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A step towards decentralized wastewater management
in the Lower Jordan Rift Valley
M. van Afferden, J. A. Cardona, K. Z. Rahman, R. Daoud, T. Headley,
Z. Kilani, A. Subah and R. A. Mueller
ABSTRACT
M. van Afferden (corresponding author)
K. Z. Rahman
T. Headley
R. A. Mueller
Helmholtz Centre for Environmental
Research—UFZ,
Environmental- and Biotechnology Centre—UbZ,
Permoserstr. 15,
04318 Leipzig,
Germany
E-mail: manfred.afferden@ufz.de;
khaja.rahman@ufz.de;
tom.headley@ufz.de;
roland.mueller@ufz.de
J. A. Cardona
BDZ-Training and Demonstration Centre for
Decentralized Sewage Treatment,
An der Luppe 2,
04178 Leipzig,
Germany
E-mail: jaime.cardona@ufz.de
R. Daoud
Eco-Consult, Jude Center,
Salem Hindawi St.,
Shmeisani,
11194 Amman,
Jordan
E-mail: raed.daoud@ecoconsult.jo
Z. Kilani
Water Authority Jordan,
P.O. Box: 2412,
11183 Amman,
Jordan
E-mail: Zaid_Kilani@mwi.gov.jo
A. Subah
Ministry of Water and Irrigation,
P.O. Box 926238,
11190 Amman,
Jordan
E-mail: ali_subah62@yahoo.com
In order to address serious concerns over public health, water scarcity and groundwater pollution
in Jordan, the expansion of decentralized wastewater treatment and reuse (DWWT&R) systems to
small communities is one of the goals defined by the Jordan government in the “Water Strategy
2009–2022”. This paper evaluates the general potential of decentralized wastewater system
solutions to be applied in a selected area of the Lower Jordan Rift Valley in Jordan. For the study
area, the connection degree to sewer systems was calculated as 67% (5% in the rural sector and
75% in the urban sector). The annual wastewater production available for DWWT&R in the rural
sector of the investigation area was calculated to be nearly 3.8 million m
3
at the end of 2007.
The future need of wastewater treatment and reuse facilities of the rural sector was estimated to
be increasing by 0.11 million m
3
year
21
, with an overall potential of new treatment capacity of
nearly 15,500 population equivalents (pe) year
21
. The overall potential for implementing DWWT&R
systems in the urban sector was estimated as nearly 25million m
3
of wastewater in 2007.
The future need of wastewater treatment and reuse facilities required for the urban sector was
estimated to be increasing at a rate of 0.12 million pe year
21
. Together with the decision makers
and the stakeholders, a potential map with three regions has been defined: Region 1 with
existing central wastewater infrastructure, Region 2 with already planned central infrastructure
and Region 3 with the highest potential for implementing DWWT&R systems.
Key words
|
decentralized wastewater management, Jordan, rural sector, treatment potential,
urban sector
INTRODUCTION
Jordan has one of the lowest per capita water availabilities
worldwide (,200 m
3
capita
21
year
21
). In the year 2005, the
country’s total water demand was in the range of
1,560 £10
6
m
3
year
21
, of which 461 £10
6
m
3
year
21
were
supplied from non-renewable water resources, such as fossil
groundwater resources. It is expected that the Jordanian
demand will reach 1,686 £10
6
m
3
year
21
by the year 2020,
from which only 792 £10
6
m
3
year
21
can be covered by
renewable resources (MWI & GTZ 2004).
In the long run, the main means of providing the
additional water necessary to satisfy this increasing demand
will be made through the importation or creation of new
doi: 10.2166/wst.2010.234
3117 QIWA Publishing 2010 Water Science & Technology—WST
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water resources, e.g. through the desalinization of brackish
groundwater resources (Gikas & Tchobanoglous 2009a;
Rosenberg & Lund 2009).
This has to go along with the development of technol-
ogies and management options for a more effective and
sustainable use of existing water resources, such as the
treatment and reuse of wastewater. Therefore, in Jordan,
treated wastewater is considered as a valuable water
resource for irrigation and currently the Jordanian Govern-
ment has imposed that all new wastewater treatment
projects must include feasibility and design aspects for
treated wastewater reuse (MWI 2009). In the Jordan
National Water Master Plan, it is planned that the amount
of treated wastewater for reuse will be increased from
34 £10
6
m
3
year
21
in 2005 to 101 £10
6
m
3
year
21
in 2020.
This accounts for nearly 15% of the total renewable water
resources available (MWI & GTZ 2004).
Many experts share the traditional viewpoint that
centralized wastewater treatment and reuse systems pro-
vide the best technical and cheapest solution to overcome
these problems as they are most reliable and easiest to
operate, maintain and monitoring. However, the intro-
duction of centralized wastewater technologies is often
impeded by several factors. In fast growing conurbations,
urban planning over several decades is almost impossible,
meaning that investments in a centralized sewage
disposal infrastructure will involve large uncertainties
(Tjandraatmadja et al. 2005;Gikas & Tchobanoglous
2009b). In remote rural areas with a low population
density, the implementation of centralized wastewater
treatment facilities is difficult due to high investment
costs for development and infrastructure but also deficient
management and operation schemes often hinder a
successful implementation. These problems might be
overcome by implementing decentralized wastewater treat-
ment facilities that have shorter depreciation times and
often lower investment costs because a costly sewerage
network is often not or only partly necessary (Werner
et al. 2005;Maurer et al. 2005;Engin & Demir 2006).
Decentralized systems also have the advantage that they
are highly flexible and can easily be adapted to changing
conditions and demands in both conurbations and rural
areas (Orth 2007;Kamal et al. 2008). For successful
decentralized wastewater treatment systems, centralized
management is proposed to ensure a regularly inspection
and maintenance. This management should also consider
site specific accounting for social, cultural, environmental
and economic conditions in the target area (Bakir 2001;
Massoud et al. 2009;Al-Omari et al. 2009).
A recent example for a central management strategy for
the implementation of DWWT&R systems is Jordan. The
“Royal Commission on Water” of Jordan prepared the new
Water Strategy entitled as “Water for Life. Jordan’s Water
Strategy 2009–2022” (MWI 2009). This new strategy
reflects the Jordanian policy for the whole water sector
and with respect to wastewater it sets the goal to provide
adequate wastewater collection and treatment facilities for
all major cities and small towns by 2022. The strategy
explicitly specifies that decentralized treatment plants shall
be built to serve semi-urban and rural communities and that
decentralized treatment plants shall also be explored for
new urban settlements.
These implementation aims should be specified by a
Wastewater Master Plan that shall establish targets for
providing collection and treatment systems throughout
the country and to prioritize situations and locations.
Such guiding Wastewater Master Plan should include
investigations on the most suitable financing and operation
systems, treatment technology, wastewater collection
and reuse/discharge systems. But before starting defining
these parameters, a first chapter of the master plan will be
the quantification of the general potential of DWWT&R
systems in the region and the selection of areas where
the implementation is most useful. This allows gene-
rating an overview of the amount of wastewater to
be treated and reused and also deducing a first estimation
of future investments in decentralized wastewater
infrastructure.
Therefore, the objective of this publication is to generate
the first key parameters that characterize the general
potential of a decentralized wastewater sector in the
selected area in the Jordan part of the Lower Jordan Rift
Valley. Based upon recent literature findings, assumptions
of a few data were made and also estimated (or generated)
due to non-availability of contemporary data on
certain parameters that have been used in this paper in
particular.
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Overview of the study area
There are three neighbouring countries that share the
Lower Jordan River Basin and its margins: Jordan, Palestine
and Israel. The basin stretches along the Jordan River from
Lake Tiberias in the north to the Dead Sea in the south and
comprises an area of about 8,000 km
2
. At the northern
shores of the Dead Sea, the valley floor is at 2425 m below
sea level, whereas the surrounding highlands reach up to
1,200 m above sea level. The investigation area is located in
Jordan at 318450–328450N and 358320–368150E, within the
jurisdiction of 8 Jordanian governorates. They are: Irbid,
Ajloun, Jarash, Al Balqa, Amman, Al Mafraq, Az Zarqa
and Madaba.
In the Jordanian part of the Basin, the main wadis
(ephemeral streams) that drain into the Jordan River are
Wadi Al Arab in its northern end, followed by the wadis
Al Rian, Shueib, Kafrein and Wadi Hisban in the South.
METHODOLOGY
Data collection and assumptions
A database was built in order to provide a current
demographic view of the population in the study area. For
this purpose, the Population and Housing Censuses from
2004 were provided by the Jordanian Department of
Statistics. The population data from 2004 have been
extrapolated to the end of 2007 to give a more actual
picture of the situation and to allow a comparison of
different sources of information.
For this extrapolation, the population growth for the
rural and urban level was defined to be uniform. This
assumption is based on real data of the Population Census
of 1994 and 2004 that was provided by the Jordanian
Department of Statistics. An analysis of these data showed
that in the investigation area the mean population growth
rate during this time period was 3.1% for both the rural
and the urban sector. The finding that the population
growth in recent years is fairly uniform across Jordan
is supported by CDM (2005). They observed that the rural-
to-city migration is nearing its end, which is attributed to
improvements in the road network, so that more people are
staying in small towns and commuting to work in the urban
centres (CDM 2005).
For the period from 2004 to 2007, the population
growth was estimated by the Department of Statistics with
2.3% (DOS 2010) and in another publication of the same
Department with 2.5% (DOS 2007). To stem the rapid
population growth rate, Jordan’s National Population
Commission has introduced birth-spacing programs on a
national level. The result has been a growing awareness
among Jordanians of the benefits of family planning. This
might be the reason for the declination of the population
growth rate from 3.1% (1994– 2004) to 2.5% (2004 – 2007).
We assumed that these data on national level also reflect the
same growth rate in the urban and rural sectors in the
investigation area. We decided to take the higher value
(2.5% instead of 2.3%) because recent findings indicate that
Jordan’s annual population growth rate is increasing slightly
(Pottera et al. 2009), which can be attributed to forced
migration as a result of the current crises in the region.
Each settlement with 5,000 or more population was
considered as “urban” and the remaining localities as
“rural” (DOS 2004). The available data were collected and
put into a Geographical Information System (ESRI ArcMap
9.2) to generate a spatial analysis GIS model.
No recent study has been identified on the daily per
capita wastewater generation in Jordan. Therefore the
wastewater generation was calculated by using data of
recent surveys on urban and rural water consumption in
Jordan. The identified water consumption for the rural and
urban areas have been multiplied by the return factor of
0.825 published by von Sperling & de Lemos Chernicharo
(2005) and Mara (2006), resulting in the daily wastewater
generation per capita.
For the urban sector in the North of Jordan, CDM
(2005) calculated a daily water consumption of 83 L
capita
21
d
21
(Lpcd). Al-Sharif & Abu-Ashour (2007) calcu-
lated 77 Lpcd for Irbid and Jamrah & Ayyash (2008)
published for the cities of Irbid, Rusaifa and Zarqa 82.67,
69.63 and 82.34 Lpcd respectively. For the area of Amman,
Ghunmi et al. (2008) published a water consumption of
84 Lpcd.
For the rural sector, two recent studies indicate a very
low water consumption of 28 and 20 Lpcd (Ghunmi et al.
2008;Halalsheh et al. 2008).
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Since both studies have been conducted in the
investigation area, we defined the daily wastewater gener-
ation in urban regions of the investigation area as 65.8 Lpcd,
which is the mean value of the before mentioned data on
water consumption multiplied by the return factor. In the
same way, the daily wastewater generation was calculated
for the rural areas as 19.8 Lpcd.
The combined BOD
5
load in the rural and urban sector
of the investigation area have been calculated by taking a
mean BOD
5
load of 67 g capita
21
d
21
into account. This
load represents the official mean value for total Jordan,
which has been indicated in the national water master plan
of Jordan (MWI & GTZ 2004). Recent data on the BOD
5
load for the rural and urban sectors in Jordan could not be
obtained either from the responsible ministry or from recent
publications. Therefore, a BOD
5
load of 25 g capita
21
d
21
was considered for the rural sector according to findings
rural regions in South-East-Asian Countries (World Bank
2003;De 2006). Taking both numbers into account, an
urban BOD
5
load of 73 g capita
21
d
21
was calculated as the
difference between the daily BOD
5
load of the total
investigation area (314.8 t d
21
) and the daily BOD
5
load of
the rural sector (14.8 t d
21
) divided by the population of the
urban sector of the investigation area.
It is important to clarify that the selected study area was
defined by the hydrogeological criteria, not by the admin-
istrative districts. The investigation area stretches over 8
governorates. From those, Irbid, Ajloun, and Jarash were
considered to lie completely within the investigation zone.
The demographic data for Balqa Mafraq, Zarqa, Amman
and Madaba did not lie in the investigation area and hence
they were excluded.
Population analysis
The population in the investigation area was calculated as
4.7 million at the end of 2007. It represents approximately
82% of the Jordan population (5.75 million), although the
surface of the investigation area represents only 6% of
the country. The identified 411 rural communities have a
population of 0.55 million in 2007, which was accounted
for almost 12% of the total population in the study area.
The mean population was calculated as 1,111 inhabitants
per village (Table 1).
The urban population was defined as total inhabitants
minus the rural population (see Table 1) and was
calculated as 4.15 million in 2007. The identified 105
Table 1
|
Identification of the “rural” and “urban” population and analysis of the population data in the investigation area by governorate (basis 2004)
Investigation area Rural sector Urban sector
Governorate Total population
No. of communities
#5,000 Population
Mean population
per community
No. of communities
>5,000 Population
Mean population
per community
Ajloun 126,296 40 32,782 820 9 93,514 10,390
Amman
p
1,947,625 76 83,910 1,104 20 1,863,715 93,186
Balqa 363,520 70 106,432 1,520 13 257,088 19,776
Irbid 967,428 95 168,188 1,770 49 799,240 16,311
Jarash 162,963 46 56,988 1,239 9 105,975 11,775
Madaba 9,972 10 9,972 997 0 0 ND
Mafraq
p
31,026 39 31,026 796 0 0 ND
Zarqa
p
754,394 35 22,457 642 5 731,937 146,387
Total 2004 4,363,224 411 511,755 1,111 105 3,851,469 37,228
Total 2005
†
4,472,305 ND 524,549 ND ND 3,947,756 ND
Total 2006
†
4,584,112 ND 537,663 ND ND 4,046,450 ND
Total 2007
†
4,698,715 ND 551,104 ND ND 4,147,611 ND
p
Population of some districts has been excluded.
†
Calculated with a population growth rate of 2.5% (DOS 2007).
ND ¼Not determined.
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urban communities were accounted for 88% of the
population and almost 72% of the extrapolated total
Jordanian population in 2007.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Population density
In the current study, the population density distribution of
the investigation area was calculated on the basis of the
available population data of the settlements. Since the areas
of the communities were not available, the method of
Thiessen proximal polygons was used to determine the
population density in the investigation area. The centre of
each polygon thereby represents one settlement and was
set in the most densely populated centre of the village.
Thiessen polygons have the advantage that each polygon
contains only one input point and any location within
the polygon is closer to its associated centre than to the
centre of any other polygon (Ryavec & Veregin 1997). The
areas for each polygon were calculated using ESRI ArcMap
9.2 and the total population of each community was
divided by the polygon area in km
2
. This calculation and
visualisation resulted in a patchwork distribution of
community based population densities in the investigation
area (see Figure 1).
Connection degree to existing WWTPs and future
developments
One main criterion for the identification of potential sites
for a future implementation of DWWT&R systems is the
degree of connection of the population to already existing
WWTPs. Since data were not available, the connection
degree for the investigation area was estimated by analysing
the actual loads of the existing WWTPs.
In 2007, a total of 21 wastewater treatment plants
operated in Jordan and 13 of them are located in the
investigation area. These plants have been mainly designed
to treat the wastewater of cities and to serve urban areas
surrounding these cities. Table 2 provides the 2006 loads
of the existing WWTPs in Jordan (Data provided by
the Jordanian Ministry of Water and Irrigation). For the
WWTPs in the investigation area, a total treatment capacity
of 3.14 million pe was estimated by using a specific
BOD
5
-load of 67 g capita
21
d
21
.
Assuming insignificant BOD
5
-losses within the waste-
water collection systems and low additional wastewater
inputs from the stormwater, industry and the tourism
sectors, it has been estimated that 67% of the population
in the investigation area are connected to central sewer
networks.
The method applied above does not allow distinguish-
ing between the rural and urban population. Data from the
literature indicate that the connection degree to sewer
systems for the rural population in Jordan ranges between
2.8% (UN 2003) and 5% (DOS 2007). Since the connection
degree has generally increased in recent years, we adopted
the higher value of 5% for the connection degree of the
rural population in the investigation area.
Potential for DWWT&R systems in the rural sector
Principally Jordan villages do not have sewer systems. Most
households in rural communities have cesspits, but some of
them are just ditches with trees planted to uptake some of
the wastewater. Most of the cesspits leak (infiltrate) as they
are not properly sealed and provoke significant ground-
water pollution in those areas with abundant fractured rock
(Werz & Ho¨ tzl 2007). Septage tankers pump cesspits and
dump septage on designated sites (e.g. landfills) but some
disorganized and even illegal dumping of septage into
wadis exists.
DWWT&R system solutions may contribute to
increasing the reliability and flexibility of Jordan’s rural
wastewater management. Innovative technologies may be
combined into local “treatment and reuse trains” to meet
hygienic standards, treatment goals, overcome site con-
ditions and to address environmental and socio-economic
requirements. We defined that the size of DWWT&R
facilities range from individual buildings to several houses,
hotels or small villages solutions up to a maximum size
of 5,000 pe.
The overall potential for implementing such DWWT&R
systems in the rural sector can be expressed by the total
amount of wastewater that is not yet treated adequately.
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Figure 1
|
Community based distribution of population densities and available data on existing and planned WWTP in the investigation area.
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Table 2
|
Loads and person equivalents of existing WWTPs in Jordan (2006)
BOD
5
-load design Actual load
No. WWTP Technology
Hydraulic capacity
(m
3
/d)
BOD
5
(mg/l)
Person equivalent
p
(pe)
Hydraulic capacity
(m
3
/d)
BOD
5
(mg/l)
Person equivalent
p
(pe)
1 As Samra Stabilization ponds 68,000 525 532,836 224,175 745 2,492,692
2 Irbid (Central) Activated sludge &
trickling filter
11,000 800 131,343 6,354 1,037 98,345
3 Salt Activated sludge 7,700 1,090 125,269 4,322 919 59,282
4 Baga
´Trickling filter 14,900 800 177,910 10,978 877 143,697
5 Wadi Al Arab Activated sludge 22,000 995 326,716 9,960 764 113,574
6 Ramtha Activated sludge 5,400 1,000 80,597 3,492 750 39,090
7 Abu Nuseir Activated sludge 4,000 1,100 65,672 2,309 538 18,541
8 Wadi As Sir Aeration tank 4,000 780 46,567 2,872 494 21,176
9 Kufranja Trickling filter 1,900 850 24,104 3,387 1,160 58,641
10 Jarash (East) Activated sludge 3,500 1,090 56,940 3,312 1,208 59,715
11 Fuheis Activated sludge 2,400 995 35,642 1,684 607 15,257
12 Wadi Hassan Activated sludge 1,600 800 19,104 1,099 802 13,155
13 Tall Al Mantah Activated sludge 400 2,000 11,940 274 2,743 11,217
Investigation area ND ND 1,634,642 ND ND 3,144,380
14 Madaba Activated sludge 7,600 950 107,761 4,584 1,356 92,775
15 Mafraq Stabilization ponds 1,800 825 22,164 1,866 602 16,766
16 Aqaba Activated sludge 21,000 420 131,642 13,525 403 81,352
17 Tafielah Trickling filter 1,600 1,050 25,075 1,013 655 9,903
18 Karak Trickling filter 785 1,080 12,654 1,618 536 12,944
19 Ma’an Stabilization ponds 1,600 970 23,164 2,644 800 31,570
20 Wadi Musa Activated sludge 3,400 500 25,373 1,670 320 7,976
21 El Lajjun Stabilization ponds 1,000 1,500 22,388 502 1,488 11,149
Outside of investigation area ND ND 370,221 ND ND 264,435
Total Jordan ND ND 2,004,863 ND ND 3,408,815
p
Person equivalents are calculated on the basis of a specific BOD
5
-load of 67 g capita
21
d
21
(MWI & GTZ 2004).
ND ¼Not determined.
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The total wastewater production in the rural sector was
estimated on the basis of the per capita wastewater
production and the rural population that is not connected
to central wastewater treatment plants. The rural popu-
lation of the investigation area for the year 2007 was
extrapolated from the 2004 Population and Housing Census
and a connection degree of 5% was adopted as described
above. The per capita wastewater generation rate, measured
in Litres per capita per day (Lpcd ¼L capita
21
d
21
), was
derived from the MWI, who estimated a specific wastewater
generation rate of 86 Lpcd (MWI & GTZ 2004).
As shown in Table 3, the annual wastewater generation
available for DWWT&R in the rural sector of the investi-
gation area was estimated to be nearly 3.8 million m
3
at
the end of 2007. The corresponding overall potential
treatment capacity was estimated to be 0.52 million pe and
an annual BOD
5
-load of nearly 4,800 tons.
The future need of wastewater treatment and reuse
facilities of the rural sector was estimated by calculating the
mean annual population growth over 10 years, starting in
2007. By using an annual population growth rate of 2.5%
and assuming that water consumption and wastewater
production will grow with the same rate, the mean annual
population increase was calculated to be nearly 15,500. This
was resulting in an annual increase in wastewater gener-
ation available for DWWT&R of about 0.11 million m
3
(Table 3).
Potential of DWWT&R systems in the urban sector
As shown above the connection degree of the population in
the investigation area to sewer systems was calculated to be
67%. For the rural sector, a connection degree of 5% was
adopted. Taking both numbers into account, for the urban
sector a connection degree to the existing central treatment
plants of 75% can be calculated. These calculations are in
agreement with the survey conducted by DOS (2007) for
total Jordan.
The overall wastewater load in the urban sector that,
in 2007, was not adequately treated and for which
DWWT&R systems may represent a potential solution,
was estimated to be almost 25 million m
3
year
21
. The overall
potential required treatment capacity was estimated to be
1.04 million pe with an annual BOD
5
-load of approximately
27,600 tons (Table 3).
The annual increase in required wastewater treatment
and reuse facilities within the urban sector was estimated to be
2.8 million m
3
, corresponding to an overall requirement for
new treatment capacity of 0.12 million pe year
21
(Table 3).
Proposed regions for DWWT&R systems within the rural
regions
The data of population density, existing and planned
treatment plants have been included in the GIS-Database.
Table 3
|
Estimation of the current wastewater generation, wastewater treatment capacity and the annual increase in wastewater generation and treatment capacity in the rural
and urban sector of the investigation area
Parameter Unit Rural sector Urban sector
Specific wastewater production L capita
21
d
21
19.8 65.8
BOD
5
-person equivalent g capita
21
d
21
25 73
Population 2007 No. 551,104 4,147,611
Connection degree public sewer % 5 75
Population growth rate % 2.5 2.5
Total annual wastewater generation m
3
year
21
3,783,687 24,903,293
Wastewater quality (BOD
5
-load) mg L
21
1,263 1,109
Total annual BOD
5
production t year
21
4,777 27,628
Total treatment capacity to be installed pe 523,549 1,036,903
Annual increase in wastewater generation m
3
year
21
111,553 2,790,011
Annual increase in BOD
5
production t year
21
141 3,095
Annual need of new treatment capacity pe 15,436 116,168
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Figure 2
|
Proposed regions for the future investigations on the implementation of DWWT&R systems.
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The locations for which it is already planned or proposed to
construct centralised wastewater infrastructure were pro-
vided by the MWI (Figure 1). The following three regions
have been defined:
†Existing central WWT
†Planned central WWT
†Potential for decentralized WWT.
The regions that are covered by existing central
wastewater treatment plants are mainly urban agglomera-
tions. The connection degree to the existing central WWTPs
within these areas is not 100% and consequently the
classification does not imply that they are not suitable for
decentralized systems. However, the actual policy of the
government is apparently to expand the existing sewer
networks within the region using already existing central
treatment plants.
The second category (“Planned Central WWT”) was
defined as regions where future central developments for
wastewater infrastructure greater than 5,000 pe are already
planned. These regions are characterized by a low connec-
tion degree and mainly include fast growing urban
areas and potentially rural villages in the surrounding areas
as well. The uncertainties of some of the planned develop-
ments do not exclude these areas for a complementary
implementation of DWWT&R systems but centralized
solutions will be prioritized for most of the settlements in
these regions.
The third category of regions (“Potential for decentra-
lized WWT”) is characterized by its rural and urban
character and a low population density where in the nearer
future no central wastewater infrastructure will be built.
These regions are indicated in Figure 2 and cover the Lower
Jordan River Valley from the Dead Sea in the South to the
border with Syria in the North; the region North and East of
Irbid and the centre of the investigation area.
Future research will be directed to the estimation of the
investment costs needed to connect the urban and rural
population to DWWT&R system solutions. Maurer et al.
(2005) estimated the costs for decentralised wastewater
treatment systems in Western Europe and North America
between 260 and 680 USD per capita for scenarios with
sewer systems. However, a cost analysis for the definition of
concrete investment plans requires a more detailed analysis
of suitable technologies and operation and maintenance
schemes (Fane & Mitchell 2006). The selection of technol-
ogies and operation and maintenance schemes should
thereby consider social and legal framework conditions of
the region.
CONCLUSIONS
In most arid regions in the world, the use of reclaimed water
as an additional water resource is inevitable, especially if
water stress factors such as population growth and living
standard increase. The recovery rate of wastewater for reuse
by the existing central treatment facilities is limited and can
only be expanded by appropriate DWWT&R system
solutions that include treatment, local storage and reuse of
the treated wastewater (Bakir 2001;Massoud et al. 2009).
In Jordan, decentralized wastewater management strategies
have been integrated in the “Water Strategy 2009– 2022” as
a suitable measure to meet the goal that adequate waste-
water collection and treatment facilities shall be provided
for all major cities and small towns by 2022 (MWI 2009).
The results presented here contribute to establish
targets for providing DWWT&R systems in Jordan, particu-
larly in rural locations where approximately 0.52 million
people are not connected to central sewers.
The presented results and the methodology of mapping
the potentially suitable areas for DWWT&R systems
provides a useful planning tool for the sustainable develop-
ment of the water sector in rural and urban areas. The
generated maps may serve as a basis for a more detailed
analysis of the sector needs and as a support for future
investment decisions.
Suitable DWWT&R technologies, for example, should
meet the strict Jordanian standard for Reclaimed Domestic
Wastewater (MWI et al. 2006) and at the same time should
be achievable, robust and not require highly qualified
personnel for operation and maintenance (Al-Omari &
Fayyad 2003;Abbassi 2008;Bdoura et al. 2009). The
calculations presented here and findings from Ghunmi
et al. (2008) and Halalsheh et al. (2008) indicate that
the technology selection should especially consider the
high BOD
5
concentration of the strong wastewater
in Jordan that are due to the low water consumption.
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Before specifying the costs and suitable financing and
operation models for the implementations of DWWT&R
technologies, future work should be directed to define
design criteria, performance specifications and guidelines
not only for wastewater treatment, but also for sewer,
irrigation, storage and groundwater recharge systems
(Bdoura et al. 2009).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was conduced within the framework of the
SMART-project on “Sustainable Management of Available
Water Resources with Innovative Technologies” in the
Lower Jordan Rift Valley. The project is funded by the
German Federal Ministry of Education and Research
(BMBF, FKZ 02WM0801). The authors have to thank the
Jordanian Ministry of Water and Irrigation, The Water
Authority of Jordan and the Jordan Department of Statistics
for their helpful support and provision of valuable data.
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