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The Enterprising university: reform, excellence and equity
Abstract
Incl. bibl., index.
... Academic entrepreneurialism thus concerns the generation of activities that define and establish a clear institutional profile (although these actions may "need to be financed in an innovative way", and that profile can be born in response to the "identifiable and specific market needs", Shattock and Temple 2006: 1-2). The enterprising university, as theorized by Gareth Williams (2003), is a useful generic name describing a multitude of changes occurring in the mission, management and funding that a number of Euro-pean universities have been undergoing for twenty years (Williams and Kitaev 2005: 126). Williams describes relationships between entrepreneurialism (including: academic entrepreneurialism), innovation, risk and financial dimension of functioning of the institution as follows: ...
... Universities are institutions that advance their reputations and their wealth by creating and disseminating knowledge. If the innovations that they make and the risks that they take accelerate useful knowledge creation and its transfer into social and economic practice, their entrepreneurialism contributes to a knowledge-based society (Williams 2009: 9; "risktaking" became a crucial element of academic entrepreneurialism for the first time in Williams 2003). ...
... Academic entrepreneurialism involves risk-taking (Shattock 2003, Williams 2003, Williams 2009). In most case studies from the European research literature available, institutions have to deal with a high level of risks on a daily basis; in private institutions, the major risk studied is a financial one, related to student number figures (and student fees). ...
The major question of this paper is as follows: how do Polish-German transborder universities respond to the challenges of changing social and economic environments and to what extent they are able to determine their futures? The analysis of academic entrepreneurialism of the Viadrina University in Frankfurt am Oder (Germany) and the Collegium Polonicum, a satellite part of Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan (Poland), is based on Burton Clark's classic formulations of the five major components of the entrepreneurial university. While in the beginning, a close transborder cooperation between the two institutions was assumed, followed by more relaxed cooperation in the 2000s, currently a new impetuses can be found to cooperate closer in both teaching and research. Institutional change processes linked to academic entrepreneurialism are usually long-term and embedded in institutional cultures, values and norms. Their directions cannot be taken for granted, not only at the level of planning but also, perhaps especially, at the level of implementation, though.
... Podejmowanie ryzyka prestiżowego i finansowego poprzez poszukiwanie dodatkowych źródeł finansowania to jeden z głównych elementów przedsiębiorczości akademickiej (zob. Kwiek 2008b, Kwiek 2008c, Shattock 2000, Shattock 2003, Shattock 2005, Shattock 2008, Williams 2004b, Breneman 2005, o której traktują rozdział 3 i rozdział 4. Kiedy w instytucjach edukacyjnych może pojawić ________________ EU Forum for University Business Dialogue" (EC 2009a, EC 2009b. Nowe cele i zadania szkolnictwa wyższego są tam podsumowane w sześciu głównych tematach: (1) Nowe programy nauczania sprzyjające zwiększaniu szans na rynku pracy (między innymi włączanie do programów nauczania umiejętności przekrojowych, podstaw ekonomii i techniki), (2) rozwijanie przedsiębiorczości (między innymi regularny przepływ studentów i wykładowców z uczelni do przedsiębiorstw oraz stała obecność przedsiębiorców w środowisku akademickim), (3) transfer wiedzy: praktyczne wykorzystanie wiedzy, (4) mobilność -międzynarodowa oraz pomiędzy biznesem a środowiskiem akademickim, (5) otwarcie uczelni na kształcenie przez całe życie (wymaga bliskich kontaktów pomiędzy uczelniami a przedsiębiorstwami) oraz (6) lepsze zarządzanie uczelniami (pożądane zmiany w prawodawstwie, strukturach zachęt i regulacjach dotyczących finansowania, które powinny sprzyjać współpracy z biznesem). ...
... Po drugie, pytanie o przedsiębiorczość akademicką i "kapitalizm akademicki" jako sposoby na stopniowe przyszłe dywersyfikowanie przychodów uczelni i wzmacnianie podstaw finansowych instytucji edukacyjnych (czyli academic entrepreneurialism -przedsiębiorczość akademicką, zob. Shattock 2008, Shattock 2005, Shattock and Temple 2006, Clark 2008, Williams 2004b, Kwiek 2008a. Po trzecie, pytanie o aktualnie przeprowadzane (lub publicznie dyskutowane) reformy całego sektora usług publicznych oraz, szerzej, potencjalne przeformułowywanie podstaw funkcjonowania europejskich państw dobrobytu i europejskiego modelu społecznego (w różnych wersjach, na przykład poprzez stopniową prywatyzację niektórych usług publicznych, zwłaszcza w nowych krajach unijnych, zob. ...
... Być może najważniejsze (i najbardziej pocieszające) w tym kontekście jest zjawisko historyczne pokazujące, że uniwersytety to instytucje posiadające potężne zdolności adaptacyjne, które doskonale sobie radzą w ciągle zmieniających się okolicznościach historycznych (zob. zarówno adaptacje instytucji uniwersytetu nowożytnego, dziewiętnastowiecznego, jak i dwudziestowiecznego) 119 Shattock 2003, Marginson and Considine 2000, Williams 2004b, Sporn 1999, Tierney 1998, Clark 1998, Slaughter and Leslie 1997, Slaughter and Rhoades 2004. Instytucje przedsiębiorcze, jak się wydaje, będą niemal naturalnym punktem odniesienia zarówno w krajowych dyskusjach na temat reformowania systemu edukacji, a szczególnie jego finansowania, jak i w unijnych dyskusjach na temat zabezpieczenia zrównoważonego rozwoju uniwersytetów w sytuacji pogłębiania się nieprzyjaznego otoczenia finansowego i potężnej konkurencji międzysektorowej z innymi usługami publicznymi finansowanymi przez państwo. ...
Podziękowania .Wstęp: funkcjonowanie Uniwersytetu w XXI w. jako interdyscyplinarne wyzwanie dla polityki publicznej . Nowe konteksty funkcjonowania, nowe konteksty badań . Permanentnie reformowany uniwersytet: kluczowe motywy dyskusji . Pytania badawcze: pierwsze przybliżenie . ROZDZIAŁ I. Uniwersytet w 2020 r.: trendy i próba prognozy . 1. Wprowadzenie 2. Rosnący stopień komplikacji przedsięwzięcia akademickiego 3. Mechanizmy rynkowe i nowe wzorce generowania uczelnianych przychodów 4. Nowi interesariusze uniwersytetu a związki kształcenie/badania naukowe 5. Nowe wyzwanie: sprzeczne wymagania wobec kadry akademickiej . 6. Wartości akademickie a nowe zadania uniwersytetów
7. Wnioski
ROZDZIAŁ II. Uniwersytet a globalne reformy sektora publicznego
1. Wprowadzenie .
2. Pañstwo dobrobytu, globalizacja i publiczne finansowanie szkolnictwa
wy¿szego . 3. Globalizacja a sektor publiczny .
4. Kondycja fiskalna państwa, szkolnictwo wyższe i inne usługi publiczne
5. Otwarta gospodarka, polityka zaciskania pasa i procesy prywatyzacji
szkolnictwa wyższego 6. Wnioski ROZDZIAŁ III. Przedsiębiorczość akademicka i nowy model funkcjonowania
uniwersytetu w europie (transformacje struktur zarządzania)
1. Wprowadzenie
2. Zarządzanie uniwersytetami i ich ustrój a przyszła rola uniwersytetów:
wizja Komisji Europejskiej
3. Przedsiębiorczość akademicka a zarządzanie ryzykiem
4. Kolizja wartości akademickich i wartości menadżerskich
5. Przedsiębiorczość akademicka a akademicka kolegialność
6. Przedsiębiorczość akademicka a centralizacja i decentralizacja władzy
uczelnianej .
7. Rozkład przedsiębiorczości akademickiej w ramach instytucji edukacyjnych
8. Wnioski .
ROZDZIAŁ IV. Podstawowe wymiary przedsiębiorczości akademickiej .
1. Wprowadzenie
2. Zdywersyfikowana podstawa finansowa uczelni przedsiębiorczych:
w poszukiwaniu nowych źródeł dochodu
4. Wzmocniony rdzeń zarządzania uniwersytetów przedsiębiorczych
5. Poszerzone peryferie rozwojowe uniwersytetów przedsiębiorczych
6. Tradycyjny rdzeń akademicki, czyli academic heartland
7. Kultura przedsiębiorczości
8. Szansa dla przedsiębiorczości akademickiej: regionalna misja uniwersytetu
9. Wnioski .
ROZDZIAŁ V. Dostępność szkolnictwa wyższego i rola rynku w edukacji
w kontekście transformacji ustrojowych
1. Wprowadzenie .
2. Równość szans w dostępie do edukacji na wyższym poziomie .
3. Szkolnictwo prywatne w krajach transformacji ustrojowej i jego legitymizacja
społeczna
4. Wnioski ROZDZIAŁ VI. Uniwersytet i państwo na przełomie wieku
1. Wprowadzenie
2. Nowoczesny uniwersytet i państwo dobrobytu
3. Nowoczesny uniwersytet i nowoczesne państwo narodowe
4. Wnioski
Appendix: polskie szkolnictwo wyższe a transformacje uniwersytetów
w Europie .
Literatura .
Nota biograficzna .
... L'évolution des relations entre l'enseignement supérieur et l'état, dans des conditions d'austérité fiscale (voir Kwiek, 2006a), ont guidé les choix de politique dans l'enseignement et ont fourni un raisonnement au-delà du changement des lois vers davantage d'entrepreneuriat universitaire, plus d'autonomie financière des institutions publiques et plus de financement privé de l'enseignement supérieur. Les revenus publics ont été trop faibles pour répondre aux besoins des systèmes publics en pleine expansion et en manque de financement (voir Williams, 2003;Shattock, 2004Shattock, , 2005, et les systèmes ont « répondu avec austérité » à travers un « partage des frais » partiel -comme en Pologne, en Russie et en Ukraine -(voir Johnstone et Bain, 2001;Johnstone, 2003). ...
... polonais, voir Golinowska, 2002 ;Gomulka, 2000 ;Orenstein et Haas, 2002) ; la croissance de l'enseignement supérieur privé guidé par la demande à une échelle mondiale et dans les pays en transition (Levy, 2004;Slantcheva et Levy, 2007 ; publications du PROPHE et bases de données de Daniel C. Levy) ; le thème « d'entrepreneuriat universitaire », dans une perspective à la fois mondiale et axée sur les pays en transition (par ex. Slaughter et Leslie, 1997;Shattock, 2003Shattock, , 2004Shattock, , 2005Williams, 2003 ;OCDE, 2005) ; La documentation générale sur les transformations de l'enseignement supérieur dans les pays en transition par la Banque mondiale (1999, 2000a, 2000b, 2004), l'OCDE (en particulier Analyses thématiques de pays en transitions spécifiques) et la Commission européenne; la documentation sur l'accès et l'équité dans la plupart des perspectives nationales. ...
... University Technology Transfer (UTT), however, mentioned by Dill (1995), who tried to elaborate the university research capitalization. Others, such as Ropke (1998), Ryu (1998), Subotzky (1999, Schmoch (1999), Sporn (1999Sporn ( , 2001, Poole (2001), Kirby (2002Kirby ( , 2005, Etzkowitz (2003Etzkowitz ( , 2004, Williams (2003), Zhao (2004), O'Shea et al. (2005), O'Shea et al. (2008, Guerrero et al. (2006), Rothaermel et al. (2007), Guerrero and Urbano (2010), and Salamzadeh et al. (2011) tried to deal with the concept of entrepreneurial university and hopefully a rich literature is available about the matter in question. Ropke (1998) interprets it as one of these three things: the university as an entrepreneur organization, the members are turning into entrepreneurs in it, and an entrepreneurial pattern in its relation with environment. ...
... Then, in 2005, he identifies seven strategic actions to promote entrepreneurship (Kirby, 2005). Commercialization of university research and its promotion was studied by Zhao (2004) and Williams (2003). Some scholars such as O'Shea et al. (2005) concentrated on spin-offs and examined that why some universities are more successful in running this kind of firms (O'Shea et al., 2005). ...
Purpose - The main purpose of this paper is to define and measure entrepreneurial universities in Iranian context. Also, authors have tried to propose a comprehensive model with detailed components in order to elaborate the concept.Design/methodology/approach - In this research we first analyzed the existing entrepreneurial university models (i.e. Salamzadeh et al., 2011; Guerrero et al., 2006) in focus group sessions. The result of this analysis was main dimensions of our model, which will be presented in the next parts of this paper. The proposed model is best suited to Iranian context and experts have approved its validity. Then, the importance of each dimension was determined by experts and compared with current performance, in order to investigate the applicability of each dimension. Hence, Importance-Performance charts were provided to elaborate the research results. These charts could be used to make policies. Also, in order to provide a better understanding of the entrepreneurial university dimensions in Iran, we used TOPSIS to prioritize the elements in each dimension of the model.Findings - Through this study, a comprehensive model was proposed which includes 9 building blocks (i.e. formal, informal, and internal inputs; formal, informal, and internal processes; and formal, informal, and internal outputs). Then, a measurement and investigation is done using Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA) and TOPSIS methods. The result of our study is a set of building blocks of entrepreneurial universities, which include a number of prioritized variables.Practical implications - The results of this study could be useful for academics, scholars and policy makers. Scholars and academics may take advantage of the proposed model to better understand and define an entrepreneurial university, while policy makers might pay attention to the results of the IPA and prioritized variables, in order to devise better policies and pave the way for universities to become more and more entrepreneurial.Originality/value - This study could be useful in two ways. Practically, it could be used as a basis to understand and measure entrepreneurial universities. Theoretically, it offers a model with 9 building blocks, which internally and externally investigates the entrepreneurial universities. This view is somewhat different from the existing models in the literature.
... The institutional approach presents a variation of the previous functional concept, defining EnUs as HEIs, natural incubators, or organizations with a delineation of constituent elements (Clark, 1998;Röpke, 1998;Jacob et al., 2003;Williams, 2003;Etzkowitz, 2003a;Kalenyuk and Dyachenko, 2016;Bizri et al., 2019;Konstantynov and Fylonovych, 2007;Romanovskyi, 2011). However, this interpretation of EnU's nature risks lapsing into a tautology as it essentially defines a university as a university. ...
This study investigates the essence and characteristics of entrepreneurial universities during wartime in Ukraine by applying theoretical abstraction and expert survey methods. A statistical analysis of hypotheses reveals a positive impact of the entrepreneurial model on university innovativeness. The research highlights a notable deficiency in understanding the forms and methods of business-university collaboration, constituting a significant hindrance. Factor analysis discloses three operating mechanisms for entrepreneurial universities based on internal, external, or combined resource orientation. A cluster of Ukrainian HEIs closely aligned with the entrepreneurial model is discerned, encompassing KNU Shevchenko, Kyiv and Lviv Polytechnic, Sumy National, and Ukrainian Catholic Universities. The study determines the most auspicious avenues of cooperation between businesses and HEIs. Hypothesis testing with regards to critical university activities during wartime underscores the importance of retaining students, professors, and other higher education staff and provides financial support for their activities. Financing HEIs during wartime involves state support, revenues from educational services, and grants. The study findings can assist university management in selecting appropriate methods for implementing an entrepreneurial model during and after wartime. Public educational authorities could effectively deploy the proposed methodologies to scrutinize the efficacy of entrepreneurial models introduced by Ukrainian HEIs.
... Питання підприємницького університету та факторів його розвитку розкрито у наукових дослідженнях П. Друкера [1], Б. Кларка [2], Дж. Уїльямса [3], Дж. Ропке [4], Дж. ...
The article considers the need to generalize the external and internal prerequisites for transforming a higher education institution into an entrepreneurial organization. It is proved that entrepreneurship in the education system is the innovative activity of higher education institutions aimed at the formation and development of the educational potential of society based on the economic laws of the market. It is proved that in the education system, innovations are an instrument of entrepreneurial activity, and the adaptation of the educational complex to new economic conditions will allow attracting investment resources to this industry. The main trends that determine the need to transform domestic higher education institutions into entrepreneurial universities are substantiated, the main ones being a relative decrease in funding for educational institutions and fierce competition between higher education institutions for attracting both budgetary funds and additional funding. It is proved that the set of changes that occur in the process of implementing innovations make organizations open, flexible and responsive to changes in the external and internal environment, which pose new challenges to universities, the main of which is the intensification of resource use and the search for additional sources of funding. It is determined that one of the directions in the entrepreneurial activities of universities is franchising, which includes the widespread dissemination of innovative methods, teaching materials, books, electronic publications and bringing their own developments to the level of wide consumption. It is proved that one of the factors determining the transformation of higher education institutions into an entrepreneurial organization is a developed network of branches and representative offices of many large universities, which defines a university as a network organization, the level of development of which determines its business activity and helps to attract additional financial resources. It is substantiated that in modern conditions small business is the basis for building entrepreneurship at the university, which at the same time retains the potential for its own growth and development. It is proved that the combination of small innovative business and the functioning of the university as an entrepreneurial organization provides this structure with dynamic stability and development capability.
... Напрями та підходи щодо формування принципів функціонування підприємницького університету розкрито у наукових дослідженнях Г. Іцковця [1], Б. Кларка [2], Дж. Уїльямса [3], Дж. Ропке [4], Дж. ...
... The level of implementation of this third leg conditions the contribution of universities to socio-economic development. Entrepreneurial Universities promote the commercialization of the research results they generate (Jacob et al., 2003;Williams, 2003), seeking new sources of funding in order to encourage investment in university entrepreneurship (Yokohama, 2006). Moreover, the Entrepreneurial University is also characterized by the design of new spaces and services that facilitate the creation of companies based on technology and knowledge (Chrisman et al., 1995;Etzkowitz, 2003). ...
The Entrepreneurial University plays a central role in entrepreneurial ecosystems and actively influences the development of entrepreneurial human capital, which is a critical asset for many economies. There is thus a requirement for the identification and strengthening of entrepreneurial competences, but no previous studies have included any analysis of these competences in the university context using an approach based on profiles. The present study fills this gap by investigating the existence of different entrepreneurial profiles among students, based on their competences. It also defines key competences that are critical for differentiating between these profiles and improving entrepreneurial competence levels more generally. To meet these objectives, a field research campaign was developed. Data on 1104 students from various degrees and faculties were collected and analyzed using a quantitative methodological approach. The results reveal the existence of four entrepreneurial competence profiles, namely low profile, top profile, social profile, and grit profile. Among as many as 12 possible entrepreneurial competences, the most prominent can explain to a large extent the entrepreneurial profiles of students; these are networking and professional social skills, community engagement, perseverance of effort, and consistency of interest. The results provide evidence of the importance of social capital and grit. In addition to their contribution to the theory in this area and the development of the Entrepreneurial University paradigm, the results are also useful for the design of training strategies aimed at strengthening the levels of competence of students, thereby providing universities with tools to foster the creation of entrepreneurial human capital.
... Po pierwsze, pytanie o stopniowe wprowadzanie w życie opłat za studia (lub podwyższanie ich poziomu w krajach, w których opłaty te już funkcjonują) i pożyczek dla studentów (czyli cost-sharing, współodpłatność za studia jako zagadnienie dotykające zarazem problematyki dostępu do studiów, równości szans edukacyjnych, stratyfikacji społecznej oraz społecznej mobilności i społecznego statusu; vide Teixeira et al., 2006;Johnstone, 2006;Kwiek, 2009a). Po drugie, pytanie o przedsiębiorczość akademicką i "kapitalizm akademicki" jako sposoby na przyszłe, stopniowe dywersyfikowanie przychodów uczelni i wzmacnianie podstaw finansowych instytucji edukacyjnych (czyli academic entrepreneurialism; vide Shattock, 2008Shattock, , 2005Shattock i Temple, 2006;Clark, 2008;Williams, 2003;Kwiek, 2008bKwiek, i 2008c. Po trzecie, pytanie o aktualnie przeprowadzane (lub publicznie dyskutowane) reformy całego sektora usług publicznych oraz, szerzej, potencjalne reformułowanie podstaw funkcjonowania europejskich państw dobrobytu i europejskiego modelu społecznego (w różnych wersjach, na przykład poprzez stopniową prywatyzację 1 Vide na przykład pierwsze zdanie siedmiusetstronicowego raportu OECD poświęconego roli szkolnictwa wyższego w społeczeństwie opartym na wiedzy (Tertiary Education for the Knowledge Society): "(…) szeroko podzielane przekonanie, że szkolnictwo wyższe jest głównym motorem konkurencyjności ekonomicznej w gospodarce globalnej, która w coraz większym stopniu opiera się na wiedzy, sprawia, że stojące na wysokim poziomie szkolnictwo wyższe jest dzisiaj ważniejsze niż kiedykolwiek przedtem". ...
Kluczowym punktem odniesienia dla prezentowanych tu roz-ważań o spodziewanych transformacjach instytucji uniwersytetu w najbliższej dekadzie będzie (stosunkowo ulotna) kategoria atrakcyj-ności uniwersytetu. To właśnie wokół niej, jak się wydaje, skupiają się najważniejsze wyzwania, przed którymi stają systemy i instytucje edukacyjne we wszystkich krajach europejskich. Struktura tego tekstu wygląda następująco: część pierwszą sta-nowi wprowadzenie, w części drugiej skoncentrujemy się krótko na atrakcyjności szkolnictwa wyższego w perspektywie rosnącej potrzeby jego permanentnej adaptacji do zmieniającej się rzeczywistości społecznej i (może przede wszystkim) ekonomicznej. Wskażemy, że profesja akademicka w najbliższej dekadzie znajdzie się w oku cyklonu, po-nieważ z jednej strony rośnie stopień komplikacji academic enterprise, czyli całości przedsięwzięcia akademickiego w społeczeństwach eu-ropejskich, z drugiej strony, przede wszystkim z racji umasowienia szkolnictwa wyższego, zmienia się rola jego dotychczasowych intere-sariuszy i coraz bardziej różnicują się ich oczekiwania. W części trzeciej zajmiemy się mechanizmami rynkowymi (czy może raczej quasi-rynkowymi) na uczelniach oraz nowymi wzorca-mi generowania uczelnianych przychodów.
... In general terms, we are experiencing the shattering of a stable world governed by modern institutional traditions, and in this context universities are increasingly expected to adapt to the changing social and economic realities (see Scott 1999, EC 2003b, OECD 2007a. In a European context, in light of a sustainable future of higher education systems, the following ideas are highly relevant: the introduction or increase of tuition fees and student loans (cost-sharing as an access, equity, social stratification, mobility, and status issue, see ; academic entrepreneurship and "academic capitalism" as ways to diversify institutions' funding basis (see Shattock 2005, Shattock and Temple 2006, Clark 1998, Williams 2003, Kwiek 2008b; the ongoing reformulations of the European welfare state and the European social model (privatization of some public services, especially in new EU member countries, see Deem 2007, Kwiek 2007a; and finally the revised EU social agenda and new supranational visions of higher education (see EC 2005a on the "Social Agenda" or a report on "The Future of Social Policy", and numerous recent World Bank and OECD publications on tertiary education). Educational strategies for 2010-2020 will need to take into account the complex nature of the academic enterprise today and the powerful role of traditions of the modern European university which may be acting both as inhibitors to changes and as their activators. ...
ABSTRACT This article focuses on the different senses of the attractiveness of European systems and institutions for students, academics, the labour market and the economy, drawing attention to
emergent tensions between different university stakeholders. Universities not only need to be attractive to increasingly differentiated student populations, but they also need to be attractive workplaces and provide attractive career opportunities for academics. Both public and private institutions are under multifaceted pressures to change today. At a time of imminent reformulation of current welfare state systems in most parts of Europe, attractive systems will be able to balance the negative financial impact of the gradual restructuring of the most generous types of welfare state regimes in Europe on public funding for higher education. Ironically, the more successful public
entrepreneurial universities are today, the greater the chances are of them following this entrepreneurial direction in the future. The promotion across Europe of a more substantial inflow of both private research funds and student fees can be expected. The possible redefinition of higher education from a public good to a private good is a tendency which may further undermine the idea of heavy public subsidization of higher education, as the economic rationale for higher education is changing. The expected developments may fundamentally alter relationships between university stakeholders, with the decreasing role of the state (especially in funding) and the increasing role of students and the labour market. The expected differentiation-related developments may alter the academic profession in general, and have a strong impact on the traditional relationships between teaching and research in European universities.
... It became more important in producing and commercialization of knowledge. In the other way, it became a seller of services to the knowledge industry (Williams, 2003). ...
The integration of entrepreneurship education has changed the role of the university by creating a bridge between university and industry. This combination also changed the structure of the university, their strategy and the orientation of the outcome learning from traditional learning practice to entrepreneurial learning practice. The public university is facing now the internationalization environment, especially with the privatization of the higher education sector. In addressing this research gap, this paper provides a case study of Algerian public universities. The authors use a qualitative interview with teachers implicated in the process of integration of entrepreneurship from intention to incubation. Thus, the paper offers insights into how the university enables actors to address the challenge of internal factors and external factors to help and facilitate the process of integration of entrepreneurship culture among university.
... There are also institutional or cultural frictions surrounding this third mission. Studies by Kirby [35] and Williams [36] found that university management and staff opposed placing an emphasis on entrepreneurialism, out of fear it would erode core academic values, "such as intellectual integrity, critical inquiry and commitment to learning and understanding" [36; p19]. Courses in entrepreneurship in higher education curricula have generally been limited to business administration programs, prompting organizations including the US' National Academy of Sciences and the European Commission to call for their expansion into technical and scientific programs [30]. ...
Despite many years of substantial government research funding, advanced bio-energy technologies in China have seen limited commercial application. Chinese policy makers are increasingly critical of academic organizations for neglecting their role in the transfer of scientific results into industrial applications. We interviewed a selection of Chinese research groups working on bio-energy technologies, and asked them to describe their efforts at commercialization. We found that they focus their research on technological pathways with commercial potential, they patent and attempt to license their technologies, they are highly involved in large scale demonstration plants, and have created a number of new firms. Industry and government may have unrealistic expectations on the maturity and scale of technologies that academia can develop, however. These findings contrast with many earlier analyses of early commercialization stages of novel technologies, which have commonly identified lacking academic entrepreneurship as a root cause in stalling development.
... It should be noted that there are a plenty of papers dedicated to the study of educational management as a science. Having analyzed the works of British (Bush, 2008;William, 2003), American (Mintzberg, 1994), German (Decker, 1995;Graumann, 2004), Ukrainian (Demchuk, 2007) and Russian (Ivanov et al., 2010) researchers, we may state that this notion is used in different field of study: pedagogics, psychology, economics, marketing and legal studies. However, traditionally educational management is defined as "a process and system of running a higher education institution aimed at providing its competitiveness at the internal and external market of educational services due to the quality of educational process and preparation of specialists, high level of professional knowledge, skills and abilities, fundamental social positioning and high moral character" (Graumann, 2004). ...
... However, the very term "entrepreneurial" (popularized in higher education research fi rst by Clark (1998 ) is not of critical importance; in recent research literature on university management and governance, "entrepreneurial" universities can also be termed "successful universities" and "self-reliant universities" (Michael Shattock), "enterprise universities" (Simon Marginson and Mark Considine), "enterprising universities" (Gareth Williams), "innovative universities" (Burton Clark), "adaptive universities" (Barbara Sporn) or "responsive universities" (William G. Tierney; see Shattock 2003Shattock , 2006Shattock , 2009aMarginson and Considine 2000 ;Williams 2004b ;Sporn 1999 ;Tierney 1998 ). The authors from various perspectives refer to parallel change processes taking place in Europe and beyond, especially in the USA and Australia. ...
In this paper, I focus on a phenomenon widely discussed in European higher education research and policy communities, emergent in various geographical locations across the continent: academic entrepreneurialism – especially with regard to university governance and management. Entrepreneurial universities seem to be increasingly important points of reference for international and European-level policy discussions about the future of higher education and I combine theoretical insights about “academic entrepreneurialism” with recent empirical evidence coming from 27 universities located in seven European countries. The league of entrepreneurial universities in Europe seems still relatively small. In recent years, though, the term has been widely popularized in research and policy literature in higher education, with a bulk of books and papers referring often to Burton Clark (in the tradition of higher education research) and Henry Etzkowitz (in the tradition of innovation and science policy studies). Entrepreneurial universities, functionally similar although variously termed in different research traditions and different national contexts, currently seem a useful reference point in discussions about reforming higher education systems; and especially in discussions about a possible shift in financing higher education in Europe towards more financial self-reliance and in EU-level and OECD-level discussions about how to secure sustainable development of public universities in increasingly competitive financial environment with powerful inter-sectoral competition for public funding between higher education and other state-funded public services.
... Internal Weighing & Measuring addresses external stakeholder ideals of Quality, which has inspired a huge corpus of fractious scholarly writings. Some view quality assessment as necessary for insuring accountability and for improving HE (Narasimhan 1997 ;Saraiva et al. 2003 ;Williams 2003 ;Anyamele 2005 ). Others decry it as yet another an example of how a neoliberalist political philosophy has curtailed academic freedom, eroded the democratic ideals of Western HE and impoverished the diversity of academic practice (Salter and Tapper 2000 ;Shore and Wright 2004 ;Anderson 2006a ;Hoecht 2006 ). ...
The vital lynchpin holding together multiple concerns and agendas that often pull in different directions, and tasked with maintaining EAP Units as SPUs, Blended EAP Professionals (BLEAPs) are an understudied aspect of modern developments in English for Academic Purposes. This chapter surveys a number of key theoretical aspects related to BLEAPs. Drawing from multiple scholarly sources and collected qualitative data, attention will be given to their uncertain professional identities, common strategies, and typical trajectories of those who are striving to survive in the Third Spaces of their HEIs.
... Some commentators see these changes as a form of corruption of academic values (Bok, 2003;Giroux, 2002;Williams, 2003). However, for me, these reforms in university financing and structure mean a change of the relationship among university, business and industry, and therefore have formed a new front for accountability. ...
This chapter introduces key theories underpinning the changing environment in which university rankings have emerged. These theories focus on the global trends toward cross border activities in higher education, the effects of neoliberalism on higher education, the emergence of heterarchical governance in higher education, the relationship between stakeholders in higher education, and the global landscape of higher education. It also delineates the definitions and characteristics of university rankings. This is followed by a literature review on definitions and characteristics of university rankings. In particular, this part introduces the attributes of major global ranking systems. In the light of these theoretical elements, the chapter illustrates a ranking phenomenon in higher education, and outlines a four-dimensional analytical framework in which university rankings are viewed as technologies or concepts from an ecological or a geographical perspective. Based on these four dimensions, the book tries to examine the ranking phenomenon in Taiwan’s higher education, beginning with presumptions that consider rankings as a technology, then turning to the theoretical lens that conceptualise rankings with a focus on power relations in higher education.
... Po okresie dominacji egalitarnych idei, których uosobieniem był masowy model szkolnictwa wyższego, nastąpiło przechylenie w stronę procesu urynkowienia zakorzenionego w zyskującej ogromne wpływy ekonomicznej teorii racjonalnego wyboru (Downs 1957). W jej wyniku polityce publicznej wobec szkolnictwa wyższego nadano ewaluacyjny kształt (Neave 1988), zaś jej odbiciem na poziomie instytucjonalnym stał się uniwersytet przedsiębiorczy (Clark 1998;Williams 2003). ...
The aim of the paper is to explore the use of the new institutional perspective in the research of transformation of the Polish higher education. The paper viewpoint is that world society exercises massive influence on national systems of higher education and they tend to evolve into system convergence. This process is particularly well observed in countries like Poland that after decades of isolation became widely exposed to transnational trends which in the past had shaped higher education systems in western countries. The paper tries to demonstrate that a) the Polish higher education system creates a unique opportunity for neo-institutional theory to be critically tested in situation of rapid, spontaneous and dynamic changes that is taking place in the country of long and well-established academic tradition as well as a strong position of the academic community; b) the paper also makes a methodological claim by stating that any analysis that aspire to understand current discussions, conflicts and developments in the Polish higher education cannot ignore its past legacy. To contrary, they need to take seriously into account well institutionalized academic institutions, customs and habits that helped academics to keep universities going under undemocratic conditions.
... Privatization and marketization processes can change the very nature of educational institutions, apart from having a direct impact on their financial situation. Williams (2003, p. 6) asked in the con text of 'enterprising universities' emergent in Anglo-Saxon countries at the end of last century: 'when does a new stimulant become so powerful, or so addictive, that the organism itself changes its nature? If it does, is the change evolution or decay' and to what extent, is 'an enterprising "operational mode " beginning to dictate the valuedriven "normative mode" of universities?' Changes in funding modes may thus introduce changes in core university values, and, therefore, the increasing cross-sectorial competition for resources is more than merely a change in Becher and Kogan's (1992) 'opera tional mode' of universities. ...
The chapter focuses on the increasing cross–sectoral competition for public resources between various types of public sector institutions in Europe and its implications for future public funding for both higher education and academic research. It views the major models of the institution of the modern (Continental) university and the major types of the modern institution of the state, and of the welfare state in particular, as traditionally closely linked (following Kogan et al., 2000; Kogan and Hanney, 2000; Becher and Kogan, 1992). Historically, in the post–war period in Europe, the unprecedented growth of welfare states and state–funded public services was paralleled by the unprecedented growth of public universities. The massification of higher education in Europe coincided with the growth of the welfare state in general. We are witnessing massification processes in higher education and far–reaching restructuring processes of welfare states. The major implication is the fierce competition for public resources, studied in this chapter from a cross–sectoral perspective, in which the future levels of public funding for higher education in tax–based European systems are highly dependent on social attitudes towards what higher education brings to society and the economy, relative to what other claimants to the public purse can bring to them.
... Internal Weighing & Measuring addresses external stakeholder ideals of Quality, which has inspired a huge corpus of fractious scholarly writings. Some view quality assessment as necessary for insuring accountability and for improving HE (Narasimhan 1997 ; Saraiva et al. 2003 ; Williams 2003 ; Anyamele 2005 ). Others decry it as yet another an example of how a neoliberalist political philosophy has curtailed academic freedom, eroded the democratic ideals of Western HE and impoverished the diversity of academic practice (Salter BLEAP informants frequently spoke of wanting to assess the quality of their programs and teachers through 'benchmarking', that is, by 'identifying processes and results that represent best practices and performance for similar activities, inside or outside the academic community' ( MQA Education Criteria for Performance Excellence 2006 , p. 23). ...
The critical grounded theory presented in this book offers valuable insights on the social processes and strategies used by Blended English for Academic Purposes Professionals (BLEAPs) at higher education institutions, as they struggle to negotiate the challenges arising from a new focus on recruiting international students and hunting for other resources for their universities. Drawing from in-depth interviews with numerous research participants at over eleven higher educational institutions in the UK, Japan and the United States, this work focuses on those who have been precariously placed as middle manager at many EAP and TESOL programs. Lacking in both positional power or permanence, these 'BLEAPs' are faced with many challenges as they seek to understand their changing role in higher educational institutions, and engage in strategies that can help them gain greater control over issues in their profession.
... Higher education quasi-markets emerged, first in England and later on in the Continental Europe. " Academic entrepreneurialism " , or seeking non-core non-state income through risk-taking activities, became an important part of the higher education landscape, as various recent empirical studies show (Williams 2004, Williams 2009, Shattock 2009, Kwiek 2013). The " enterepreneurial university " became a topic for both academics (seeIn this way, the university in the European context, basically without any large-scale public and academic debates about its fundamental principles, seems to be opening a new chapter in its history. ...
Europe is witnessing general attempts at a reformulation of the post-war social contract which gave rise to the welfare state as we know it (with public higher education as we know it). I argue here for a strong thesis according to which Europe is facing the simultaneous renegotiation of the postwar social contract concerning the welfare state and the accompanying renegotiation of a smaller-scale, by comparison, modern social pact between the university and the nation-state. The renegotiation of the (nation) state/university pact is not clear outside of the context of the changing welfare state contract, as state-funded higher education formed one of the bedrocks of the European welfare system in its major forms, and
state-funded higher education remains one of its foundations. I am following here Stephan Leibfried and colleagues who argue that “competitive pressure to lower tax rates undermines the state’s resources and has the potential to unleash financial crises that, in turn, trigger cuts in welfare spending” (Hurrelmann et al. 2007: 7). Consequently, what they term “the golden-age constellation” of the four components of the state (the territorial state, the constitutional state, the democratic welfare state and the interventionist state) is currently threatened: “different state functions are threatened to a greater or lesser degree, and subjected to pressures for internationalization of varying intensity” (Hurrelmann et al. 2007: 9). I argue here that higher education policies, and especially public funding for universities, are one of the dimensions of the “golden-age constellation” under renegotiations in Europe today: they come under the “interventionist
state” and its functions in Leibfried’s formulation.
... Since then, the number of studies in the field has increased and the conceptualisations of the enterprise university or the entrepreneurial university have been further elaborated and applied to studying changes in the organisation of universities (e.g. Clark 2004;Etzkowitz et al. 2000;Jacob et al. 2003;Marginson & Considine 2000;Shattock 2005;Williams 2003;Williams & Kitakaev 2005). ...
... Entrepreneurial universities seek to become ''stand-up'' universities that are significant actors on their own terms. Institutional entrepreneurship can be seen as both a process and outcome.' (Clark, 1998, pp 3-4) Previous studies set out to define the entrepreneurial university and explain more specifically the mechanisms and emergent structures of its development (Etzkowitz, 2004;Etzkowitz et al, 2000;Guerrero and Urbano, 2012;Kirby, 2006;Nelles and Vorley, 2010a;Nelles and Vorley, 2010b;Williams, G.L., 2003). Despite variations in the framing of the entrepreneurial university, many of the studies reviewed refer to five core elements, highlighted by Clark (1998): 'a strengthened steering core, an enhanced development periphery, a discretionary funding base, a stimulated academic heartland and entrepreneurial belief'. ...
This paper examines the evolution of the entrepreneurial function of Russia's leading universities: the study is based on a conceptualization of a university's entrepreneurial development pathway developed by the OECD in 2009. The data on entrepreneurship development were collected in 2012 through a survey of technology transfer and innovation development managers of 18 National Research Universities. The primary data were complemented by desktop analysis of the strategy development documents of the universities surveyed. The results suggest that in the period studied, 2008–2012, a new type of university, the entrepreneurial university, has emerged in Russia. However, these entrepreneurial universities are facing serious challenges in the implementation of an entrepreneurial, innovation-oriented mission due to the lack of managerial competencies and inadequate infrastructure development. The paper has significant theoretical and practical implications in shedding light on the development of the entrepreneurial university in Russia, where the process is still in its infancy. The authors depict a trajectory of entrepreneurial transformation in and barriers to this process that, it is argued, university executives and policy makers should take into consideration.
У статті розглянуто інноваційну екосистему у вищій освіті як динамічний простір для інтеграції знань та креативних рішень. Проаналізовано еволюцію від концепції бізнес-екосистеми Мура до сучасних інноваційних моделей, висвітлено перетворення університетів на ключові інститути економічного зростання в суспільствах, заснованих на знаннях. Вивчено основні аспекти впливу інноваційних екосистем на підприємницькі університети, включаючи розвиток інфраструктури, комерціалізацію досліджень та бізнес-партнерство. Обґрунтовано ключові виклики на шляху розвитку інноваційних екосистем у освітніх закладах, такі як законодавчі прогалини, обмежене фінансування та недостатня інтеграція з європейськими інноваційними мережами. Запропоновано шляхи вирішення цих проблем через системне впровадження інноваційної політики, підтримку малих інноваційних підприємств та належне фінансування наукових досліджень. Підкреслено вирішальну роль інноваційних екосистем вищої освіти у забезпеченні сталого розвитку в умовах глобальних викликів через ефективну інтеграцію інновацій у різні соціальні сфери.
Prior research has demonstrated the value of an entrepreneurial mindset in business. The so-called third mission is also becoming an increasingly important aspect of university operations. This involves leveraging knowledge generated at the university level to create close links with society and the economy. The role of intrapreneurs has been examined in the corporate, for-profit sector. However, these agents of change also play a significant role in the advancement of entrepreneurial universities. The present research investigates the role of intrapreneurs in entrepreneurial universities through a bibliographic analysis using RStudio biblioshiny on the Scopus and Web of Science databases. It is evident that the literature on this subject has gained interest in recent years, yet the number of documents remains limited, with a small number of authors publishing them. The development of keywords is also notable, including the emergence of sustainability, which is linked to intrapreneurs and the entrepreneurial universities. Although this study has its limitations, it can show how and where authors should publish, what the basic and the emerging topics are, what the most important keywords are and how these are connected and how countries cooperate in searching for solutions in this globally recognized research area.
The world trend of entrepreneurship development has not passed over Ukraine and is increasing its significance with the participation of universities. The research studies entrepreneurial universities and their role in the region and the country’s economy. The research demonstrates that there is no standardized approach to defining an entrepreneurial university and its main characteristics. Given the above, we have defined the meaning of an entrepreneurial university based on the methodology, including its role in the country. The rankings of the leading universities in Ukraine were analyzed so that the mutual features could be set. The research has proved the main hypotheses about the effectiveness of the implementation of the entrepreneurial universities model based on the indexes and rankings, which estimate their academic, research, and publishing activity. Based on the research results, some universities in Ukraine were defined as the ones whose functioning model is close to that of an entrepreneurial university. Three leading Ukrainian universities were assessed using the main criteria of their financial activity, competitiveness, and the sector’s attractiveness. Based on SPACE-analysis, development strategies for domestic entrepreneurial universities were determined. As a result, the practices should ensure innovation implementation, contribute to higher education and secure competitive positions.
Objective: This article explores entrepreneurial leadership behavior from the vantage point of mid- and senior-level administrators who lead international education initiatives at U.S. community colleges. Administrators’ choices are examined to understand how they develop and use strategies for targeted problem solving within their institutional context. Research questions posed in this study include: (1) How, if at all, do community college international education leaders (CC-IELs) self-identify as entrepreneurs? (2) What characteristics embody a CC-IEL entrepreneurial leader? (3) How are CC-IELs navigators of institutional contexts? Methods: Semi-structured interviews are used to investigate the perspectives and entrepreneurial leadership skills and behaviors of 14 CC-IELs. A narrative analysis approach allowed these leaders to reflect on their perspectives and narrate their decision-making process. Results: Findings indicated that the CC-IELs in this study identified as entrepreneurial leaders, used characteristics such as collaboration to build a culture of innovation, and strategically utilized relationships with stakeholders to ground themselves as navigators of institutional contexts. Contributions: This article contributes to the understanding of an under-studied group of leaders in community colleges, specifically those who lead international education programs. It also provides insight into the entrepreneurial dimensions of CC-IEL leadership roles.
Este trabalho apresenta uma análise do desenvolvimento recente de uma parte do ensino superior na Finlândia. Seu objetivo é analisar como as politécnicas finlandesas reagiram às novas exigências para que se tornassem responsivas às necessidades regionais e como elas construíram as competências necessárias para esse engajamento regional. O quadro de referência teórica central são os elementos de mudança institucional descritos por Burton Clark (1998) em sua análise sobre as universidades empreendedoras. Em particular, o artigo focaliza os canais e interfaces que essas instituições estabeleceram com outros atores no âmbito regional. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Finlândia, ensino superior, desenvolvimento regional, Politécnicas, empreendedorismo acadêmico. THE ANSWER OF THE FINNISH POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL TO THE CHALLENGES O OF INOVATION AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT POLICIES Anu Lyytinen Seppo Hölttä This paper presents an analysis of the recent development of a part of the higher education in Finland. Its objective is to analyse how Finnish polytechnic school reacted to the new requirements to become responsive to regional needs and how they build up the necessary abilities to this regional engagement. The central theoretical framework are the institutional changing elements described by Burton Clark (1998) on his analysis about entrepreneurial universities. In particular the article focus on the channels and interfaces that those institutions have established with other players in the region. KEY WORDS: Finland, higher education, regional development, polytechnic school, academic entrepreneurship. LA RÉPONSE DES ÉCOLES POLITECHNIQUES FINLANDAISES AUX DÉFIS DES POLITIQUES D’INNOVATION ET DE DÉVELOPPEMENT RÉGIONAL Anu Lyytinen Seppo Hölttä L’objectif de l’analyse du développement récent d’une partie de l’enseignement supérieur en Finlande, présenté dans ce travail, est de voir comment les écoles polytechniques finlandaises ont réagi aux nouvelles exigences afin de répondre aux besoins régionaux d’une part, et comment elles ont construit les compétences exigées par cet engagement régional d’autre part. Les éléments de changement institutionnel décrits par Burton Clark (1998) dans son analyse des universités entreprenariales constituent la base théorique essentielle de cette recherche. L’article se concentre tout particulièrement sur les réseaux et les interfaces que ces institutions ont établi avec les autres acteurs régionaux. MOTS-CLÉS: Finlande, enseignement supérieur, développement régional, écoles politechniques, entreprenariat académique. Publicação Online do Caderno CRH: http://www.cadernocrh.ufba.br Publicação Online do Caderno CRH no Scielo: http://www.scielo.br/ccrh
This chapter focuses on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the development of entrepreneurial universities and the provision of entrepreneurship education in Turkey. It does so via a 10.67 response rate questionnaire survey of all 206 universities in Turkey, conducted online in August 2020. The results revealed that those Turkish HEIs that responded (i) have a good understanding of what Entrepreneurial universities are and are in the transformation process, (ii) are involved in entrepreneurial activities to deal with the COVID-19 crisis, (iii) have or expect to have financial challenges as a result of the pandemic and believe that entrepreneurship is one of the key factors to survive in the market, and (iv) are fully supporting online education as a result of the COVID-19 crises, though much needs to be done to improve the current performance. Thus, this study addresses a critical gap in the body of understanding on the impact of the pandemic and suggests that it might be creating the conditions that will encourage Turkish universities to become more entrepreneurial. This has relevance for policymakers, university managers, entrepreneurship academics, and industry.
The guide is devoted to the consideration and analysis of the features of academic (university) entrepreneurship in the United States in the second half of the twentieth - early XXI century. The influence of higher education, economic, entrepreneurial and business education on the state and level of entrepreneurship in society and the national economic growth of countries is studied.
The essence of academic capitalism and university entrepreneurship is researched, concepts and causes of “academic capitalism” are analyzed, conceptual and methodological and practical foundations of innovative academic entrepreneurship in higher education are presented. The place of entrepreneurship in the modern society, the conceptual and methodological foundations of innovative entrepreneurship activity of HEI, ways of transformation of universities in the direction of entrepreneurship are studied. Basic concepts of the theory of university entrepreneurship are considered, definitions of the basic concepts of “entrepreneurial university” are given, definitions of its conceptual frameworks are given, the conceptual model of an entrepreneurial university, components of an entrepreneurial research university, its role in technology transfer and creation of new firms are
highlighted.
Foreign experience of formation and introduction of innovative entrepreneurial activity in the objects of higher education is presented, the system of knowledge formation is examined: the way from R & D to the implementation and commercialization of results, the
contribution of US research universities to the innovative development of the country, as well as state (budget) expenditures are analyzed. USA.
The manual is intended for use in economic, pedagogical, engineering and technical universities, institutes and colleges, as well as in the preparation of specialists in other HEI of Ukraine. It can be used to prepare bachelors, masters and postgraduate students in socio-economic, pedagogical and other humanities specialties in the study of such disciplines as: economics, entrepreneurship, management, marketing, pedagogy and psychology of higher education, history of foreign countries, philosophy of education, etc. It will also be useful for professionals in the field of education economics, high school, graduate students and academics.
Dlaczego w Europie pojawiają się publiczne uniwersytety przedsiębiorcze i czym się charakteryzują? Odpowiedzi na to pytanie postaramy się udzielić w drugiej części tekstu – prezentującej szerszy, politologiczno-socjologiczny kontekst zmian dotykających zarazem instytucji państwa i instytucji uniwersytetu. W ramach tego kontekstu bodaj najważniejszy byłby paradoks, zgodnie z którym im bardziej rośnie waga szkolnictwa wyższego i wiedzy naukowej dla konkurencyjności ekonomicznej państw i narodów, tym bardziej spada zdolność (i gotowość) rządów państw narodowych do ich dalszego pełnego finansowania. Tradycyjny kontrakt zawarty między (nowoczesnym) państwem i (nowoczesnym) uniwersytetem ulega zerwaniu w czasach, gdy redefinicji, pod wpływem m.in. procesów globalizacyjnych i demograficznych, podlegają zarazem obie nowoczesne instytucje. Trzecia część tekstu stara się krótko przedyskutować globalne trendy w finansowaniu uczelni publicznych w powiązaniu z reformami całego sektora publicznego i wskazać dwa rozwiązania analizowane w literaturze przedmiotu: academic entrepreneurship oraz cost-sharing (czyli idee przedsiębiorczości akademickiej oraz współodpłatności za studia). W skrócie, z perspektywy globalnej, koszty (masowego) szkolnictwa wyższego rosną radykalnie szybciej niż dostępne publiczne źródła finansowe. W części czwartej przechodzę do analizy przedsiębiorczości akademickiej instytucji publicznych i przywołuję jej pięć podstawowych wymiarów w klasycznych sformułowaniach Burtona Clarka: wzmocniony rdzeń zarządzania, poszerzone peryferia rozwojowe, zdywersyfikowaną podstawę finansową, stymulujący środek akademicki i zintegrowaną kulturę przedsiębiorczości. Natomiast w części piątej przypominam krótko, iż przedsiębiorczość uczelni w Europie jest również coraz częściej związana z ich nową, trzecią, regionalną misją (obok dwóch tradycyjnych misji: kształcenia i badań naukowych). I wreszcie w części piątej prezentuję prowizoryczne wnioski. Tekst za punkt wyjścia przyjmuje doświadczenia wyniesione przeze mnie z dwóch dużych, międzynarodowych projektów badawczych: unijnego EUEREK – European Universities for Entrepreneurship: Their Role in the Europe of Knowledge (prowadzonego w latach 2004-2007 w ramach 6 Programu Ramowego UE) oraz globalnego projektu Higher Education in the 21st Century: Equity and Access (prowadzonego w latach 2007-2008 w ramach programu New Century Scholars Fundacji Fulbrighta).
The integration of entrepreneurship education has changed the role of the university by creating a bridge between university and industry. The public university is facing now the internationalization environment, especially with the privatization of the higher education sector. Moreover, enhancing innovation and the entrepreneurial culture became the barrier entry for this public university. Unfortunately, this academic organization has to face new challenge instead to develop their position. The entrepreneurial ecosystem is a great opportunity to adopt a competitive behavior in the regional, national and international innovation system. In addressing this research gap, this paper provides a case study of Algerian public universities. The authors use a qualitative interview with facilitators implicated in the entrepreneurial ecosystem. Those had organized and animated the startup competition within the Algerian universities. Thus, the paper offers insights into how the university enables actors to address the challenge of internal factors and external factors to use the best pedagogical practices in teaching entrepreneurship and enhancing innovation culture.
In the contemporary knowledge-based global economy, universities are required to operate more entrepreneurially, commercializing the results of their research and spinning out new knowledge-based enterprises. In this article, the third in a series by the authors, case studies are presented of activities in three Egyptian universities to demonstrate what is being done in Egypt and the challenges Egyptian universities face when they attempt to collaborate with industry and contribute to the innovation process. The results reveal that such initiatives are often the result of external influences and are not embedded in the core strategic planning activity of the institutions in which they are located. Accordingly, they often have difficulty surviving after the initial project funding is ended, not least because the important partnership links with industry remain largely underdeveloped. The authors consider the implications of the findings for policy formulation and argue for a coherent strategy that embeds the ‘Third Mission’ in the core activities of each institution and facilitates university–industry collaboration.
The paper focuses on the increasing cross-sectoral competition for public resources between various types of public sector institutions in Europe and its implications for future public funding for both higher education and academic research. The major implication is the fierce competition for public resources, studied in this paper from a cross-sectoral perspective, in which the future levels of public funding for higher education in tax-based European systems are highly dependent on social attitudes towards what higher education brings to society and the economy, relative to what other claimants to the public purse can bring to them.
Celem prezentowanego tekstu jest zwrócenie uwagi na rosnącą rolę konkurencji między najważniejszymi elementami tradycyjnego europejskiego państwa dobrobytu, zwłaszcza konkurencji o środki publiczne. Uniwersytety europejskie w coraz mniejszym stopniu mogą liczyć na tradycyjne zaufanie, połączone z bezwarunkowym finansowaniem, w relacjach z państwem, a w coraz większym stopniu muszą liczyć się ze zmieniającym się nastawieniem społecznym, które z kolei pośrednio determinuje poziom wsparcia finansowego. Nowym elementem konkurencji międzysektorowej jest zmiana demograficzna i starzenie się społeczeństw, sprawiające, iż coraz większą rolę w zachodnioeuropejskich gospodarkach odgrywa finansowanie systemów ochrony zdrowia i systemów emerytalnych. Najprostszym ujęciem nowych relacji między najważniejszymi elementami państwa dobrobytu jest gra o sumie zerowej: świadomość, że wszyscy nie mogą być wygranymi, a o wsparcie społeczeństwa – de facto publiczne dotacje – trzeba będzie się systematycznie starać, prowadzi do nowych dylematów instytucjonalnych w szkolnictwie wyższym.
U źródeł zmian sposobów funkcjonowania szkolnictwa wyższego w Europie tkwi – między innymi – rosnąca konkurencja, w której biorą udział wszystkie typy instytucji sektora publicznego. Główne rodzaje instytucji nowoczesnego uniwersytetu (przede wszystkim humboldtowski i napoleoński) i główne rodzaje nowoczesnej instytucji państwa, a w szczególności państwa dobrobytu, są ze sobą ściśle powiązane.
Bernstein’s concept of classification and framing links notions of knowledge, democracy and social justice, providing a perspective from which to address critical questions of what knowledge is produced, who has access to it, and how knowledge is distributed. Bernstein’s conceptual framework is used to inform an analysis of national policies steering knowledge production and knowledge transfer in the UK, and the changing practices and values associated with knowledge production and knowledge transfer in two UK institutional case study universities. The analysis reveals how reputational and financial consequences of the formal assessment of research quality interacts with the institutional and disciplinary contexts of research units to differently shape what knowledge is valued and produced, and with whom it is shared.
Five discursive areas, each involving a complex set of classifications (power) and framings (control) are identified, namely: the national research assessment framework; the economic value of research; discourses of social and academic values; academic freedoms; and mixed-discipline research and the interdisciplinary nature of real world problems. Though competing and sometimes contradictory values seem to underlie academics’ knowledge work, it seems that the strong framing for knowledge production and knowledge exchange provided by national policies steers staff efforts towards economised codes of knowledge. The conclusion suggests that such a strong steer does not value social transformation in all its diverse non-economistic dimensions and limits universities’ potential to transform societies to further social justice.
EDUCATION AS A PUBLIC GOOD – AN ATTEMPT AT QUANTIFICATION
Economic literature commonly emphasises the role and importance of education in promoting both social development and economic growth. It is believed that the education system creates conditions conducive to the development and spread of innovation that fosters economic growth. The above premises are by themselves sufficient motivation to allocate adequate streams of funding to the education system. The high expenditure on education systems, which in Poland amounts to about 5% of the gross domestic product, creates the need to search for new paths to improve the effectiveness of functioning of those systems. In view of the above, the study aims to develop the methodology for quantifying public goods and measure the effectiveness with which they are delivered into the education sector.
The objective of the study was implemented by focusing on theoretical and cognitive issues leading to creation of methods for identification and analysis of public goods in education. The discovery of the dependencies determining the provision of public goods in education could suggest the directions of changes in the state education policy. The changes should be aimed at achieving the maximum growth of the society’s human capital.
The primary goal of the study, as formulated above, was pursued by verifying the following research hypotheses:
1. The supply of public goods in the education sector in Poland is determined by the structure of allocation of budgetary funds for that purpose at the local level (at the level of a poviat - Polish equivalent of a county).
2. The effectiveness of public goods provision in the Polish education system has not changed despite the growing amount of budgetary allocation.
3. It is possible to improve the effectiveness of public goods provision in the education system by changing the principles and structure of public fund allocation in this sector.
4. The level of economic and social development determines the quality of public goods in education.
The analysis involved the construction of synthetic measures of quantity and quality of public goods in education and synthetic measures of economic and social development. The synthetic measures were built using the Hellwig method. Taxonomic analyses were performed with respect to the quantity, quality and effectiveness of public goods at the local level in Poland. An attempt was made to determine the education production function in the Polish context. Analysis techniques also included multivariate analysis of variance, regression models for quality and effectiveness of education and multilevel analysis of regression.
Drawing conclusions based on the methodology adopted in this study is certainly burdened with error due to the considerable level of aggregation of measures used for illustrating the existing dependencies. However, it should be noted that the analysis covered all local government units (poviats) responsible for upper-secondary school education in Poland. In the Polish political system, the units fulfil the state’s function related to the provision of public goods in education.
The efforts undertaken by researchers worldwide to find the ways to improve the quality and effectiveness of educational processes have focused on modelling the education production function. The attempts made in this study to implement the education production function in the Polish context have confirmed the results of global research in this field. However, models constructed on the basis of literature data were characterised by low explanatory power, which prompted the author to search for new methods that use the findings of research on education production function in order to identify the factors shaping the quality of public goods in education and effectiveness of education.
Econometric analyses have pointed to the inefficiency of the teacher remuneration system. The expenditure on teacher remuneration was negatively correlated with the measure of quality. The negative impact of teacher remuneration on the synthetic measure of quality may be indicative of the incorrect explanatory properties of the analysed econometric models. However, it should be assumed that the inefficiency of the teacher remuneration system results from the lack of relationship between the effects of teachers’ work and the appropriate level of professional promotion (differentiation of teachers in terms of remuneration).
The less-than-optimal structure of expenditure is found in the class with the lowest synthetic measure of quantity of public goods in education. This class is also characterised by the lowest synthetic measure of public goods quality. The class had the highest per pupil spending for each level of teachers’ professional promotion. The expenditure on teacher remuneration in the class under discussion considerably exceeded the amount of the general education subsidy allocated to local governments, which resulted in the territorial governments incurring additional expenditure on implementation of education tasks.
Moreover, taxonomic studies demonstrated the existence of a negative relationship between the synthetic measure of quality of education in the analysed poviats and the synthetic social measure.
It should, however, be noted that the dependencies may result not only from the quantity or quality of public goods in education, but also from the sociological processes known as reproduction.
Certain phenomena related to selectivity of education were observed - higher exam scores achieved by pupils in large urban agglomerations. The growth of school attendance rates in municipal poviats may be indicative of the fact that pupils select schools with higher quality indicators. This may mean that more ambitious young people from the areas adjacent to large urban agglomerations choose to attend schools in those agglomerations. The phenomenon may, however, be incorrectly interpreted due to the fact that many families working in large urban agglomerations often live in suburban areas.
Książka składa się z dwóch części: pierwsza prezentuje szerokie konteksty teoretyczne, które uznaliśmy za najważniejsze dla badań szkolnictwa wyższego w Polsce, a druga zawiera rozbudowane analizy kadry akademickiej, przede wszystkim kadry polskiej, z porównawczej perspektywy 11 europejskich systemów szkolnictwa wyższego1. Badania kadry akademickiej opierają się na rozległym materiale empirycznym, zarówno ilościowym, jak i jakościowym: na badaniu ankietowym przeprowadzonym na ponad 17 tys. reprezentantów kadry akademickiej w Europie (w tym 3700 w Polsce) oraz na ponad 500 częściowo ustrukturyzowanych wywiadach pogłębionych (w tym 60 przeprowadzonych w Polsce). Praca ma zarazem konstrukcję modułową: nie istnieją żadne przeciwwskazania, by czytać jej rozdziały w dowolnej kolejności (i z różną intensywnością, zwłaszcza z powodu jej objętości). Chociaż jej pierwsza część stanowi silną teoretyczną podbudowę drugiej części, ta ostatnia mogłaby funkcjonować jako samodzielne opracowanie, a każdy jej rozdział prezentuje dodatkowo własny, bardziej szczegółowy kontekst teoretyczny. Cześć I pracy jest zorganizowana wokół siedmiu tytułowych pytań analizowanych w kolejnych rozdziałach: uniwersytety a państwo dobrobytu, międzypokoleniowa ruchliwość społeczna, prywatyzacja (epoki ekspansji) i deprywatyzacja (epoki implozji systemu), badania naukowe, produkcja wiedzy a konkurencyjność gospodarcza oraz środkowoeuropejski kontekst historyczny.Część II książki koncentruje się na wielowymiarowej analizie (przede wszystkim) polskiej kadry akademickiej (w szerokim, porównawczym kontekście kadry pracującej w 10 krajach Europy Zachodniej: Austrii, Finlandii, Niemczech, Irlandii, Włoszech, Holandii, Norwegii, Portugalii, Szwajcarii i Wielkiej Brytanii – dokładnie Anglii). Zajmujemy się tu pięcioma powiązanymi ze sobą problemami: zarządzaniem
w szkolnictwie wyższym i rolą kolegialności akademickiej; zmianami zachodzącymi w karierze akademickiej; umiędzynarodowieniem badań naukowych i ich wpływem na produktywność badawczą; młodą kadrą; oraz międzypokoleniowymi różnicami w pracy naukowej i produktywności badawczej.
The aim of the introductory chapter is to set the scene of this volume. This chapter is divided into three parts. The first part of this chapter critically explores the changing discipline of social sciences, within the university sector. Then the chapter moves on to discuss the teaching and learning strategies in higher education. The final section gives an overview on the chapters that will follow. Throughout this volume the case studies that are discussed are from United Kingdom (UK) perspective.
Gender is a silence in current U.K. higher education policy. Economics, rather than sociology, is the driving disciplinary force in education policy. In a market economy, individuals, rather than social groups, are the unit of analysis. Where structures of inequality are included, such as enhancing the participation of working-class students in higher education (HEFCE, 2001), education policy addresses a theory of disadvantage rather than a theory of privilege. The emphasis is on lifting the barrier to let in more members of excluded communities rather than on debating the nature of the barrier itself. There is little policy attention as to how the modalities of higher education reproduce social class or gender privilege or how higher education can play a role in creating a more inclusive society.
Entrepreneurial culture or entrepreneurialism has become a driving philosophy of higher education governance across the world. This entrepreneurialism is characterized by commercialization of teaching and research and introduction of quality assurance system in the higher education subsector. “Pursuit of excellence” and “quality education” are the themes on which these are based. Such a business-style management leads to a debate on the core values of university. What is the chief goal of the university? Does the market-model/corporate-style university serve this goal? What kind of university does the society want? These questions are essential in the discussion on changing university governance.
Because external assessment organizations require empirical evidence of educational quality to justify funding decisions, BLEAPs devote considerable time to Weighing & Measuring. Simply put, Weighing & Measuring relates to the external and internal strategies used to determine the quality of educational plans, programs and people. What sets this concept apart from what is commonly referred to as assessment in the scholarly literature is the nuanced distinction of weighing, which relates to the often-unseen qualitative beliefs of organizational elites, to which all others must conform, and measuring, which centers on quantitative efforts in HEIs at both demonstrating educational excellence and justifying one’s existence in the organization. This chapter studies some of the external and internal factors of Weighing & Measuring in neoliberal HEIs, with particular interest in how this affects members of EAP units.
Strategic management and marketing in higher education is becoming increasingly important and widespread as European higher education systems undergo structural and policy changes associated with the European Unions’ reform agenda of “modernizing universities”. Standardization of degree structures, modularization of curriculum and focus on learning outcomes and qualification frameworks are reshaping traditional understandings of markets in European higher education. At the same time increased institutional autonomy, targeted and output-based funding models and focus on increased strategic management capacity of higher education institutions represent trends that are reshaping the regulated continental European higher education systems towards becoming more market-oriented. Developments are however far from one-dimensional. Certain parts of higher education systems and higher education institutions remain more or less insulated from such trends; where as other parts are fully exposed to market forces.
Książka stanowi przede wszystkim pionierskie i systematyczne omówienie procesu reform polskiego systemu szkolnictwa wyższego, prezentujące nie tylko jego ewolucję po roku 1989, ale także jego historię od samego zarania II Rzeczypospolitej. Obraz tego okresu okazuje się niezwykle ciekawy i daje też doskonały kontekst do spojrzenia na opisane w pracy przemiany pola szkolnictwa wyższego w okresie Polski Ludowej. We wszystkich analizowanych przez autora epokach państwo okazuje się kluczowym graczem, którego rola zmienia się jednak często nieoczekiwanie. Analizując uważnie te przemiany, autor wniósł tym samym znaczący wkład w rozwój badań nad politykami publicznymi w Polsce. Jego ujęcie ma jednocześnie niezwykle istotny walor uwzględnienia kontekstu międzynarodowego, w szczególności mechanizmów integracji polskiego systemu szkolnictwa wyższego w ramach rozwijającej się dynamicznie globalnej sieci koordynacji systemów edukacji uniwersyteckiej na świecie. Czyni to omawianą pracę niezwykle wartościową lekturą nie tylko dla wszystkich zainteresowanych polskim szkolnictwem wyższym, ale także dla badaczy polityk publicznych, procesów globalizacji czy też elit intelektualnych.
Z recenzji dr. hab. Tomasza Zaryckiego, prof. UW
Książka składa się z dwóch części: pierwsza prezentuje szerokie konteksty teoretyczne, które uznaliśmy za najważniejsze dla badań szkolnictwa wyższego w Polsce, a druga zawiera rozbudowane analizy kadry akademickiej, przede wszystkim kadry polskiej, z porównawczej perspektywy 11 europejskich systemów szkolnictwa wyższego1. Badania kadry akademickiej opierają się na rozległym materiale empirycznym,
zarówno ilościowym, jak i jakościowym: na badaniu ankietowym przeprowadzonym na ponad 17 tys. reprezentantów kadry akademickiej w Europie (w tym 3700 w Polsce) oraz na ponad 500 częściowo ustrukturyzowanych wywiadach pogłębionych (w tym 60 przeprowadzonych w Polsce). Praca ma zarazem
konstrukcję modułową: nie istnieją żadne przeciwwskazania, by czytać jej rozdziały w dowolnej kolejności (i z różną intensywnością, zwłaszcza z powodu jej objętości). Chociaż jej pierwsza część stanowi silną teoretyczną podbudowę drugiej części, ta ostatnia mogłaby funkcjonować jako samodzielne opracowanie, a każdy jej rozdział prezentuje dodatkowo własny, bardziej szczegółowy kontekst teoretyczny. Cześć I pracy jest zorganizowana wokół siedmiu tytułowych pytań analizowanych w kolejnych rozdziałach: uniwersytety a państwo dobrobytu, międzypokoleniowa ruchliwość społeczna, prywatyzacja (epoki ekspansji) i deprywatyzacja (epoki implozji systemu), badania naukowe, produkcja wiedzy a konkurencyjność gospodarcza oraz środkowoeuropejski kontekst historyczny. Część II książki koncentruje się na wielowymiarowej analizie (przede wszystkim) polskiej kadry akademickiej (w szerokim, porównawczym kontekście kadry pracującej w 10 krajach Europy Zachodniej: Austrii, Finlandii, Niemczech, Irlandii, Włoszech, Holandii, Norwegii, Portugalii, Szwajcarii i Wielkiej Brytanii – dokładnie Anglii). Zajmujemy się tu pięcioma powiązanymi ze sobą problemami: zarządzaniem w szkolnictwie wyższym i rolą kolegialności akademickiej; zmianami zachodzącymi w karierze kademickiej; umiędzynarodowieniem badań naukowych i ich wpływem na produktywność badawczą; młodą kadrą; oraz międzypokoleniowymi różnicami w pracy naukowej i produktywności badawczej.
Objective Entrepreneurship as a concept is facing challenging times. Paradoxically it is simultaneously presented as the panacea for the recession, by promoting enterprise and the development of an entrepreneurial mindset, and also as contributing to the underlying cause of society's economic ills by encouraging consumerism and greed. Whilst both perspectives have some validity, we believe what is needed going forward is a critical review of what defines entrepreneurship as, to quote Einstein, " No problem can be solved from the same level of consciousness that created it " (cited in Ellis: 2010:xv). Systemic crisis, such the one the world is currently experiencing, releases innovative social movements (Ray, 2002: 103) which in themselves create opportunities for change. This may result in a paradigm shift, as existing frameworks create problems and no longer fulfil current needs (Ellis, 2010: xix). This working paper will explore these issues with respect to enterprise education. Prior Work This research pulls together three strands of thinking. Firstly, that we are on the brink of a paradigm shift (Ellis, 2010: xviii) which, according to the World Values Survey supports the view that people need work to be more meaningful and fulfilling (ennobling) and place less emphasis on economic growth. Secondly, that enterprise education must equip students with entrepreneurial attributes, knowledge and skills to support new venture creation and thirdly, that teaching staff will 'fulfil the political imperative for an infrastructure that supports and enhances enterprise development across curricula' (QAA, 2012:2). The fulfilment of these objectives can create tension which will be explored in this paper. Approach
This paper presents an analysis of the recent development of a part of the higher education in Finland. Its objective is to analyse how Finnish polytechnic school reacted to the new requirements to become responsive to regional needs and how they build up the necessary abilities to this regional engagement. The central theoretical framework are the institutional changing elements described by Burton Clark (1998) on his analysis about entrepreneurial universities. In particular the article focus on the channels and interfaces that those institutions have established with other players in the region.
This paper reviews recent culture-change in British higher education (HE) and an increasing emphasis on academics evidencing, in meaningful and measurable ways, the value and contribution of their work to national societies. Discussion focuses on what is purported to be a shift from a focus on academics rationalizing the benefits of their work in terms of public engagement to a more contentious signifier of research worth, “impact”. The primary argument herein is that an impact agenda, framed in terms of assessment and by the upcoming Research Excellence Framework 2014, has not eclipsed an engagement initiative for HE in the UK but actually provided greater credence and tacit momentum. Where public engagement “pre-impact” was viewed by sections of the academic community as frivolous, faddish and tokenistic, it is now elevated as an integral component of impact-capture work and in plotting the pathways between research producer and research intermediary/end-user/collaborator. Where “impact” is a statement of the value of academic work, engagement is the method of its articulation and the means by which impacts are mobilized.
This article employs a sociological analysis of the changing role and mission of higher education from that of a ‘public good’ to that of a service industry. In this regard, the rise of modern universities as corporate enterprises in the recent decades has often neglected the important dimension of education as a process of enlightenment, with its ethical and moral dimensions. The author tries to put into perspective the relevance of searching for an ‘ethical university’ by proposing to integrate the important notion of Enlightenment as formulated by Kant, Newman's idea of the university and other similar western ideals, with the eastern ideas of the Confucian Classic The Great Learning, in order to suggest how the quest for an ‘ethical university’ might materialize in the future.
Key policy documents relating to the 'knowledge-driven economy' show that policy makers, university heads and other interested academics have come to view the task of creating science-based industries through the lens of enterprise ideology. Proceeding on the assumption that the scientific fundamentals are already in place, the belief is that industrial applications can be achieved by infusions of enterprise. Such a framing is attractive to those unwilling or unable to engage with the complexities of scientific research or new product development. It offers a surface intelligibility combined with an apparent amenability to straightforward policy interventions. At the same time it is quite unclear, apart from the taking of risks, what attributes and behaviours are actually involved in enterprise. Even the relevance of risk is questionable. Despite the ideological pressure to demonstrate a link between entrepreneurship and risk, none of the relevant research has succeeded in doing so. Nor has risk been a prevalent feature of new venture creation in general and science-based start-ups in particular. The policy is an act of faith, based neither on research nor on experience. Its reliance on enterprise is less a solution than a hope that one will spontaneously appear.
Universities have two options when they formulate policies to develop new technology-based start-ups. One approach is to encourage faculty members to engage in this activity. Another avenue is to encourage surrogate (external) entrepreneurs to assume a leadership role. Based on a survey of technology transfer/business development officers at 57 U.K. universities, we examine perceptions regarding the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. We also analyze whether there are significant differences in these attitudes between universities that have launched many startups and those that have been less active in this arena. Our results imply that the most significant barriers to the adoption of entrepreneurial-friendly policies are cultural and informational. We also find that universities that generate the most start-ups have more favorable attitudes towards surrogate entrepreneurs. It appears that a combination of academic and surrogate entrepreneurship might be the best approach for universities that wish to develop successful technology-transfer based start-up companies. Copyright 2001 by Kluwer Academic Publishers
This article sets the scene for the exploration of corporate and company developments in the field of the corporate university and related development paradigms. It identifies the driving forces promoting the growth in corporate universities, corporate business schools and other similar styles of intellectual asset management. There are many emergent issues and differences concerning the style, scope and culture of the emergent management programmes and as a consequence some important changes could occur in the nature of the corporate relationship with providers in the traditional intellectual supply chain. This article acknowledges the evolutionary stage of these developments and engages with the main subject areas as a platform for a methodology in examining future developments.
Many companies now run boot camps--comprehensive orientation programs designed to help new hires hit the ground running. They're intense and intimidating, and new employees emerge from them with strong bonds to other recruits and to the organization. But at Trilogy, organizational consultant Noel Tichy discovered one program that's a breed apart. In this article, Tichy gives us a detailed tour of Trilogy's boot camp, Trilogy University, to demonstrate why it's so different--and so effective. Like the best boot camps, it serves as an immersion in both the technical skills new recruits will need for their jobs and Trilogy's corporate culture, which emphasizes risk-taking, teamwork, humility, and a strong customer focus. But this is a new-employee orientation session that's so fundamental to the company as a whole that it's presided over by the CEO and top corporate executives for fully six months of the year. Why? In two three-month sessions, these top executives hone their own strategic thinking about the company as they decide what to teach the new recruits each session. They also find the company's next generation of new products as they judge the innovative ideas the recruits are tasked with developing--making the program Trilogy's main R&D engine. And they pull the company's rising technical stars into mentoring roles for the new recruits, helping to build the next generation of top leadership. After spending months on-site studying Trilogy University, Tichy came away highly impressed by the power of the virtuous teaching cycle the program has set in motion. Leaders of the organization are learning from recruits at the same time that the recruits are learning from the leaders. It's a model, he argues, that other companies would do well to emulate.
Over the last two decades the costs of higher education in the UK have moved increasingly from the state to students (and their parents). As a consequence, an increasing percentage of university students work during the term. Based on a survey of standard-aged, third year students in four universities, this paper identifies the extent and pattern of term-time working, identifies how term-time working affects studying and discusses the implications of term-time working for equity and for the higher education system. Almost half the students worked during the term, averaging 12 hours per week, whilst four percent regularly worked at least 20 hours per week. The study found that working during the term affected the quality of education and almost two-thirds of the students who worked reported difficulty balancing employment and educational demands. Financial pressures increased the probability of working (those whose families’ did not provide financial support and those who received donations, most of which were related to hardship were more likely to work term-time). Students whose father did not have a degree (a group who are less likely to go to university) and women (especially women from ethnic minorities) were more likely to work term-time and, hence, benefit less educationally from university. The extent of term-time working varied across the four universities. The study suggested that the financial system might lead to increasingly polarised universities: those that facilitate term-time working and those which do not, with the more prestigious universities tending to be in the former category. This would distort the university choice of those who needed to work term-time, inhibiting their access to prestigious universities, and lead to greater disadvantage amongst those who worked despite being at universities which made less concessions for term-time working.