc. but so far not even considered its micro-scale model to be tested in a lab environment. ...
By the lab experiments with the series of parametric vortices (whirlpool) formations, it has been discovered that there may be some similarity and link between the properties of vortex and classical electromagnetic phenomenon of solenoid, as both may demonstrate an interaction with Earth's magnetic field and also generate a gravitational and anti-gravitational forces, which may also linked to micro-scale spacetime demonstration in a lab environment. Such discovery might only be possible by the combination of heuristic approach and interdisciplinary technique such as parametric vortex formation, video image analysis and electromagnetism.
... It is well known that the trajectory of a photon, emitted along a straight horizontal path, bends 'downward' in a gravitational field. 1,4,5 Here we shall determine the exact shapes of the bent trajectories of a stream of photons, emitted isotropically by a source, supported in a gravitational field. A comparison of the electric field lines with the trajectories of photons emitted from a source located at the charge position, will be made to demonstrate that the field lines exactly follow the trajectories of photons in a static gravitational field. ...
... From this, using the equivalence principle, it has been inferred that the horizontal trajectory of a photon gets bent due to gravity. 1,4,5 We want to determine the exact shapes of the bent trajectories of a stream of photons, emitted initially isotropically by a source S, supported in a gravitational field. For this we exploit the equivalence principle and compute the trajectories of photons emitted from S, assumed to be stationary in the comoving accelerated frame A, and accordingly accelerated uniformly with respect to an inertial frame. ...
Employing the equivalence principle, it is shown that electric field lines of a stationary charge bend in gravitational field, like the trajectories of photons emitted isotropically from the charge position. It leads to some unusual consequences, e.g. presence of finite electric field exists inside a uniformly charged spherical shell, or electric flux through a horizontal plane ``above'' the charge being less than in a plane ``below''. However, no such bending for a freely falling charge, whose fields are radial from the instantaneous charge position.
... Follett (1924) paralleled this in saying that the context in which organisational science looked at events was paramount in the understanding of events. Einstein viewed the perception of reality as being relative to an individual's position and the interrelations with the surrounding environment (Einstein, 1916). This was similar to Follett's view that the individual experience of reality dictated the definition of reality for the individual (Follett, 1924). ...
... Follett paralleled this in her theory -that the context in which organisational science (or social studies as she referred to at the time) looked at events was paramount in the understanding of events. Einstein viewed the perception of reality as being relative to an individual's position and the interrelations with the surrounding environment (Einstein, 1916). ...
This thesis, which starts in a journey about lollipops (hence the title), presents the story of good leadership – a story of what makes leadership good. A chronological history of the development of leadership theory is presented as the base of knowledge upon which this research sits. This thesis answers positively the research question of whether it was possible to find the underlying fundamentals or constructs which allow good leadership to be enacted and be effective across contexts, cultures and organisational types. Through inductive and action research methods, carried out globally, the enactment of good leadership is framed into five dimensions – that of presence, relating, sensemaking, action and service. It presents the Lollipop Model of Good Leadership which permits any leader to become a good leader.
... 179-180) that the formula of "distance" between two vectors and in the Minkowskian plane is √| | This metric is equivalent also to √ | | where and are the 45° rotation of x and y. Now we can be led to the concept of (2D) space-time by making use of an informal presentation of Special Relativity by Einstein (1962). Indeed, this interpretation is achieved if we set y = ct, where t is the time and c is the speed of light, which we demand to be constant. ...
... Nevertheless, our fictional data are not completely arbitrary, but they are in accordance with certain predictions and thought experiments in the early development of Special Relativity (see e.g. Einstein 1962). ...
One of the demands of modern teaching is the interdisciplinary approach of cognitive subjects and in particular that of the natural sciences, with simultaneous engagement of teachers and students. At the same time, teaching scenarios seem to be gaining ground in the methodology of teaching and learning Mathematics in school. In this paper we analyze the concepts of the teaching scenario and interdisciplinarity, and we briefly present the basic results of a teaching experiment using teaching scenario, focused on the teaching of Minkowskian Metric in two dimensions.
... General relativity (Einstein, 1920) does not specifically recognize anti gravity as a concept. However, both general relativity and Newtonian gravity appear to predict that negative mass would produce a repulsive gravitational field. ...
... There have been several attempts at interpreting the cause of gravity (Einstein, 1916;Einstein, 1920;Hawking and Israel, 1989;flandern, 1996;Qyvind and Sigbjorn, 2007) but no successful attempt has yet been made to show the opposite, the existence of anti-gravity. The object of this paper is not an interpretation of anti gravity but to demonstrate an experiment that could provide some information about particle behavior against the gravitational pull when they undergo a change of state or phase transition to gaseous form by acquiring latent heat. ...
Pollution in the aquatic ecosystem by pesticides, their metabolites and by-products is considered critical in the
conservation of biodiversity and natural resources. Several studies have reported the toxicological issues and adverse
effects of pesticides in aquatic biodiversity. After the development of the field ecotoxicology, researchers have expanded
their studies towards the effects of pesticides in aquatic ecosystems. Pesticides containing chemicals such as Pyrethroids,
cypermethrin, deltamethrin, cyphenothrin and other related compounds have been shown to cause adverse effects on the
development, behaviour and mortality of different species of fish, birds, amphibians and aquatic mammals. This review
article summarizes the adverse impact of the use of pesticides and related agrochemicals in populations of aquatic,
amphibian and avian species.
... Durell 1956) and simplification of the underlying mathematical structure, especially of the interconnection between the Lorentz transformations and the Minkowskian metric. A remarkable example is Einstein's own popularizing attempts (Einstein 1916(Einstein /1962Einstein and Infeld 1938). On the following texts, we review some distinguished efforts of popularizing relativistic ideas and Minkowskian geometry. ...
... Indeed, our scenario, presenting fictional data, is rather closer to Einstein's own thought experiments (cf. Einstein 1916Einstein /1962 e.g. chapter 9). ...
In this paper, we analyze two episodes from an inquiry-based didactical research; the complete analysis of our research data is still ongoing. By taking into consideration various developments from the history of the geometry of space-time, our general aim is to explore high school students' conceptions about measurement of length and time in relatively moving systems, and lead the students to reconsider these conceptions in an attempt of constructing a new metric for space-time. The episodes are extracted from long (focused) interviews with two couples of students, based on a carefully designed fictional scenario. Two main strategies have been identified and are analyzed in the paper: one of them relies on imagination and intuition; the other one makes use of preexisting school mathematical knowledge, in arriving to a simplified formula of a Minkowskian metric.
... The great victories in mechanics achieved by physicists in the past century were mainly enabled by variational approaches. While classical mechanics fails at small scales (e.g., atoms) and large scales (e.g., planets), analytical mechanics (e.g., the principle of least action) has provided a fundamental approach in both Einstein's general relativity [1] and quantum mechanics [2], in addition to recovering the classical Newtonian mechanics in the ordinary scales. On the other hand, when we focus our attention on the mechanics of fluids, we find little success has been achieved beyond the Newtonian approach which was culminated in the Navier-Stokes equations of motion. ...
... which must be minimum according to Gauss' principle. It is interesting to discuss the meaning of the minimization of A. Note that A is simply 1 2ρ Ω (∇p) 2 dx: the integral of the norm of the pressure gradient over the field. Since the pressure force is a constraint force (its sole role is to enforce the continuity constraint), the flow field will deviate from the motion dictated by the inertial u · ∇u and viscous ν∆u forces only by the amount to satisfy continuity; no larger pressure gradient will be generated than that necessary to maintain continuity. ...
The development of a variational principle for Navier-Stokes' equations has been elusive for decades; most variational principles of fluid mechanics in the literature were developed for ideal fluids, neglecting one of the most important forces: viscous forces. In this paper, we revive one of the fundamental principles in mechanics: Gauss' principle of least constraint. Realizing that the pressure force for incompressible flows is a constraint force, we develop the first deterministic variational principle of the Navier-Stokes. The developed principle asserts that the pressure force must be minimum; we call it the principle of minimum pressure gradient (PMPG). We proved mathematically that Navier-Stokes' equation represents the necessary condition for minimization of the proposed action. Consequently, the PMPG turns any fluid mechanics problem into a minimization one. We demonstrated this intriguing property by solving three of the classical problems in fluid mechanics using the PMPG without resorting to Navier-Stokes' equation. The PMPG may provide guidance towards solving the Millennium Prize problem of the existence of solutions of Navier-Stokes'. It may also shed light on the elusive problem of turbulence.
... Secondly, another major interpretation of gravity was given by Einstein in 1907 as General Relativity [11], which is the theory of gravitation where the observed gravitational effect between masses results from their warping of space-time. Therein, gravity is not considered as a force, it is a consequence of the curvature of spacetime caused by the presence of mass energy. ...
... Hence, FW [= FR -FA] may become negative and the gas may condense, when y ≈ 0.5 and T → 0; see Equation 11. The analysis was repeated for hydrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, yielding the same result irrespective of atomic mass m; information available on request. ...
Laboratory experiments and natural phenomena investigations in this research series experimentally revealed the existence of gravitational repulsion force dependent on thermal energy content, pervading our surroundings both microscopically and macroscopically. This paper presents an alternative mathematical model of both gravitational repulsion and attraction forces between two gaseous molecules, validated by experimental data. The model is self-standing and independent of existing models built on idealistic assumptions. While existing models considered gravitational interaction as a single force, the presented experimental model considers it the resultant of two distinct forces: gravitational repulsion and attraction. When established experimental data on nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide were applied, the model performed, both analytically and experimentally: (1) confirming the existence of both gravitational repulsion and attraction forces among gas molecules, (2) demonstrating that the two forces follow Inverse-Cube relationship with the distance between molecules, (3) revealing that repulsion force is linearly proportional to the absolute temperature, thus filling the critical gap between energy and fundamental forces. Orders of magnitude of gravitational repulsion and attraction forces are very large compared to the gravitational force between gas molecules calculated according to the classical theory, enabling manipulation to achieve hitherto unknown outcomes and developments.
... From the beginning of the twentieth century, periodically, over every decade or so, there have been path-breaking and disruptive theories or discoveries in physics. To name a few, we have Einstien's general theory of relativity (Saha & Bose, 1920;Einstein, 1905a;Einstein, 1920;Einstein, 1905c), wave-particle duality (Weinberger, 2006), quantum theory (Tong, 2006;Peres, 2002;Bohr, 1923;Pahlavani, 2012), Copenhagen Interpretation (Faye, 2022), Heisenberg's principle (Busch et al., 2007;Martens, 1991;Heisenberg, 1925), collapse postulate 1 , Schrodinger's wave function (Trimmer, 1980), Feynman's Experiments and interpretations (Feynman Lectures, 2022), Everett's many world interpretation (Dewitt & Graham, 1973;Barrett, 2018), standard models in cosmology (Robson, 2019;PJE Peebles, 1993) and particle physics (Mann, 2010), entanglement (Einstein, 1935;Aubrun et al., 2011) (EPR), decoherence (Einstein et al., 1935), einselection (Zurek, 2003(Zurek, , 1998, etc. As these theories have advanced, they have branched off into highly specialized areas such as the string theory, black hole 1 Philosphical Issues in Quantum Theory (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-issues/). ...
A process of idea filtration in two distinct streams of physics i.e., 1) The di-mensionality perspective of spacetime, and 2) The quantum perspective leads us to an understanding of what might be a true reality of all that we perceive. The conclusions arrived at in this paper are a bit perplexing in the sense that our perceived reality could be a manifestation of a combination of 4D + n (n > 0) flat space-time, universal wave function, and cognizance. The work is based on a review and analysis of the main concepts in quantum theory, rela-tivistic physics, and cosmology. Key ideas and conclusions are filtered and logically connected to arrive at what might be a view of the true reality. A significant part of the paper is dedicated to the concept of the "observer" and the "ability of cognizance" that should accompany the "observer". Though the "observer" is central to modern physics, it is not known what constitutes observation , and the term observer, often open to interpretations, does not have a standard definition and hence, is lacking in clarity. In our analysis, we have argued that the environment, in which the observer-observed system is embedded , emerges as an all-knowing, cognizant, and ideal observer that has the knowledge of the observer-observed system. At a philosophical level, we link to the fundamentals of physics, "consciousness" or "ability of cognizance" as an unavoidable and key element in not only carrying out the observation but perhaps, as believed by many, having a role in shaping the reality perceived. In the review and analysis of another stream of physics, that of General Theory of Relativity (GTR) and cosmology, we examine the question of reality from a cosmological and dimensionality perspective. Research on the 4D and 5D constructs of the universe indicates that the "reality" perceived in 4D spacetime as matter, distance, time, etc., is a manifestation of a higher dimensional 4D + n (n > 0) reality. Theoretical research on this front points towards a 4D-spacetime embedded in a 5D or higher dimensional flat space with matter and energy being a manifestation of the higher dimensions. The flow of logic in this paper leans towards a view of an ultimate true reality that is
... Today, we understand the stars move in a galaxy creating a 3D helical model [35] and Einstein's theory of relativity is the primary methodology used to conceptualize, model, and accurately predict motion and events in the modeled 4-dimensional Minkowski space [36]. Einstein argued against truth of the principles and axioms of Euclidean geometry related to plane, point (zero-mass), and straight line [37] (Ch1), it should be considered Euclidean geometry is not possible using Einstein's' approach to model motion through spacetime. Einstein's theory is exceptionally powerful yet there are still noted challenges [38] including transferability to quantum physics. ...
The theory of relativity links space and time to account for observed events in four-dimensional space. In this article we describe an alternative static state causal discrete time modeling system using an omniscient viewpoint of dynamical systems that can express object relations in the moment(s) they are observed. To do this, three key components are required, including the introduction of independent object-relative dimensional metrics, a zero-dimensional frame of reference, and application of Euclidean geometry for modeling. Procedures separate planes of matter, extensions of space (relational distance) and time (duration) using object-oriented dimensional quantities. Quantities are converted into base units using symmetry for space (Dihedral360), time (Dihedral12), rotation (Dihedral24), and scale (Dihedral10). Geometric elements construct static state outputs in discrete time models rather than continuous time using calculus, thereby using dimensional and positional natural number numerals that can visually encode complex data instead of using abstraction and irrationals. Static state Euclidean geometric models of object relations are both measured and expressed in the state they are observed in zero-time as defined by a signal. The frame can include multiple observer frames of reference where each origin, point, is the location of a distinct privileged point of reference. Two broad and diverse applications are presented: a one-dimensional spatiotemporal orbital model, and a thought experiment related to a physical theory beyond Planck limits. We suggest that expanding methodologies and continued formalization, novel tools for physics can be considered along with applications for computational discrete geometric modeling.
... From the beginning of the twentieth century, periodically, over every decade or so, there have been path-breaking and disruptive theories or discoveries in physics. To name a few, we have Einstien's general theory of relativity 14,15,16,17 , wave-particle duality 18 , quantum theory 19,20,21,22 , Copenhagen Interpretation 23 , Heisenberg's principle 24,25,26 , collapse postulate 27 , Schrodinger's wave function 28 , Feynman's Experiments and interpretations 29 , Everett's many world interpretation 30,31 , standard models in cosmology 2,3 and particle physics 32 , entanglement 33,34 (EPR), decoherence 35 , einselection 36,37 , etc. As these theories have advanced, they have branched off into highly specialized areas such as the string theory, black hole physics, Conformal Cyclic Cosmology 38 , Higgs particle 39 , physics of the origins of the universe etc. ...
A process of idea filtration in two distinct streams of physics i.e., 1) The dimensionality perspective of spacetime, and 2) The quantum perspective – leads us to an understanding of what might be a true reality of all that we perceive. The conclusions arrived at in this paper are a bit perplexing in the sense that our perceived reality could be a manifestation of a combination of 4D+n (n>0) flat space-time, universal wave function, and cognizance.
The work is based on a review and analysis of the main concepts in quantum theory, relativistic physics, and cosmology. Key ideas and conclusions are filtered and logically connected to arrive at what might be a view of the true reality. A significant part of the paper is dedicated to the concept of the “observer” and the “ability of cognizance” that should accompany the “observer”. Though the “observer” is central to modern physics, it is not known what constitutes observation, and the term observer, often open to interpretations, does not have a standard definition and hence, is lacking in clarity. In our analysis, we have argued that the environment, in which the observer-observed system is embedded, emerges as an all-knowing, cognizant, and ideal observer that has the knowledge of the observer-observed system. At a philosophical level, we link to the fundamentals of physics, “Consciousness” or “ability of cognizance” as an unavoidable and key element in not only carrying out the observation but perhaps, as believed by many, having a role in shaping the reality perceived. In the review and analysis of another stream of physics, that of General Theory of Relativity (GTR) and cosmology, we examine the question of reality from a cosmological and dimensionality perspective. Research on the 4D and 5D constructs of the universe indicates that the “reality” perceived in 4D spacetime as matter, distance, time, etc., is a manifestation of a higher dimensional 4D+n (n>0) reality. Theoretical research on this front points towards a 4D-spacetime embedded in a 5D or higher dimensional flat space with matter and energy being a manifestation of the higher dimensions. The flow of logic in this paper leans towards a view of an ultimate true reality that is flat 4D+n (n>0) space combined with cognizance, universal wave function, and the environment.
... 116, emphasis in original). Even Einstein (1961) considered it "more natural to think of physical reality as a four-dimensional existence, instead of, as hitherto, the evolution of a three-dimensional existence" (p. 171, emphasis in original). ...
The aim of this doctoral dissertation is to closely explore the nature of Einstein’s block universe and to tease out its implications for the nature of time and human freedom. Four questions, in particular, are central to this dissertation, and set out the four dimensions of this philosophical investigation: (1) Does the block universe view of time follow inevitably from the theory of special relativity? (2) Is there room for the passage of time in the block universe? (3) Can we distinguish past from future in the block universe? (4) Is there room for human freedom in the block universe? Although the answer of most philosophers would be yes, triple no, my own answer, controversially, is no, triple yes. I thereby challenge the status quo with respect to each of these metaphysical questions, and argue that none of these questions can be answered from looking at physics alone. Physics may constrain our metaphysics, but it certainly does not settle it. What is needed in order to answer these questions, are additional metaphysical assumptions that fall outside the scope of modern physics. My primary goal in this dissertation, therefore, is not to settle the debates on the nature of time and human freedom, but to clarify them by expliciting the metaphysical assumptions that are otherwise left implicit.
... 116, emphasis in original). Even Einstein (1961) considered it "more natural to think of physical reality as a four-dimensional existence, instead of, as hitherto, the evolution of a three-dimensional existence" (p. 171, emphasis in original). ...
This review paper provides a detailed overview and critical analysis of the philosophical literature on the Rietdijk–Putnam–Maxwell argument for the four-dimensionality of the world. After briefly introducing the debate on the dimensionality of the world, I present the arguments by Rietdijk, Putnam and Maxwell, and highlight the differences between them. I subsequently raise a total of eleven objections against the Rietdijk–Putnam–Maxwell argument, and conclude that its validity is underdetermined by the formalism of special relativity.
... Albert Einstein [5] argues that only finite systems and non-uniform infinite systems can be treated with Newton's theory.(The velocities according to the virial theorem would exceed the speed of light if the gravitational potential is very large.) ...
Newtonian cosmological field equations derived under the assumptions of homogeneity and isotropy together with the continuity equation are equivalent to general relativistic cosmological field equations derived under the same assumptions. A paper by Milne and McCrea [2] in 1934 is in fact devoted to this topic. In this work, we review this paper and investigate its relationship with a concise non-relativistic derivation of the Friedmann equation using Newtonian energy conservation. This concise derivation, in fact, is given in a number of elementary textbooks on cosmology. However, one has to be careful in deriving this equation.
... However, that knowing involves different biological processes, perception and memory, and with each observer being a different individual there is a reasonable chance the same thing may be known differently. Even the temporal order of observations may be considered problematic, according to the theory of special relativity which claims every observer has a unique perspective on where and when events would have occurred (Einstein 1916). ...
Genealogical research usually begins with the discovery of affinity among individual humans. Such kinship is induced by direct observation, as well as by hearsay (indirect observation) that can be independently confirmed. Those who want to continue investigating a case history after the observational mode of fact-finding is no longer sustainable have no other choice than to switch to the discovery of consanguineous relationships. This involves a paradigm shift, where investigation dramatically changes from observation to inference, from inductive to deductive reasoning. Individuation is important in characterizing the personhood of an individual, but those same facts are of little empirical value in establishing the unification of a family. In addition, genealogists rely on marriage as an observable source of evidence for unification. However, this extrapolation is not completely convincing because marriage does not take into account the uncertainty of paternity. Individual parents usually descend from different parts of family history, which suggests genealogists should evaluate cultural factors responsible for non-random mating in attempting to infer consanguinity. For example, there is the incest taboo, a cultural convention which addresses the abnormal genetic consequences of inbreeding. Other non-random mating factors of a more general nature may also be identified in the unification of genetically different individuals. Here, for example, causality is expected in cultural principles that are of a cohesive and integrative nature. Those kinds of evidence may determine an unmarried pair’s earliest engagement and may also be responsible for the origin and maintenance of the marriage relationship, even throughout post-reproductive life. Lastly, current genealogical research is severely infected with confirmation bias, and from which it must be protected if it is to achieve the status of a scientific discipline. Critical rationalism provides a solution to that kind of problem. It is with remediation in mind, as it applies to all of the aforementioned issues, that genealogical systematics is characterized.
... Einstein dovodi u pitanje metodološku smislenost tog prigovora s obzirom na empirijske znanosti u kojima se javljaju operacijske definicije; potpada li nešto pod definiendum određuje se radnjom provjeravanja koja uključuje osvrtanje na iskustvenu pojavu: »To da svjetlost zahtijeva neko vrijeme za prijeći put A → M, kao i za put B → M, zapravo nije pretpostavka ni hipoteza o fizikalnoj prirodi svjetlosti, nego uvjet kojega sam slobodan postaviti kako bih došao do definicije istodobnosti.« 9 (Einstein [1916(Einstein [ ] 2005 Einsteinova definicija istodobnosti ne isključuje mogućnost da isti par događaja stoji u različitim vremenskim odnosima unutar različitih okvira odredbe (fizikalno, unutar različitih inercijskih okvira). ...
... Our subsequent books were Einstein's treatise for the lay-person, Relativity (Einstein, 1961); quantum physicist Erwin Schrödinger's post-war classic What is Life? (Schrödinger, 1946), which anticipates the structure of DNA; and its mystical sequel Mind and Matter (Schrödinger, 1946). ...
Humanity is in a tight race between planetary catastrophe and enlightenment. It’s not clear which will prevail. The old paradigm, that of materialism, individualism, and fierce competition, is failing at all levels—economic, social, political, and environmental—and bringing life as we know it to the edge of a precipice. At the same time, a “new” paradigm is emerging, one that emphasizes interconnectedness, the sacredness of all creation, universal consciousness, and cooperation. In truth, the “new” paradigm is anything but new. What’s new is that scientific discoveries are now beginning to resonate with and reinforce ancient wisdom, wisdom that has been imbedded in indigenous mythologies for millennia. It’s incumbent upon those who have already transitioned to a more sustainable “myth of meaning” to find ways to encourage others along the path. A demographic naturally resonant to holistic worldviews, but largely untapped, is that of undergraduate Honors students. This paper describes a pioneering Honors course at James Madison University that, by many measures, has succeeded in integrating science and spirituality into a new way of thinking and being.
... However, it has not yet been demonstrated in a physical power system. It is considered necessary to make such physical tests, just like the physical measurement of the ether [42] and relativity [43]. Therefore, we propose to build a physical GPT-controlled inverter and test it in a selfcontained power system, a mini-grid. ...
With the increase in power-electronic devices, non-linear and unbalanced loads, power quality has significantly deteriorated. Improving power quality and minimizing delivery losses have technical and financial benefits. Power electronic converters can improve power quality by injecting compensating currents calculated using conventional power theories. However, none of the power theories generate an optimal solution that keeps the losses to a minimum. Under unbalanced and distorted conditions, conventional power theories give misleading results. Compensating currents calculated by the general power theory (GPT) redistribute the currents in the delivery network such that optimal currents are drawn from the source with minimum losses. We propose design considerations for a novel GPT-controlled three-level inverter. MATLAB Simulink was used to model and test the proposed inverter. Simulation results show that the proposed inverter can produce the desired compensating currents with low harmonic content. The Phase Locked Loop (PLL) synchronizes with the grid voltage. The closed-loop control system including calculation subsystems are stable and accurate. The GPT calculations and control system may easily be implemented on a micro-controller with analogue to digital conversion and PWM functions. Future work includes the hardware-build of the GPT-controlled inverter for power quality improvement.
... In Einstein's 1921 book [10], the velocity addition formula was based on a system (train embankment), moving coordinates of system ′ (moving train) relative to at velocity , and a moving man walking inside a train carriage relative to at velocity . Although the book did not include the math steps, they are clear from the description, use of the Lorentz equations, and the result. ...
The velocity addition formula is an integral part of Special Relativity for body motion that cannot exceed the speed of light in combination with another moving body.
The development of the velocity addition formula by Einstein is briefly discussed, and conceptional issues that were not included in the original formulation are highlighted. In particular, the velocity addition formula utilizes the Lorentz transformation equations, but does not include a separate Lorentz factor for the second moving body. Adding a second Lorentz factor allows a comparison to the experiment by Hafele and Keating [1] [2] and how they calculated time dilation among multiple moving bodies. It is then shown that mathematically and experimentally, the Hafele and Keating experiment does not support the velocity addition formula based on a time dilation comparison.
The Lorentz transformation equations are discussed, and a math inconsistency is highlighted. A simple algebraic rearrangement between independent and dependent variables reveals that time dilation improperly reverses between the moving and fixed frames.
Finally, the use of a special math convention for the Lorentz factor is highlighted, which is used to correct where time dilation occurs. This means that the Lorentz equations as written are not supported by experiments that measure moving body time dilation.
[Tags] special relativity, time dilation, velocity addition formula, Lorentz factor, Lorentz transformation equation
... Under this approximation but related to the speed of light c as a constant, Einstein derived the space-time transition relationship between the two inertial systems. On a direction x of space, the Lorentz transformation with time t is like [15], ...
... Einstein states that a body in uniform "rectilinear motion" inside a field executes a "curvilinear motion" as observed from a body which is "accelerated relatively" to it, for "rays of light are propagated curvilinearly in gravitational fields." 19 For example, Hitchcock deploys relativity theory, first, when Guy swerves from hating Miriam to warning Bruno's parents after he observes Bruno's erratic behavior, which is like a ray of light that enables Guy's intellect to recognize the gravity of the murderous intent that motivates Bruno. Likewise, Bruno veers away from goading Guy into killing Samuel because he is enlightened when he sees Guy trying to warn Samuel. ...
"Strangers on a Train: Alfred Hitchcock's Scientific Portrayal of Capitalist Society," by Nancy Ann Watanabe, analyzes the text to demonstrate incorporation of Isaac Newton's laws of inertial motion, Charles Darwin's predator-prey paradigm, Sigmund Freud's Oedipus Complex, Albert Einstein's photoelectric effect-relativity model, Thorsten Veblen's theory of leisure and conspicuous consumption, and Sophocles' tragic splitting of the oedipal nuclear family.
... When an object is in motion and it accelerates, its mass increases as it absorbs energy, and it shrinks in the direction of its motion. Contraction in the direction of motion has been referred to as Lorentz contraction (Lorentz 1892(Lorentz , 1995Einstein et al. 1923) and is predicted by Einstein's theory of relativity (Einstein 1961). An accelerating universe, must contract. ...
A "Big Bang" creation event which begins as a subatomic singularity leads to the question: where did the singularity come from? As detailed here, the evidence indicates that this (observable) "universe" recycles itself by expanding outward and collapsing back into a singularity which explodes outward again. The cosmos, however, may be infinite, and consist of innumerable "universes" all of which eventually collapse into a singularity which then mushrooms outward giving rise to new universes (including our own) and thus explaining why our universe behaves and is organized contrary to Big Bang theory. These theories of cyclic, oscillating universes and of repeated episodes of expansion, contraction, and colliding universes, have failed to generate widespread support, and are based on the beliefs that: A) this universe is expanding-when, it may already be accelerating toward a collapse-and that B) a singularity explodes outward. Quantum physics and relativity, however, predict that a singularity-which has shrunk to smaller than a Planck Length (1.61619926 x 10-33 cm), will blow an imploding hole through the fabric of the space-time quantum continuum, forming an Einstein-Rosen bridge and creating a mirror universe on the other side. The mirror of a positive-matter universe, is an antimatter universe. If cycles of creation alternate from antimatter to matter, and if a collapsing/imploding antimatter universe gave birth to our own, there is no violation of the second law of thermodynamics, entropy ceases to be a limiting factor, and the conservation laws of energy and mass are maintained. As predicted by Einstein's theory of relativity, and when coupled with quantum physics, it appears we may be dwelling in a Mirror Universe which formed from the remnants of a collapsing antimatter universe which upon shrinking to a singularity smaller than a Planck length, blew a hole in the quantum continuum thereby leading to the creation of this universe on the other side. Further, our Mirror Universe is not be expanding, but already collapsing and accelerating to its doom. If so, this collapse may account for the clumping and formation of great galactic walls separated by vast voids, colliding galaxies, and phenomenon attributed to the purely hypothetical "dark energy" which may not exist at all.
This work presents a new method called Dimensionless Fluctuation Balance (DFB), which makes it possible to obtain distributions as solutions of Partial Differential Equations (PDEs). In the first case study, DFB was applied to obtain the Boltzmann PDE, whose solution is a distribution for Boltzmann gas. Following, the Planck photon gas in the Radiation Law, Fermi–Dirac, and Bose–Einstein distributions were also verified as solutions to the Boltzmann PDE. The first case study demonstrates the importance of the Boltzmann PDE and the DFB method, both introduced in this paper. In the second case study, DFB is applied to thermal and entropy energies, naturally resulting in a PDE of Boltzmann’s entropy law. Finally, in the third case study, quantum effects were considered. So, when applying DFB with Heisenberg uncertainty relations, a Schrödinger case PDE for free particles and its solution were obtained. This allows for the determination of operators linked to Hamiltonian formalism, which is one way to obtain the Schrödinger equation. These results suggest a wide range of applications for this methodology, including Statistical Physics, Schrödinger’s Quantum Mechanics, Thin Films, New Materials Modeling, and Theoretical Physics.
After reviewing important historical and present day ideas about the concept of time, we develop some instances of mathematical examples where, from the interaction of concepts that model interactions of things in the observable world, time flow emerges in an intuitive and local interpretation. We present several instances of emergence of time flow in mathematical contexts, to wit, by specific parametrisation of deterministic and stochastic curves or of geodesics in Riemann manifolds.
The work is part of a larger project of teaching interdisciplinary teaching of physics concepts in biology within the science education class. It concerns the application of a thought experiment (ThE) about the movement of water in tracheophytes under different gravity conditions, i.e., the behavior of plants on another planet, for
example the Moon or Mars. The ThE was designed and implemented in a science class of 25 students who were instructed to perform it in a simulation environment using a software file that we created with the help of Interactive Physics software. The evaluation of the ThE carried out with a written questionnaire showed that the
use of such educational procedures can significantly help students to better understand the concepts related to capillary phenomena, the way water is transported to plants from roots to leaves and, generally, to contribute to
the interdisciplinary teaching of physics concepts in modules related to the teaching of biological phenomena and functions.
Keywords: thought experiments, water movement, plants, Moon, science teaching
This paper introduces the original research articles that constitute the present Forum issue on unpredictability, contingency and catastrophe. In doing so, it also identifies and discusses the specificity of realist approaches to the above questions. It is argued that attentiveness to the ontological dimension of (un)predictability opens promising avenues for reflexive approaches to social science and collective action.
This chapter and the subsequent Chap. 12 introduce concepts related to collection and preparation of training data for the automated scientific process. Many of these considerations (except for data collection and annotation) and transformations are not necessary in the traditional, manual scientific process because the human brain easily abstracts away many of the issues discussed in this chapter.
Natural systems of units {Ui} need to be overhauled to include the dimensionless coupling constants {αUi} of the natural forces. Otherwise, they cannot quantify all the forces of nature in a unified manner. Thus, each force must furnish a system of units with at least one dimensional and one dimensionless constant. We revisit three natural systems of units (atomic, cosmological, and Planck). The Planck system is easier to rectify, and we do so in this work. The atomic system discounts {G,αG}, thus it cannot account for gravitation. The cosmological system discounts {h,αh}, thus it cannot account for quantum physics. Here, the symbols have their usual meanings; in particular, αG is the gravitational coupling constant and αh is Dirac’s fine-structure constant. The speed of light c and the impedance of free space Z0 are resistive properties imposed by the vacuum itself; thus, they must be present in all systems of units. The upgraded Planck system with fundamental units UPS:={c,Z0,G,αG,h,αh,…} describes all physical scales in the universe—it is nature’s system of units. As such, it reveals a number of properties, most of which have been encountered previously in seemingly disjoint parts of physics and some of which have been designated as mere coincidences. Based on the UPS results, which relate (sub)atomic scales to the Planck scale and the fine-structure constant to the Higgs field, we can state with confidence that no observed or measured physical properties are coincidental in this universe. Furthermore, we derive from first principles Koide’s K=2/3 enigmatic constant and additional analogous quark and vector boson constants. These are formal mathematical proofs that justify a posteriori the use of geometric means in deriving the quark/boson mass ladder. This ladder allows us to also calculate the Higgs couplings to the vector bosons and the Weinberg angle in terms of K only, and many of the “free” parameters of the Standard Model of particle physics were previously expected to be determined only from experiments.
In this paper we build the general formalism of gravitational lensing in luminal Horndeski theories, deriving the Jacobi matrix equation and the general angular diameter distance in these theories through the screen space formalism. We generalize the focusing and multiple lensing theorems to include Scalar Tensor theories belonging to the class and derive constraints they must satisfy to exhibit the same gravitional lensing behavior predicted by General Relativity. This provides a way to test theories through Strong Lensing effects, as well as a full theoretical framework for testing lensing in these theories. We find that for some subclasses, like metric f(R) and unified k-essence, the conditions are satisified in general physical cases, while for others like Galileon Condensate models, the conditions impose constraints on the parameter space of the theory.
Modified Newtonian equations for gravitational orbits in the expanding Universe indicate that local gravitationally bounded systems like galaxies and planetary systems are unaffected by the expansion of the Universe. This result is derived for the space expansion described by the standard FLRW metric. In this paper, the modified Newtonian equations are derived for the space expansion described by the conformal cosmology (CC) metric. In this metric, the comoving and proper times are different similarly as the comoving and proper distances. As shown by Vavryčuk (Front. Phys. 2022), this metric is advantageous, because it properly predicts the cosmic time dilation, and fits the Type Ia supernova luminosity observations with no need to introduce dark energy. Surprisingly, the solution of the equations for gravitational orbits based on the CC metric behaves quite differently than that based on the FLRW metric. In contrast to the common opinion that local systems resist the space expansion, they expand according to the Hubble flow in the CC metric. The evolution of the local systems with cosmic time is exemplified on numerical modelling of spiral galaxies. The size of the spiral galaxies grows consistently with observations and a typical spiral pattern is well reproduced. The theory predicts flat rotation curves without an assumption of dark matter surrounding the galaxy. The theory resolves challenges to the ΛCDM model such as the problem of faint satellite galaxies, baryonic Tully-Fisher relation or the radial acceleration relation. Furthermore, puzzles in the solar system are successfully explained such as the Faint young Sun paradox or the Moon’s and Titan’s orbit anomalies.
This article presents an overview of a theory for performing temporal smoothing of temporal signals in such a way that: (i) temporally smoothed signals at coarser temporal scales are guaranteed to constitute simplifications of corresponding temporally smoothed signals at any finer temporal scale (including the original signal) and (ii) the temporal smoothing process is both time-causal and time-recursive, in the sense that it does not require access to future information and can be performed with no other temporal memory buffer of the past than the resulting smoothed temporal scale-space representations themselves. For specific subsets of parameter settings for the classes of linear and shift-invariant temporal smoothing operators that obey this property, it is shown how temporal scale covariance can be additionally obtained, guaranteeing that if the temporal input signal is rescaled by a uniform temporal scaling factor, then also the resulting temporal scale-space representations of the rescaled temporal signal will constitute mere rescalings of the temporal scale-space representations of the original input signal, complemented by a shift along the temporal scale dimension. The resulting time-causal limit kernel that obeys this property constitutes a canonical temporal kernel for processing temporal signals in real-time scenarios when the regular Gaussian kernel cannot be used, because of its non-causal access to information from the future, and we cannot additionally require the temporal smoothing process to comprise a complementary memory of the past beyond the information contained in the temporal smoothing process itself, which in this way also serves as a multi-scale temporal memory of the past. We describe how the time-causal limit kernel relates to previously used temporal models, such as Koenderink’s scale-time kernels and the ex-Gaussian kernel. We do also give an overview of how the time-causal limit kernel can be used for modelling the temporal processing in models for spatio-temporal and spectro-temporal receptive fields, and how it more generally has a high potential for modelling neural temporal response functions in a purely time-causal and time-recursive way, that can also handle phenomena at multiple temporal scales in a theoretically well-founded manner. We detail how this theory can be efficiently implemented for discrete data, in terms of a set of recursive filters coupled in cascade. Hence, the theory is generally applicable for both: (i) modelling continuous temporal phenomena over multiple temporal scales and (ii) digital processing of measured temporal signals in real time. We conclude by stating implications of the theory for modelling temporal phenomena in biological, perceptual, neural and memory processes by mathematical models, as well as implications regarding the philosophy of time and perceptual agents. Specifically, we propose that for A-type theories of time, as well as for perceptual agents, the notion of a non-infinitesimal inner temporal scale of the temporal receptive fields has to be included in representations of the present, where the inherent nonzero temporal delay of such time-causal receptive fields implies a need for incorporating predictions from the actual time-delayed present in the layers of a perceptual hierarchy, to make it possible for a representation of the perceptual present to constitute a representation of the environment with timing properties closer to the actual present.
Chapter 2 traces historical foundations of the theory of autopoiesis comparing Eastern and Western epistemologies and ontologies. The theory of autopoiesis called into question hypotheses regarding the unity of consciousness, atomism, empiricism, and representationalism of concern to classical philosophers such as Descartes, Hume, Locke, and Hobbes. Discussion focuses on wholism and non-linear dynamics in Chinese philosophy, naturopathic medicine, complexity and chaos theory, Gestalt, and functionalism in the humanistic psychologies of Kurt Goldstein, William James, John Dewey, Jacob Von Uexkull, Roger Sperry, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Biologists Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela’s theory of autopoiesis marked an evolutionary understanding of the self-organizing properties of chemical, neuronal, and cognitive systems through which they regenerate reproducing themselves by their own mutual interactions, and the uniqueness of emergence that produces life in its circular form. The concept of intracrine autopoiesis, explored in Chap. 7, is first introduced here as the hormonal, intracellular recreation of oneself.
In this innovative book, Hasok Chang constructs a philosophy of science for 'realistic people' interested in understanding and promoting the actual practices of inquiry in science and other knowledge-focused areas of life. Inspired by pragmatist philosophy, he reconceives the very notions of reality and truth on the basis of his concept of the 'operational coherence' of epistemic activities, and offers new pragmatist conceptions of truth and reality as operational ideals achievable in actual scientific practice. Rejecting the version of scientific realism that is concerned with claiming that our theories correspond to an ultimate reality, he proposes instead an 'activist realism': a commitment to do all that we can actually do to improve our knowledge of realities. His book will appeal to scholars and students in philosophy, science and the history of science, and all who are concerned about the place of science and empirical truth in society.
In Holoplexity, consciousness is hypothesized as predating the universe and as ultimately comprising all matter and energy. It comprises the very architecture of reality, including spatial dimensions (as we perceive them), and is even the causal factor of time itself. This theory then goes on to argue that consciousness is hidden from us, is timeless (but still generates time), and is the source from which all things flow. Humans are only able to appreciate and apprehend the aftermath of this interaction. Consciousness is then believed to exist in all things as manifested in both matter and electromagnetism, as well as non-spatial, non-temporal, phenomenal existence itself. Holoplexity seeks to offer an explanation for how information becomes human experience. From the advent of time to the reading of these words, the Holoplexity Theory of Consciousness makes a coherent explanation for it all.
This article studies how Romance languages encode the individual-level (IL)/stage-level (SL) aspectual distinction in the domain of non-verbal predication. To this end, attributive copular clauses are considered, and those languages that mark the IL/SL paradigm by means of two different copulas ( ser and estar ‘to be’, such as Spanish, Catalan, and Portuguese) are compared with mono-copular languages (such as French, Italian, and Romanian). On the basis of recent developments in the study of the IL/SL contrast and Spanish copulas, I propose that SL-ness is encoded in non-verbal SL-predicates as an uninterpretable instance of a [Stage] feature and that SL-copular sentences are derived by virtue of an agreement operation between the predicate and an Asp head that carries an interpretable instance of [Stage], which is realised as estar in languages such as Spanish, Portuguese, and Catalan. The conclusion is that the inventory of aspectual elements is the same across Romance languages, which differ one from another with respect to the presence of an SL-copula (namely, estar ).
The vast majority of empirical hypotheses in psychology, or in the social sciences more generally, are directional whereas in other sciences, such as the physical sciences, there are more point or narrow‐interval empirical hypotheses. Characteristics of theories and auxiliary assumptions play a role in the difference. Given that psychology research strongly features directional predictions, it is important to question the extent to which these provide convincing tests of theories that they are designed to test. The present work aims to provide a nuanced view that considers the complex interaction between the obviousness of directional predictions, the obviousness of the theory from which they derive, and the quality of the auxiliary assumptions that push towards directional predictions. Then, too, there is the related issue of vulnerability of directional predictions to alternative explanations and how to address them.
Various models (e.g., scalar, state-dependent network, and vector models) have been proposed to explain the global aspects of time perception, but they have not been tested against specific visual phenomena like perisaccadic time compression and novel stimulus time dilation. Here, in two separate experiments (N=31), we tested how the perceived duration of a novel stimulus is influenced by 1) a simultaneous saccade, in combination with 2) a prior series of repeated stimuli in human participants. This yielded a novel behavioral interaction: pre-saccadic stimulus repetition neutralizes perisaccadic time compression. We then tested these results against simulations of the above models. Our data yielded low correlations against scalar model simulations, high but non-specific correlations for our feedforward neural network, and correlations that were both high and specific for a vector model based on identity of objective and subjective time. These results demonstrate the power of global time perception models in explaining disparate empirical phenomena and suggest that subjective time has a similar essence to time’s physical vector.
Από την αρχαιότητα η εννοιολογική αντίληψη του χώρου μεταβλήθηκε επίπονα και με σχετικά αργούς ρυθμούς. Πέρασε μέσα από μυθολογικές περιγραφές, θρησκευτικές δοξασίες, μεταφυσικές κοσμοθεωρίες και κοσμολογικά πρότυπα με μηχανιστική δομή, μέχρι να φτάσει στη νευτώνεια αντίληψη του απέραντου και ομογενούς τρισδιάστατου συνεχούς, που κυριαρχεί μέχρι τις ημέρες μας ως “κοινή αντίληψη” ακόμα και στην εκπαίδευση. Αυτή η αντίληψη για τον χώρο η οποία σήμερα φαίνεται αυτονόητη, αποτελεί την κατάληξη μιας μακράς ιστορικής εξέλιξης, την οποία θα προσπαθήσουμε να σκιαγραφήσουμε. Στόχος μας είναι να παρουσιάσουμε συνοπτικά την εννοιολογική πορεία των προτύπων σχετικά με τον φυσικό χώρο από την αρχαιότητα μέχρι τον 20ο αιώνα, εστιάζοντας στις θεωρίες και τα μοντέλα που επιδέχονται μαθηματικοποίηση. Ταυτόχρονα επιχειρούμε να αναδείξουμε μια από τις σημαντικότερες αφετηρίες των γεωμετρικών εννοιών, που είναι η ανάγκη μαθηματικής μοντελοποίησης του φυσικού χώρου, καθώς στη σύγχρονη εκπαίδευση απουσιάζει μια τέτοια θεώρηση.
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