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Gambling Accessibility: A Scale to Measure Gambler Preferences
Abstract
Geographic closeness of gambling venues is not the only aspect of accessibility likely to affect gambling frequency. Perceived accessibility of gambling venues may include other features such as convenience (e.g., opening hours) or "atmosphere". The aim of the current study was to develop a multidimensional measure of gamblers' perceptions of accessibility, and present evidence for its reliability and validity. We surveyed 303 gamblers with 43 items developed to measure different dimensions of accessibility. Factor analysis of the items produced a two factor solution. The first, Social Accessibility related to the level at which gambling venues were enjoyed because they were social places, provided varying entertainment options and had a pleasant atmosphere. The second factor, Accessible Retreat related to the degree to which venues were enjoyed because they were geographically and temporally available and provided a familiar and anonymous retreat with few interruptions or distractions. Both factors, developed as reliable subscales of the new Gambling Access Scale, demonstrated construct validity through their correlations with other gambling-related measures. Social Accessibility was moderately related to gambling frequency and amount spent, but not to problem gambling, while, as hypothesised, Accessible Retreat was associated with stronger urges to gamble and gambling problems.
... Thomas, Allen, and Phillips (2009) showed that gambling problems were associated with gambling on EGMs to escape and for its accessibility (see p. 354). Moore, Thomas, Kyrios, Bates, and Meredyth (2011) suggest a conceptualization of gambling accessibility comprising three factors: (1) geo-temporal accessibility, referring to geographical accessibility and opening hours (see ); (2) social and personal accessibility, referring to gamblers' perception of the general atmosphere of the gambling venue; and (3) financial accessibility, referring to the possibility of withdrawing money within the gambling venue (see Hing & Haw [2010] for a good review of different ways to consider accessibility). In accordance with Moore et al. 's (2011) financial accessibility factor, Griffiths and Parke (2003) reported that the distance between an automatic teller machine (ATM) and an EGM was inversely proportional to the amount of money the player could possibly lose. ...
... Moore, Thomas, Kyrios, Bates, and Meredyth (2011) suggest a conceptualization of gambling accessibility comprising three factors: (1) geo-temporal accessibility, referring to geographical accessibility and opening hours (see ); (2) social and personal accessibility, referring to gamblers' perception of the general atmosphere of the gambling venue; and (3) financial accessibility, referring to the possibility of withdrawing money within the gambling venue (see Hing & Haw [2010] for a good review of different ways to consider accessibility). In accordance with Moore et al. 's (2011) financial accessibility factor, Griffiths and Parke (2003) reported that the distance between an automatic teller machine (ATM) and an EGM was inversely proportional to the amount of money the player could possibly lose. ...
... A good number of past studies on accessibility (Moore et al., 2011;Productivity Commission, 1999;, proximity (Marshall et al., 2004;Sévigny et al., 2008), distance (Young et al., 2012a) and EGMs per capita (Cox et al., 2005;Markham et al., 2014;Marshall, 2005) reported accessibility as being either a risk factor for the development of problem gambling or a variable influencing gambling behaviours. Our findings provide weak support for this statement. ...
The goal of this study was to improve the common knowledge on the connections between problem gambling and environmental settings. A cross-sectional design was used to compare two types of electronic gambling machine (EGM) users in terms of gamblers’ self-reported behaviours, perceptions, motivations and preferences according to the type of venue they gambled in. Sixty-six volunteers who gambled in a gambling hall containing 335 EGMs were compared to volunteers (n = 143) who gambled in small venues containing either 5 or 10 EGMs. All venues were located in areas with similar socio-economic status. Face-to-face survey-like interviews were conducted on site by trained assistants. Interviews comprised 83 items (fixed response and short open-ended questions). Gamblers’ varied according to the type of venue on (a) socio-demographic variables; (b) correlates of gambling problems; (c) self-reported gambling behaviours, perceptions and motivations; and (d) venue characteristics influencing their choice of venue. Small venue gamblers reported more characteristics associated with problem gambling and are about four times more likely to be associated with problem gambling than gambling hall patrons. Decision-makers should consider the venue specific players’ profiles outlined in this manuscript, and appreciate their possible use in appropriate responsible gambling measures and prevention/treatment programmes.
... Correlation relationship between casino proximity and problem gambling was supported by five studies (Welte, Barnes et al. 2004;Adams et al., 2007;LaBrie et al., 2007;Pearce et al., 2008;Moore et al., 2011), suggesting that casino proximity had a role in problem gambling. Welte, Barnes et al. (2004) has established a relationship between the presence of casino within 10 miles of respondent's home and prevalence of probable problem/pathological gambling, which were found to be 7.2% and 3.1% among the respondents with and without casino within 10 miles of his/her home in Unites States (Welte, Barnes et al. 2004). ...
... Accessible Retreat, which included the ideas of both "convenience" and "retreat", was related to the degree to which venues were enjoyed because they were geographically and temporally available and provided a familiar and anonymous retreat with few interruptions or distractions (Moore et al., 2011). The "convenience" part in Accessible Retreat was relevant to casino proximity, while the "retreat" part was not. ...
... The "convenience" part in Accessible Retreat was relevant to casino proximity, while the "retreat" part was not. Moore et al. (2011) has shown that Accessible Retreat was correlated with higher gambling frequency, higher average amount spent/year on gambling, more financial stress, stronger urges to gamble and more disordered gambling. But further break down of "convenience" and "retreat" items was not reported, rendering the direct assessment in the influence of casino proximity on problem gambling difficult. ...
Will increased casino proximity lead to, or correlate with, an increased prevalence of problem gambling? This study aims to address this research question by conducting a systematic review in the potential relationship between casino proximity and problem gambling. Keyword searches are conducted in PubMed and PsychINFO databases. Twelve studies, which were all from North America, were identified. Among the eight cross-sectional studies identified, correlations with statistical significance were demonstrated in five studies, indicating that casino proximity does have a role in problem gambling, but such correlations were not evident in the other three studies. Four longitudinal studies investigating the influence of new casino establishment on problem gambling were reported. The grand opening of a new casino resulted in increased casino gambling activities and problem gambling among local residents within 1 year, according to the studies conducted in Niagara Falls and Hull area, Canada. However, conflicting result was again observed in Windsor, Canada, as there was no significant increase in problem gambling within 1 year of new casino establishment. In addition, 2- and 4-year follow-up study in Hull area, Canada, showed that the rate of problem gambling did not increase, compared with those obtained before the casino establishment. The current data available from literature indicates that the relationship between casino proximity and problem gambling is still controversial, and remains to be established until more data are available, especially in Asian countries.
... The model also identified that subjective accessibility of venues, such as its welcoming social environment, was important for some gamblers. Subsequent research, however, has suggested that geographical and temporal accessibility were more important to explaining frequent and problematic gambling than was the social environment (Moore, Thomas, Kyrios, Bates, & Meredyth, 2011;Thomas, Allen, & Phillips, 2009). Another important element of Thomas, Sullivan et al.'s (2009) model was the consideration of social support deficits, finding evidence of significant relationship conflict in EGM problem gamblers and an unwillingness to seek support for chronic issues. ...
... As expected, stressors were positively related to accessibility-motivated gambling, which in turn was positively related to frequency of gambling and severity of problems. This was consistent with exposure theory in which geographical and temporal accessibility are linked to gambling frequency and problems (e.g., Cox, et al., 2005;Moore, et al., 2011;Storer, et al., 2009;. Results were also consistent with earlier arguments of Vuchinich and Tucker (1988) that relative accessibility to alcohol and/or alternative reinforcers will influence alcohol consumption. ...
... Although stressors were positively related to socially-motivated gambling this motivation was not related to frequency or problem gambling or to social support. Prior research has similarly shown only weak relationships between social motivations and gambling (Moore, et al., 2011;. The lack of significant relationships may be because gambling is viewed as a social activity by non-problem as well as problem gamblers (e.g., Neighbours, Lostutter, Cronce, & Larimer, 2002;Wood & Griffiths, 2007). ...
Commonality in etiology and clinical expression plus high comorbidity between pathological gambling and substance use disorders suggest common underlying motives. It is important to understand common motivators and differentiating factors. An overarching framework of addiction was used to examine predictors of problem gambling in current electronic gaming machine (EGM) gamblers. Path analysis was used to examine the relationships between antecedent factors (stressors, coping habits, social support), gambling motivations (avoidance, accessibility, social) and gambling behavior. Three hundred and forty seven (229 females: M = 29.20 years, SD = 14.93; 118 males: M = 29.64 years, SD = 12.49) people participated. Consistent with stress, coping and addiction theory, situational life stressors and general avoidance coping were positively related to avoidance-motivated gambling. In turn, avoidance-motivated gambling was positively related to EGM gambling frequency and problems. Consistent with exposure theory, life stressors were positively related to accessibility-motivated gambling, and accessibility-motivated gambling was positively related to EGM gambling frequency and gambling problems. These findings are consistent with other addiction research and suggest avoidance-motivated gambling is part of a more generalized pattern of avoidance coping with relative accessibility to EGM gambling explaining its choice as a method of avoidance. Findings also showed social support acted as a direct protective factor in relation to gambling frequency and problems and indirectly via avoidance and accessibility gambling motivations. Finally, life stressors were positively related to socially motivated gambling but this motivation was not related to either social support or gambling behavior suggesting it has little direct influence on gambling problems.
... Researchers have begun to explore the reasons why population sub groups such as families, older adults and people who gamble interact with venues [17][18][19]. Studies have demonstrated that the majority of participants attend venues for non-gambling reasons, including restaurants, social interactions, recreational facilities, and perceive that venues are safe, and have a friendly or inviting atmosphere [17][18][19]. ...
... Researchers have begun to explore the reasons why population sub groups such as families, older adults and people who gamble interact with venues [17][18][19]. Studies have demonstrated that the majority of participants attend venues for non-gambling reasons, including restaurants, social interactions, recreational facilities, and perceive that venues are safe, and have a friendly or inviting atmosphere [17][18][19]. Bestman and colleagues (2018) conducted an online survey with 500 participants in New South Wales aged 16-82 years, and found that many reported that they attended the venue because of the affordability of food and drinks and the provision of services including entertainment and to attend functions such as sports presentation nights, or family celebrations [17]. Research with 126 older adults in Victoria has demonstrated that community gambling venues are used because of the reasonable cost of food, drinks and activities, the accessibility of venues within the local community, the availability of the courtesy bus to ensure free and convenient transport, the opportunity to reduce feelings of social isolation and loneliness and build social connectedness [20]. ...
Background:
Community gambling venues (pubs and clubs) are commonly associated with leisure and recreational options in Australian communities. While these venues offer a range of activities and facilities, including social opportunities, sporting facilities, live entertainment, they also contain gambling products that are known to cause significant harm to individuals, their families and communities. Although researchers have explored how adults and children engage with these venues, there is limited understanding about the potential risks and benefits of these venues for people with lifelong disability.
Methods:
Semi structured interviews were conducted with nineteen people aged 20-70 years with lifelong disability (includes in this context intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorder, ADHD, and learning disability), predominately intellectual disability. The interviews occurred in a large Australian city and explored interviewees' experiences and attitudes towards pubs and clubs. Using a range of visual prompts (if needed), participants were asked to describe their engagement in different activities offered within the venue. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed, with a thematic analysis used to identify themes across the group.
Results:
Most participants attended venues with family, friends, and supporters, with a few attending on their own. Participants described socialising in the venue, going for reduced price meals, and attended for a range of activities including recreational activities, live entertainment and sport. Some participants also valued being a member of venues, and the interactions with staff members. While participants were cautious about the consumption of alcohol, most had gambled, particularly on electronic gambling machines (EGMs, pokies, or slots). Some participants stated that they had experienced problems with gambling.
Conclusions:
While many people with lifelong disability have positive experiences in pubs and clubs, some are vulnerable to the harms associated with risky products such as gambling within the venue. While it is important to acknowledge the positives associated with recreational facilities and encourage engagement in leisure activities for people with lifelong disability, further consideration is needed to ensure people are informed and protected from the harms associated with gambling and other products that are provided within these spaces.
... As technology continues to drive the gambling market and creating a proliferation of gambling opportunities as a result of high accessibility, the regulation and conduct of online gambling companies has become an important area of interest in terms of social policy (Griffiths 2012;Hancock, Schellinck, and Schrans 2008;Shaffer and Korn 2002). The public concern regarding online gambling has centred upon the proposition that increasing availability of gambling through information technology has led to an increase in problem gambling in various jurisdictions ( Moore et al. 2011;Sassen, Kraus, and Bühringer 2011;Thomas et al. 2011). Furthermore, it has been argued that a large proportion of profits from online gambling are generated from problem gamblers (Hancock, Schellinck, and Schrans *Corresponding author. ...
... Tilting describes reckless and emotionally driven gambling behaviour, where players find it difficult to cease gambling as they seek to chase incurred monetary losses and regain their damaged gambling self-identity and esteem (Lesieur 1984;Palomäki, Laakasuo, and Salmela 2014;Rosenthal 1995). Conversely, evidence shows that 'safe' poker gambling is dependent upon being able to incur losses and yet retaining emotional self-regulation ( Moore et al. 2011;Palomäki, Laakasuo, and Salmela 2014;Williams et al. 2011). Therefore, when considering the primary source of risk in poker gambling, emphasis must be placed on minimising the likelihood of a customer tilting and maintaining composed control of both emotional reaction to gambling outcomes and betting behaviour ( Barrault and Varescon 2013). ...
The present paper conducts a critical analysis of the potential for gambling-related harm in relation to online poker participation, and a theoretical evaluation of current responsible gambling strategies employed to mitigate harm in online gambling and applies the evaluation of these strategies specifically to online poker gambling. Theoretically, the primary risk for harm in online poker is the rapid and continuous nature of poker provisions online, and has been demonstrated to be associated with disordered gambling behaviour, including the chasing of monetary losses. The following responsible gambling features were deemed relevant for consideration: informed player choice, voluntary self-exclusion, employee intervention, pre-commitment, in-game feedback, behavioural tracking tools, and age restriction and verification. Although current responsible gambling features are evaluated as theoretically robust, there remains a fundamental need for experi- mental validation of their effectiveness. Furthermore, despite online poker gam- blers perceiving the responsible gambling features as valuable tools, in reality very few players regularly use available responsible gambling features. Ultimately, for the online poker gambling industry to retain market credibility and avoid substantial top-down regulation, it is imperative to demonstrate effectiveness of responsible gambling approaches, and increase customer utilisation of available harm-mitigation features.
... Past research indicated that problem gamblers were more stimulated to gamble by advertising than nonproblem gamblers (Grant & Kim, 2001;Tavares, Ziberman, Hodgins, & el-Guebaly, 2005). One possible reason was that gambling was a means of cognitive and physical escape from personal problems (Moore, Thomas, Kyrios, Bates, & Meredyth, 2010;Thomas, Allen, & Phillips, 2009a), and one other might be the wish to win back money lost. ...
... A possible reason might this: with higher education and employment, they might have income or disposable money, enabling them to gamble more. Another possible reason that young adult and educated groups rated themselves as being more influenced by the increased gambling venues in Macau was that they were young and more energetic to travel compared with those aged 60 or above, and more fee to travel than the other groups as they did not have their own family yet, together with the fact that the packaging of the casino environment as a nice (Cox et al., 2005;Marshall, 2005;Moore et al., 2010;Thomas et al., 2009b). Regarding gambling advertising, again, those between 20 and 39 and those with tertiary education or higher were the largest groups who rated themselves being influenced to gamble more. ...
Prior foreign research showed significant positive relationship between geographical accessibility, gambling advertising and gambling behaviors. This paper, using data from two studies, describes and discusses the change in prevalence of gambling in Hong Kong with the liberalization of gambling activities in Macau. Results mirror the findings of foreign studies. Analysis showed that the groups who indicated that they were mostly influenced by the increased number of Macau casinos and gambling advertising were those aged 20–39, those with tertiary or above education, and the problem and pathological gamblers. Policy makers and gaming operators' effort to implement responsible gambling policies to prevent gambling addiction are discussed.
... Notably, some places, such as Manitoba, Canada, report no gender differences; both men and women are equally likely to gamble and to be problem gamblers (Lemaire et al. 2008). This and the increase in women seeking help in Australia has been partly explained by the normalization, wide acceptance and availability of gambling machines (Delfabbro 2009;Holdsworth et al. 2012;Moore et al. 2011). ...
... Gambling in the chance-public domain involved the use of gambling machines. This is consistent with findings from most published studies on problem gambling and gambling forms, which have shown that gambling machines are the form of gambling most associated with problem gambling (Delfabbro 2009;Moore et al. 2011;Williams et al. 2012). The strategy domains were only related to gambling problems for men who gambled regularly, not women. ...
This study aimed to investigate, from a gender perspective, how different features of problem gambling present in men and women who gamble regularly in Sweden were distributed in four domains based on gambling type (chance or strategy) and setting (public or domestic). Problem gambling features were based on the nine items in the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI). It was hypothesized that men and women gamble in different domains. Further, it was hypothesized that male gamblers overall experienced more problems with gambling than female gamblers, although in the same domains they would report the same level of problems. A further hypothesis predicted that regular female gamblers would experience more health and social problems and men would experience more financial difficulties. Interviews with a subsample of gamblers (n = 3191) from a Swedish nationally representative sample (n = 8179) was used to examine how features of problem gambling correspond with gender and the domains. Only the first hypothesis was fully supported. Men were more likely to participate in forms of gambling requiring strategy in a public setting, and women were more likely to participate in chance-based gambling in a domestic setting. Male and female gamblers had similar levels of problem gambling in the bi-variate analysis, but if controlling for age and gambling in multiple domains, women were more at risk than men. Additionally, men and women presented similar health and economic situations. The differences between male and female gamblers in Sweden have implications for research and prevention.
... Whereas"availability"typically focuses on the presence of facilities and may be understood in binary terms (as presence or absence of gambling facility in the selected spatial unit), "accessibility"encompasses more complex aspects, such as the ease with which one can physically reach a facility. Moore et al. (2011) corroborated that gambling accessibility is a multidimensional concept encompassing both social and physical aspects. In this context Hing and Haw (2009) identified three primary dimensions of accessibility in their study: social (approbation of gambling from personal, familial and peer sphere), physical (diversity of options, venue proximity, minimal waiting time), and cognitive (proficiency in and comprehension of gambling product mechanics). ...
This study examines the relationship between daily encounters with gambling facilities and gambling participation in a Czech region that transformed from having one of the world's highest gambling facility densities to implementing strict regulations. Using a sample of 2,447 respondents from 277 municipalities, the research analyses how daily encounters with gambling facilities, rather than mere facility presence, influence gambling behaviour. The study incorporates individuals' accessibility based on daily encounters within their living space, moving beyond conventional metrics of availability. Results show that the extent of encounters during daily routines is a stronger predictor of gambling participation than facility presence alone, with the most pronounced effects observed in casinos and gaming halls. Municipalities with comprehensive gambling offerings showed the highest proportion of at-risk and problem gamblers. These findings emphasise the importance of considering population mobility in gambling accessibility analyses and suggest implications for local regulatory policies.
... C asino gambling, once an undesirable activity, is now recognized as a socially acceptable adult activity in mainstream America (Ashley and Boehlke, 2012;Kerber et al., 2015;Martin et al., 2011;Moore et al., 2011;Stansbury et al., 2015;Thomas et al., 2011;Tolchard, 2015). Following years of relaxed gambling rules, regulations, and expansion, gambling outlets and opportunities have increased, such that casinos have opened in major metropolitan cities throughout the United States (Conway, 2015;Tolchard, 2015), making casino gambling also accessible and available. ...
The effect of casino proximity and time on poverty levels in New York City examines levels of poverty over a 5-year duration for urban casino communities under the theoretical dimensions of exposure and adaption. Links between casino proximity and problem gambling or other gambling-related problems that could adversely impact individuals in disadvantaged communities were reported before the influx of urban casinos in major metro areas. This analysis uses Public Use Microdata Samples (PUMS) from the American Community Survey (ACS) estimates. A two-way factorial ANOVA measured poverty-level outcomes at high and low casino proximity in year 1 and year 5 after an urban casino had been opened. No significant interaction was found between casino proximity and year for poverty-level outcomes. The hypothesis that levels of poverty defined as PUMS score in urban casino communities and two levels of casino proximity in the New York metro area for the first and fifth year after the casino had been opened would not report statistically significant changes was supported. Higher poverty-level outcome scores were reported at closer distances measured as high casino proximity with approximately the same reported scores for year 1 and year 5, suggesting that closer distances to a casino despite the lifespan of the casino could influence poverty levels and other potential socio-economic factors. Contextualizing the findings in the exposure and adaptation theory frameworks suggests that exposure to a casino can have adverse consequences based on the increase in poverty-level outcome scores. Conversely, adaptation, which could occur over time, typically at the 5-year mark of operation, was not indicated due to the negligibility of poverty-level scores between year 1 and year 5; thus, refuting adaptation theory. This research expands the literature on urban casino proximity in the context of exposure and adaptation theory. Implication of these results provide the broader community of legislators, community workers, scholar-practitioners, preventionists, and industry with a better understanding of the phenomenon, and any potential adverse consequences to host and neighboring communities so that policy, intervention, prevention, and treatment can be implemented well before a casino opens.
... Gambling accessibility is a multi-dimensional construct (Hing & Haw, 2009;Hing & Nisbet, 2010) composed of social, cognitive, and physical aspects. While physical accessibility focuses on environmental factors of convenience such as location, opening times, and available products (e.g., lotteries, EGMs, casino table games, racing, club keno, and sporting events) (Hing & Haw, 2009;Hing & Nisbet, 2010;Moor et al., 2011), social accessibility includes personal, family, and peer approval of gambling, and cognitive accessibility refers to knowledge and understanding of gambling. Hing and Haw (2009) reported a positive relationship between physical accessibility and gambling behaviors, although the previous literature on these three gambling dimensions in association with gambling behavior has provided inconsistent findings. ...
This is the first population-based study in South Korea to examine the comprehensive nature of gambling accessibility. While most previous studies have examined only the physical aspects of gambling accessibility, this study accepts that gambling accessibility is multi-dimensional comprising physical, social, and cognitive accessibility, and tests the predictive power of each dimension of gambling behavior. We measured gambling behaviors in three ways: problem gambling, time spent on gambling, and gambling expenditure. Using a proportional quota sampling method (based on gender, age, and region) to represent the general Korean population, we identified 8245 adults (aged 19–69 years), and 2044 participated in online survey from July 1 to July 9, 2021. Study findings revealed that, among the three accessibility dimensions, social accessibility was the strongest predictor of all three gambling behavior measures. Study findings provide insights for developing culturally sensitive gambling prevention programs and highlight the importance of a comprehensive examination of the relationship between gambling accessibility and gambling behavior.
... Marshall (2005) vo svojej práci identifikoval niekoľko rozmerov dostupnosti k hazardným hrám a stávkovaniu: geografickú, časovú a sociálnu dostupnosť. Moore et al. (2011 kombinujú geografickú a časovú dostupnosť a používajú termín časopriestorová dostupnosť spolu s finančnou dostupnosťou. To, že geografická a časová dostupnosť majú významný vplyv na zvýšený výskyt hráčov/stávkujúcich poukázali vo svojej štúdii Pearce et al. (2008). ...
... As more cities began to adopt casinos, opportunities for casino gambling moved closer to major metropolitan areas; hence, closer to homes and workplaces of casino patrons (Conway, 2015;Hing and Nisbet, 2010;Tong and Chim, 2013;Welte et al., 2016a;Welte et al., 2016b). Legalized gambling, casino proliferation, and social acceptability of casino gambling in the U.S. have created more opportunities for casino participation in urban areas, such that casinos are available to adults for entertainment and socialization (Ashley and Boehlke, 2012;Conway, 2015;Martin et al., 2011;Moore et al., 2011;Petry and Blanco, 2013;Stansbury et al., 2015;Thomas et al., 2011;Tolchard, 2015). However, urban casinos, as the newest type of on-land casinos, have not been fully explored in the literature (Conway, 2015). ...
Gambling legalization, regulation, and casino proliferation in the United States have increased casino-gambling participation. The three A's (accessibility, availability, and acceptability), known as ecological predictors of casino-gambling participation, have also been linked to the flood of casinos, including the influx of urban casinos in major metropolitan cities along the northeast corridor. Links between casino proximity, increased casino participation, and gambling-related problems are reported in the gambling and casino proximity literature but the relationship between casino proximity and urban casino communities have not been fully investigated in current literature. The purpose of this article is to present a comprehensive review of casino proximity and northeast urban casinos and host communities to the discussion on the construct, casino proximity and the impact on northeast urban casino communities by explaining the implications to those communities through extensive literature review. The review found that (i) urban casinos are typically placed in low socioeconomic communities with some existing gambling culture, (ii) socioeconomic improvement are promised to existing disadvantaged communities prior to the adoption of casinos, but modest economic benefits realized in urban casino neighborhoods are unsustainable, and (iii) increased accessibility and availability of urban casinos due to proximity could increase casino participation, which in turn could potentially increase gambling-related problems. Results of this literature review also indicated that gambling-related problems from proximity to casinos could produce negative socioeconomic outcomes for host communities. Key stakeholders (including legislators, community workers, social services professionals, scholar practitioners , and the casino-gambling industry) could benefit from this review given the increase in urban casino in major metro areas, and the potential impact those casinos can have on host and neighboring communities. Although very little is known about the impact of casino proximity on northeast corridor urban casinos in the megalopolis, even less is known about the relationship between proximity of urban casinos and their impact on host communities. Further investigation, particularly on the socioeconomic outcomes for urban casino communities, is warranted.
... Gambling availability has been conceptualized in terms of both geographic gambling accessibility and perceived gambling availability. The former implies that people within the same community are equally influenced by the physical presence of nearby gambling facilities (Abdi et al., 2015;Kang et al., 2019;Moore et al., 2011). Perceived gambling availability refers to individual's subjective estimation about the opportunities to access to gambling facilities (Wechsler et al., 2002) and has been suggested as a better determinant of gambling behavior in comparison to geographic gambling availability (Ofori Dei et al., 2020). ...
Geographic accessibility has been linked to gambling behavior, but little is known about whether the perception of gambling availability in both offline and online venues is prospectively associated with adolescent gambling behavior. Further, relatively few studies have analyzed the interaction between environmental and individual factors in explaining adolescent gambling and problem gambling. This prospective study examined the association between perceived gambling availability, gambling frequency, and problem gambling among 554 adolescents aged 13–17 years (mean = 15.1, female 47.4%) and explored the moderating role of self-efficacy to control gambling in these associations. Participants completed assessments of perceived gambling availability and gambling self-efficacy at baseline. Gambling frequency and problem gambling were measured at follow-up. Two separate hierarchical regression models were applied to analyze the relationship of perceived gambling availability with gambling behavior and the moderating role of gambling self-efficacy. Results showed that a greater perception of gambling availability was associated with a higher gambling frequency and more problem gambling in adolescents. The impact of perceived gambling availability on gambling frequency and problem gambling was lower among participants with moderate gambling self-efficacy in comparison with participants with low gambling self-efficacy. In those adolescents with high self-efficacy to control gambling, perceived gambling availability was not associated either with gambling frequency or problem gambling. These results suggest the usefulness of implementing regulatory policies aimed at reducing gambling availability in adolescents, and the design of preventative interventions aimed at enhancing self-efficacy to control gambling.
... An important factor in this context is accessibility which is a multidimensional concept that relates to the physical, social and cognitive influences on people's gambling. Physical gambling refers to geographic features such as the location of gambling venues, the number of venues, social accessibility as a function of social and cultural approval, and cognitive accessibility refers to people's understanding of how to gamble (Hing & Haw, 2009;Moore et al., 2011). The role of these factors is inherent in the Pathways Model (Blaszczynski & Nower, 2002) which recognizes ecological factors such as ease of access and the social accessibility of gambling serve as a "gateway" to gambling, irrespective of the role of other more specific factors (e.g., behavior or emotional vulnerability). ...
Countries with public policies that support gambling through gambling legislation foster an environment in which gambling is socially accepted, tacitly encouraged and actively promoted. Although gambling worldwide has features in common, countries differ in terms of the nature of their gambling markets. The current study examined the role of perceived gambling accessibility in gambling behaviors and problem gambling in four different countries: Australia, Canada, Croatia and Israel. A convenience sample comprised 1787 university students aged 18–30. Gambling behaviors and problems were found to be more prevalent and gambling was perceived to be more accessible in liberalized markets (e.g. Australia, Canada and Croatia) as compared to Israel which is relatively more conservative and has more restrictive regulations. Social accessibility was perceived to be higher in those who gambled and associated with higher risk gambling, especially for women. The study highlights the potentially important role of social normalization of gambling and how supply variations can influence perceptions as well as impact gambling behavior.
... Two broad categories have been proposed for grouping gambling activity based on the role of chance in the outcome of the game (Odlaug, Marsh, Kim, & Grant, 2011): non-strategic games (also called chance-based games, since little [or no] decision making or skill can be used by gamblers in determining the outcome; e.g., lotteries, slots-machines, bingo) versus strategic games (also called skill-based games, since autonomous decision making skills can be by used by gamblers in determining the outcome; e.g., poker, sports/animals betting, craps, stock market). The study of the correlates of the gambling preference have found multiple reasons that lead individuals to a preferred gambling style, including sociodemographics (gender, age, education level, civil status and social position (Jim enez-Murcia et al., 2019; Kastirke, Rumpf, John, Bischof, & Meyer, 2015), accessibility/availability of the gambling platforms (Moore, Thomas, Kyrios, Bates, & Meredyth, 2011), certain personality traits (mainly novelty/sensation seeking and impulsivity levels) (Lorains, Stout, Bradshaw, Dowling, & Enticott, 2014b;Navas et al., 2017), and even the psychological state and level of the disordered gambling (Bonnaire et al., 2017;Chamberlain, Stochl, Redden, Odlaug, & Grant, 2017;Ledgerwood & Petry, 2010;Suomi, Dowling, & Jackson, 2014). Regarding the effect of chronological age on the gambling preference, chance-based games are more likelihood selected by older individuals, who tend to select low skill (high chance) gambling activities (Moragas et al., 2015). ...
Background and aims:
Due to the contribution of age to the etiology of gambling disorder (GD), there is a need to assess the moderator effect of the aging process with other features that are highly related with the clinical profile. The objective of this study is to examine the role of the chronological age into the relationships between cognitive biases, impulsivity levels and gambling preference with the GD profile during adulthood.
Methods:
Sample included n = 209 patients aged 18-77 years-old recruited from a Pathological Gambling Outpatients Unit. Orthogonal contrasts explored polynomial patterns in data, and path analysis implemented through structural equation modeling assessed the underlying mechanisms between the study variables.
Results:
Compared to middle-age patients, younger and older age groups reported more impairing irrational beliefs (P = 0.005 for interpretative control and P = 0.043 for interpretative bias). A linear trend showed that as people get older sensation seeking (P = 0.006) and inability to stop gambling (P = 0.018) increase. Path analysis showed a direct effect between the cognitive bias and measures of gambling severity (standardized effects [SE] between 0.12 and 0.17) and a direct effect between impulsivity levels and cumulated debts due to gambling (SE = 0.22).
Conclusion:
Screening tools and intervention plans should consider the aging process. Specific programs should be developed for younger and older age groups, since these are highly vulnerable to the consequences of gambling activities and impairment levels of impulsivity and cognitive biases.
... Problem gamblers are inclined to determine their preferred gambling establishment based on proximity to their home (Thorne, Goodwin, Langham, Rockloff, & Rose, 2016). However, accessibility also depends on the number of operating hours of the EGM (Moore, Thomas, Kyrios, Bates, & Meredyth, 2011). In this vein, crosssectional data collected in Australia indicate a positive correlation between the number of EGM operating hours and the number of bets made (The Centre for Gambling Reseach Australian National University, 2003). ...
Electronic gambling machine (EGM) licenses are meant to be a complementary revenue source for liquor establishments. Considering this, retailers with more than one license to operate EGMs may benefit from promoting their gambling offer, which may in turn facilitate excessive gambling behaviours. This study compares establishments that possess a single license to operate EGMs with those that are multi-licensed regarding four environmental risk factors: advertisements, automated teller machines, isolated gambling area, and EGM operating hours. A field observation was carried out by seven pairs of observers in 166 establishments in Capitale-Nationale de Quebec (QC), Canada. In each establishment, observers had to complete an observational grid on an iPod touch to gather environmental data related to the identified variables. Results from the stepwise logistic regression show that being a multi-licensed establishment increases the chance of having longer operating hours and displaying non-regulated advertisements that promote gambling. Multi-licensed establishments tend to offer a more attractive gambling environment, which may increase the risk of excessive gambling. Reinforcement of regulations for responsible gambling is discussed.RésuméPour les établissements ayant un permis d’alcool, posséder une licence d’exploitation d’appareils de jeux électroniques (AJE) se traduit par un revenu complémentaire. De ce fait, les détaillants ayant plus d’une licence d’exploitation d’AJE peuvent tirer parti de la promotion de leur offre de jeu, ce qui, en retour, peut encourager des comportements de jeu excessifs. Cette étude compare les établissements qui détiennent une seule licence d’exploitation d’AJE avec ceux qui en détiennent plusieurs en tenant compte de quatre facteurs de risque environnementaux : la publicité, les guichets automatiques, la zone de jeu isolée et les heures d’exploitation des AJE. Une observation sur le terrain a été effectuée par sept paires d’observateurs dans 166 établissements de Capitale-Nationale de Québec (QC), Canada. Dans chaque établissement, ils ont recueilli des données environnementales liées aux variables identifiées qu’ils ont compilées dans une grille d’observation sur un iPod touch. Les résultats du modèle logistique utilisant la régression séquentielle montrent que le fait, pour un établissement, d’avoir plusieurs licences augmente la possibilité de prolonger les heures d’exploitation et d’afficher des publicités non réglementées qui font la promotion du jeu. Les établissements ayant plusieurs licences ont tendance à offrir un environnement de jeu plus attrayant, ce qui peut accroître le risque de jeu excessif. Un resserrement des règles pour une réglementation responsable du jeu est à l’étude.
... In the other study, Williams et al. (2011) found that approximately 50% of Albertan survey respondents perceived gambling opportunities were too widely available but did not investigate the potential effects of this perception on problem gambling severity. In addition, two qualitative studies found the perception of gambling availability influences gambling participation (Hing and Nisbet 2010;Moore et al. 2011). ...
The aim of this study was to determine the moderating effects of sociodemographic characteristics, substance use, and psychosocial problems on the relationship between perceived gambling availability and problem gambling severity. Bivariate and multivariate regression analyses of the 2008 and 2009 Social and Economic Impacts of Gambling in Alberta surveys found problem gambling severity was 1.25–1.39 times higher for those reporting gambling opportunities were ‘too widely available’. Factors such as age, gender, place of residence, and psychosocial problems had significant moderating effects. Our findings indicate that the perception of gambling availability has a statistically significant impact on problem gambling severity.
... e.g., 8,14 For example, Welte et al 14 found that adult respondents in a national survey who lived within 10 mi of a casino had twice the rate of problem or pathological gambling (7.2% vs 3.1%) as those who lived farther from a casino. An Australian study by Moore et al 18 found that rates of disordered gambling were positively related to a measure of gambling venue accessibility, which included geographic proximity as one of its components. Similarly, studies have also found that density of electronic gaming machines is linked to problem gambling. ...
Objectives: Within the field of gambling research, an emerging body of literature has begun to examine the associations between neighborhood context and gambling outcomes (i.e., gambling participation and problems). Previous research has been heavily focused on objective measures of neighborhood influence with few studies examining subjective (i.e., perceived) neighborhood attributes as they relate to gambling outcomes. This study aimed to expand knowledge of the effects of neighborhood characteristics on gambling patterns and problems.
Methods: Using data derived from the fourth wave of an epidemiological community sample (n = 1862), this study explores the associations between perceived neighborhood contextual factors and gambling participation and problems.
Results: Our findings reveal that community participation was positively related to gambling participation, even after accounting for control variables (i.e., sex and social support). Perceived neighborhood disorder was positively associated with problem gambling.
Conclusions: Findings highlight the importance of looking beyond individual risk factors for gambling outcomes. Population-based interventions for gambling problems may benefit from understanding how neighborhood contexts come into play.
... To date, there has been limited research exploring the broad range of factors that may encourage or create pathways for individuals into community-based EGM venues. A small amount of research suggests that increased gambling participation and expenditure may be linked to the extent to which gambling venues are seen as safe entertainment settings [13,14]. Researchers have also identified the range of promotional factors that may shape attitudes towards gambling venues, indicating that in the absence of an ability to directly promote EGMs, venues focus on the promotion of family-friendly activities, cheap meals and other forms of entertainment to encourage individuals into venues [15]. ...
Background:
Harmful gambling has been identified as an important public health issue that affects individuals, families and the broader community. One gambling product, electronic gambling machines (EGMs), has been associated with significant gambling harm in Australia. There has been limited research that has explored community perceptions of EGMs and attitudes towards reform. This study, conducted in NSW, Australia, aimed to explore community use of EGM venues (clubs and hotels containing EGMs), attitudes towards EGMs and whether the use of these venues influenced attitudes towards EGM reform.
Methods:
An online survey was conducted with 500 adults aged 16 years and over, representative of the population for age and gender. Discrete choice and open-ended questions were used to gather data on gambling behaviours, use of and attitudes towards EGMs and EGM venues and support for gambling harm reduction measures.
Results:
Three quarters of participants had visited an EGM venue in the previous year. Participants who had attended such venues were significantly more likely to use EGMs at least once per month. Participants attended EGM venues for a range of reasons including use of non-gambling facilities such as restaurants, the social aspects of the venue and ease of access to the venue. Some participants also attended EGM venues specifically for the gambling facilities. Most participants identified some negative impacts of EGMs for local communities and were supportive of measures to reduce the number of EGMs and prevent children's exposure to EGMs in such venues.
Conclusions:
This study shows a high level of support for EGM reform amongst both individuals who attend EGM venues and also those who do not. There is potential for government to further regulate EGMs and the environments where they are located.
... In urban areas, geographical research has uncovered the spatial distribution of gambling establishments using the concept of availability (seeRobitaille and Herjean, 2008;Križan, Bilková, Kita and Horňák, 2015;Russnák et al., 2016;), and the concept of accessibility (seeDoran and Young, 2010;Young, Markham and Doran, 2009;Young, Markham and Doran, 2012).Marshall (2005)distinguishes several attributes of availability: geographic, temporal and social. Other authors discuss 'geo-temporal availability', to which they also add financial availability (Moore et al., 2011;Thomas et al., 2011). Most empirical studies have confirmed a link between the geographic accessibility of gambling establishments and the prevalence of problem gambling (Pearce et al., 2008;Welte et al., 2009;Welte et al., 2004). ...
Gambling is a specific type of economic activity that significantly affects many aspects of society. It is associated mainly with negative impacts on the lives of individuals and their families, but it also has a positive economic impact on the public budgets of states, regions and municipalities. In this article, we focus on a geographic assessment of the development of gambling in the Czech Republic, which is based on a spatial analysis of data on licensed games and data on the revenues of municipalities arising from gambling. It turns out that the occurrence of gambling is strongly influenced by binary centre/periphery dichotomy, with the exception of the Czech-Austrian and Czech-German border areas which are characterised by a high concentration of casinos resulting from more rigid regulation of gambling on the other side of the border. In this research, the authors develop an innovative scientific discipline within Czech human geography: The geography of gambling.
... In recent decades, the scientists who focus on gam- bling have mostly been attracted by the situational characteristics, which can also be understood as the availability and accessibility of gambling, and their relationship to the prevalence of problem and pathological gambling has been particularly exam- ined (St-Pierre et al. 2014). Marshall (2005) distinguishes several dimensions of accessibility and availability: geographical, temporal, and social accessibility; some authors then combine geographical and temporal accessibility and use the term space-time accessibility accompanied by fi nan- cial accessibility ( Moore et al. 2011;Thomas et al. 2011). Most empirical studies have confi rmed a link between the geographical accessibility of gambling venues and the prevalence of problem gambling AUPO Geographica Vol. ...
The issue of gambling, which the article discusses, is – in terms of scientific approach – a rather neglected topic in the Czech Republic, although in recent years gambling has enjoyed signifi cant media coverage. This geographical contribution to the study of gambling at a local level lies mainly in the exploration of its spatial distribution and the related accessibility. Many studies have shown the impact of the accessibility of gambling on the prevalence of problem and pathological gambling. This article aims to analyse the spatial concentration of gambling venues in Olomouc and explain the localization of its centres. For this purpose, we used the kernel density function in the ArcGIS programme. We have defined two kernels, one in the historical centre of Olomouc and the other near the main railway station. Both the gambling centres are easily accessible locations and it is also possible to connect them with a higher number of crimes committed. In conclusion, we also analysed Masarykova Street, which is the street with far and away the highest number of gambling venues in the city. We paid attention to the link between the presence of gambling venues and associated service facilities such as ATMs and pawnbrokers.
... Meaning that there are more commercial opportunities to gamble in Australia relative to many other countries. Cross-sectional studies have found that high accessibility to gambling is positively related to uptake and frequency of gambling as well as gambling problems (Cox, Yu, Afifi, & Ladouceur, 2005;Moore, Thomas, Kyrios, Bates, & Meredyth, 2011;Storer, Abbott, & Stubbs, 2009;Thomas, Allen, & Phillips, 2009). It has been argued that sudden increased exposure to gambling through migration may result in a rapid increase in gambling engagement (Feldman, et al., 2014;Scull & Woolcock, 2005;Wong & Tse, 2003). ...
The evidence base about gambling within many Western cultures, including Australia, is now quite large and it suggests that gambling is a prevalent and culturally accepted activity in Australian culture as elsewhere. However, the evidence base about gambling in culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) communities living in Australia, and other Western nations, remains limited. This paper examines the available literature about gambling participation within culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) communities in Australia.
... Those closest to a casino were more likely to be problem gamblers. Moore et al. (2011) found in an Australian study that rates of disordered gambling were positively related to a measure of gambling venue accessibility, which included geographic proximity as one of its components. Adams et al. (2007) conducted a study of Canadian university students, and found that students enrolled in universities that were within easy traveling distance of a casino had higher rates of pathological gambling than those who were farther from casinos. ...
In this article we examine data from a national U.S. adult survey of gambling to determine correlates of problem gambling and discuss them in light of theories of the etiology of problem gambling. These include theories that focus on personality traits, irrational beliefs, anti-social tendencies, neighborhood influences and availability of gambling. Results show that males, persons in the 31-40 age range, blacks, and the least educated had the highest average problem gambling symptoms. Adults who lived in disadvantaged neighborhoods also had the most problem gambling symptoms. Those who attended religious services most often had the fewest problem gambling symptoms, regardless of religious denomination. Respondents who reported that it was most convenient for them to gamble had the highest average problem gambling symptoms, compared to those for whom gambling was less convenient. Likewise, adults with the personality traits of impulsiveness and depression had more problem gambling symptoms than those less impulsive or depressed. Respondents who had friends who approve of gambling had more problem gambling symptoms than those whose friends did not approve of gambling. The results for the demographic variables as well as for impulsiveness and religious attendance are consistent with an anti-social/impulsivist pathway to problem gambling. The results for depression are consistent with an emotionally vulnerable pathway to problem gambling.
... It is argued that this exposure and normalisation may encourage a transition from simulated to commercial gambling, particularly for those who lack experience with, or understanding of, commercial gambling (Griffiths et al., 2014; Griffiths & Parke, 2010; Monaghan, Derevensky, & Sklar, 2008). While the pathway from exposure to engagement has been demonstrated within land-based commercial gambling settings (Adams, Sullivan, Horton, Menna, & Guilmette, 2007; Cox, Yu, Afifi, & Ladouceur, 2005; Moore, Thomas, Kyrios, Bates, & Meredyth, 2011; Storer, Abbott, & Stubbs, 2009), initial evidence in relation to both simulated gambling and commercial online gambling indicates that transitions between activities are multifaceted and complex, and are not as simple as moving in a linear fashion from simulated to commercial gambling. ...
Simulated gambling games imitate many of the core characteristics of gambling—such as the look, sound and actions—but do not provide an opportunity to bet, win or lose real money. This key point distinguishes them from commercial gambling. Recent years have seen a sharp increase in the availability of these games, leading to increased interest and use. This paper summarises the evidence relating to simulated gambling and examines the regulation of simulated gambling in the Australian context.
... Those closest to a casino were more likely to be problem gamblers. Moore et al. (2011) found in an Australian study that rates of disordered gambling were positively related to a measure of gambling venue accessibility, which included geographic proximity as one of its components. Adams et al. (2007) conducted a study of Canadian university students, and found that students enrolled in universities that were within easy traveling distance of a casino had higher rates of pathological gambling than those who were farther from casinos. ...
In this article we examine the relationship between extent of gambling for U.S. adults and the distance from their residence to the nearest casino or track. We employ data from a telephone survey of U.S. adults conducted in 2011–2013. The chances that the respondents gambled in the past year, were frequent gamblers, or were problem gamblers were greater if they lived close to a casino. The chances that the respondents gambled in the past year or were frequent gamblers were greater if they lived close to a horse or dog track. The effects of closeness to a casino on the likelihood of past-year gambling, frequent gambling, and problem gambling, as well as the effect of closeness to a track on past-year gambling, extended to about 30 miles from the respondent’s home. In addition, the concentration of casinos within 30 miles of the respondent’s home was positively related to the respondents’ chance of being a frequent or problem gambler. If a respondent had no casinos within 30 miles, he or she had a 2.7 % chance of being a problem gambler; if one casino, a 3.9 % chance; if six or more, a 6.2 % chance. The authors estimate that at least part of this effect is causal.
... Access to gambling opportunities in these countries is far more restricted than in Australia, where gambling has high public exposure and opportunities to gamble are numerous. Exposure, high geographic accessibility to gambling and long opening hours of gambling venues have been linked to increased uptake, frequency and problems (Moore et al. 2011;Storer et al. 2009;Thomas et al. 2011). ...
International students are an important element of the Australian university population. Many of these students are living away from family networks which can lead to emotional and financial vulnerability. Young people and those from culturally and linguistically diverse background are known to be vulnerable to gambling harm. This report examines gambling behaviors and their correlates in a large sample of international and domestic university students in Australia.
... In another study of college aged gamblers, men were more familiar with the gambling venue and so it was argued were prepared to take more risks than women in the same venue (Wong, Zane, Saw & Chan, 2013). However, in an Australian study both men and women considered EGM venues equally accessible (Moore, Thomas, Kyrios, Bates & Meredyth, 2011). Activity preference is proposed as the best possible explanation of gender differences in gambling, possibly arising from early gender role socialisation. ...
... In another study of college aged gamblers, men were more familiar with the gambling venue and so it was argued were prepared to take more risks than women in the same venue (Wong, Zane, Saw & Chan, 2013). However, in an Australian study both men and women considered EGM venues equally accessible (Moore, Thomas, Kyrios, Bates & Meredyth, 2011). Activity preference is proposed as the best possible explanation of gender differences in gambling, possibly arising from early gender role socialisation. ...
This report is available at: http://www.responsiblegambling.vic.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/14289/A-comparative-study-of-men-and-women-gamblers.pdf
Research objectives
This study was funded by the Victorian Responsible Gambling Foundation to extend the analyses conducted for A Study of Gambling in Victoria (Hare, 2009) to provide detailed analyses of similarities and differences between male and female gamblers in Victoria Australia. The research objectives were to:
1. Analyse the similarities and differences between male and female gamblers in Victoria in terms of gambling preferences, activities and styles of play; gambling motivations and attitudes; physical and mental health; family and early gambling influences; and help-seeking behaviour; and
2. Analyse the similarities and differences between male and female gamblers in Victoria in terms of risk factors associated with problem/moderate risk gambling and protective factors associated with low risk/non-problem gambling.
Approach
A Study of Gambling in Victoria (Hare, 2009) is the largest study of gambling in Victoria ever undertaken. It was conducted between August and October 2008 and collected data from 15,000 participants using Computer Aided Telephone Interviewing (CATI). The sample was stratified to reflect the adult population of each of the eight government regions across Victoria, with high EGM expenditure areas over-sampled to ensure the sample captured likely problem gamblers. The survey data were then weighted to ensure that the sample was as closely aligned to the Victorian adult population as possible. This included weighting adjustments to reflect the method of sampling, number of adults and telephone lines per household and other general Victorian population characteristics. These weights were also used in all analyses conducted for the present study.
To address Research Objective One, differences in percentages for males and females were assessed using chi-square tests of independence and pairwise comparisons, while differences in continuous variables were tested using parametric (t-tests) and non-parametric (Mann-Whitney U-test) analyses. Interactions were tested using logistic regressions and ANOVAs as appropriate. To address Research Objective Two, moderate risk/problem gamblers were compared to low risk/non-problem gamblers, with separate comparisons for males and females.
Main results for Objective One
• Male gambling participation was highest for lottery-type games, raffles/sweeps/competitions, EGMs, race wagering, table games, sports betting and informal private betting, respectively. Compared to female gamblers, higher proportions of men gambled on most of these gambling forms as well as on keno, although they were less likely than women to gamble on raffle/sweeps/competitions and bingo.
• Males tended to gamble more frequently than females on most gambling forms, including informal private betting, EGMs, table games, race and sports wagering, lottery-type games, scratch tickets, and raffles/sweeps/other competitions.
• Younger men were significantly more likely than older men to take part in informal private betting, EGMs, table games, race wagering, sports betting, scratch tickets and phone/SMS competitions. Older male gamblers were more likely than younger male gamblers to engage in lottery type games and raffles/sweeps/other competitions.
• Amongst female gamblers, lottery-type games and raffles/sweeps/competitions, followed by EGMs and race wagering, attracted highest participation. Women were significantly less likely than men to gamble on other skill-based gambling activities but were more likely to participate in scratch tickets, bingo, phone/SMS competitions and raffles/sweeps/competitions.
• Younger women were more likely than older women to participate in informal private betting, table games, race wagering, sports betting, scratch tickets and phone/SMS competitions. Older women were more likely than younger women to take part in lottery-type games and raffles/sweeps/other competitions, and also in bingo.
• Participation in skill-based activities amongst younger women was less than for younger male gamblers, but proportionately more younger women participated in scratch tickets and phone/SMS competitions compared to younger men.
• Notably, older female gamblers were more likely to take part in EGM gambling, while the opposite was true for males.
• Men spent significantly more money than women in the past 12 months on their highest-spend gambling activity.
• Males were significantly more likely than females to play higher denomination EGMs and to bet more than one credit per line. For race wagering, women were more likely to bet each way and men were more likely to bet on trifectas and other more exotic types of bets.
• More than half the female gamblers reported not taking any bank cards to gambling, while males were significantly more likely to take a credit card or both credit and ATM/EFTPOS cards. Men also had greater tendency to take larger amounts of cash to gambling venues and to withdraw money for gambling purposes compared to women.
• Men were significantly more likely than women to gamble for social reasons or for general entertainment, while women were more likely to gamble for charity or other reasons, including because gambling takes your mind off things and relieves stress and boredom.
• Higher proportions of male gamblers reported substance use than female gamblers, including smoking, alcohol consumption and using marijuana/hashish.
• Female gamblers were more likely to report depression, anxiety and obesity and to exhibit a significantly higher level of psychological distress, compared to male gamblers.
• Male moderate risk and problem gamblers started gambling at a significantly younger age than their female counterparts and were more likely to start gambling alone. EGMs and other forms were the most common first gambling form for female moderate risk and problem gamblers, compared to race wagering, table games or informal private betting for their male counterparts.
• A significantly higher proportion of female problem gamblers (40.5%) reported seeking help for their gambling compared to 18.1% of male problem gamblers.
Main results for Objective Two
• Male gamblers were significantly more likely to have had some level of problem gambling both at some point in their life and during the last 12 months, compared to female gamblers. Lifetime prevalence of problem/pathological gambling was 3.2% for men, which was double the rate for women (1.6%). Past year prevalence of problem gambling amongst gamblers was 1.3% for men which was also double the rate for women (0.6%).
• Younger men were more likely to be moderate risk/problem gamblers compared to younger women, while older women were more likely to be low risk/non-problem gamblers compared to older men.
• Amongst males, those in in part-time employment were significantly more likely to be in the higher risk PGSI categories, while the opposite was found for men in full-time employment. Amongst women, those who were unemployed were more likely to be moderate risk/problem gamblers.
• EGM participation and frequency were significantly more problematic for females than for males, while table games and race wagering were more problematic for men. Sports betting may also be more problematic for men.
• Statistically significant predictors of at-risk gambling status amongst male Victorian gamblers were: being 18-24 years old (compared to being 65 or older), speaking a language other than English at home, having Year 10 or lower education (compared to those with university level education or those who have completed Year 12), living in a group household (compared to being a couple with children), being unemployed or not at work (compared to full-time employment), betting on EGMs, table games, horse/harness/greyhound racing, sports or events outcomes, or Lotto/Powerball/Pools (compared to not betting on those forms), not betting on raffles, sweeps and other competitions (compared to betting on them), and gambling for reasons other than social reasons, to win money or for general entertainment .
• Statistically significant predictors of at-risk gambling status amongst female Victorian gamblers were: being 18-24 years old (compared to being 65 or older), speaking a language other than English at home, living in a group household (compared to being a couple with children), being unemployed or not in the workforce (compared to both full-time and part-time employment), betting on informal private betting, EGMs, scratch tickets or bingo (compared to not betting on those forms), not betting on raffles, sweeps and other competitions (compared to betting on them), an gambling for reasons other than social reasons, to win money or for general entertainment.
• While there were few differences between risk factors for men and for women, analysis of which predictors were significantly different for women and for men indicated that being aged 45-54 years and betting on informal private betting, EGMs and scratch tickets were comparatively stronger predictors for women, while having a university education, being unemployed, and betting on table games, races and lottery-type games were comparatively stronger predictors for men.
• Protective factors associated with low risk/non-problem gambling were also nearly identical for men and women, which is not surprising given they are essentially the reverse of identified risk factors. Amongst both males and females, being aged 65 years or older, speaking English at home, being in full-time or part-time employment, betting on raffles, sweeps and other competitions, and gambling for social reasons, to win money or for general entertainment were statistically significant predictors of low risk/non-problem gambling. A further protective factor for males was having a Year 12 or university education.
Limitations of the study
The main limitations of the dataset that hindered certain analyses were: 1) relatively small numbers of problem gamblers, necessitating the combining of moderate risk and problem gambler groups to analyse risk factors for problem gambling; 2) that several potential risk factors were only asked of moderate risk and problem gamblers which limited comparisons that could be conducted amongst PGSI groups (perceived gambling problems, gambling in households, families and relationships, how people started gambling, gambling help and awareness of gambling help, overcoming problem gambling, role of significant others, readiness to change, and suicide, substance use and crime); 3) a non-validated version of the PGSI was used to measure problem gambling severity and it is not known how this affected PGSI results and assignment of respondents to PGSI groups; 4) most other measures used in the survey have also not been validated, so it is difficult to assess whether related findings reflect true differences or measurement artefacts; and 5) sample sizes were quite different across the analyses (which were thus associated with different levels of statistical power). Where numbers are small, some results may be unlikely to generalise or replicate..
Conclusions and Implications
This study has largely confirmed findings from previous gender analyses of gambling and problem gambling, but in a large representative sample. Major differences in gambling preferences were found amongst men and women. These differences manifest as higher male gambling involvement in most forms, particularly skill-based gambling, and greater risk-taking behaviours, along with higher rates of problem gambling. Women show a preference for chance-based gambling forms, which may be driven by the capacity of EGM gambling in particular to provide an escape from stress, loneliness, boredom and their higher rates of anxiety and depression. While problem gambling prevalence is lower amongst women, their gambling problems are largely related to EGM gambling.
Analysing risk factors for problem gambling allows high-risk groups to be identified and appropriately targeted for early intervention and prevention. The results of this study indicate that the primary targets for public health interventions in Victoria comprise young adults, especially males; older women who play EGMs; non-English speaking populations; frequent gamblers on EGMs, table games, race and sport wagering; and gamblers motivated by escape-based reasons.
... Griffiths [46] classified slot machine gambling as having a high addictive potential due to its fast tempo and other properties. Besides the easy access and availability, slot machines are likely to increase involvement in gambling and the development of DG [47][48][49]. Casino, internet and slot machine gambling are all classified as addictive gambling types [50,51]. ...
Disordered gambling is a multifaceted phenomenon, and consequently many factors have a role in its development and maintenance. Adverse consequences of disordered gambling can be mental, social and legal. Only a few epidemiological studies of disordered gambling have previously been conducted in Finland, and none of these studies have been published internationally. Gambling research in Finland has increased during the past years, especially the investigation of treatment options for disordered gambling. In this thesis, disordered gambling is approached from two angles: the epidemiological angle provides an overall picture of the current situation in Finland, and the treatment angle studies the phenomenon from an individual standpoint. In the epidemiological studies of this thesis, the prevalence, socio-demographic characteristics, comorbid substance use, perceived health and well-being and the type of gambling and its relations to the severity levels of gambling were measured. The data were derived from two samples, The Health Behaviour and Health among the Finnish Adult Population, Spring 2010, postal survey (N = 2826) and The Finnish Gambling 2011 (N = 3451), telephone interview. These studies used South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) and Problem Gambling Severity Index as a measure of gambling severity. In the epidemiological studies the prevalence of disordered gambling was found to be about 3% (Finnish Gambling 2011). Disordered gambling was more common among males and the younger age group. Disordered gambling was generally associated with socio-economic disadvantages like being divorced, unemployed or having a low level of education. Comorbid alcohol use and nicotine dependency as well as low self-perceived mental health status were associated with disordered gambling. Lotto (Finnish lottery) was the most popular type of game gambled, but slot machine and internet gambling were found to be associated with disordered gambling. The two treatment studies of this thesis describe the socio-demographic characteristics (N = 471), the severity of disordered gambling, gambling urge, gambling-related erroneous thoughts and the level of control of gambling among the treatment-seeking gamblers. In the treatment studies, comorbid alcohol use and depression were also studied. Moreover, changes in the severity of gambling, gambling urge, gambling-related erroneous thoughts and control of gambling, as well as alcohol use and the level of depression at baseline, post-treatment and 6- and 12-month follow- up were studied. The data were derived from the Peli Poikki program which is an internet-based 8-week cognitive behavioural therapy for gamblers. This study used NORC DSM-IV Screen for Gambling Problems as a measure of gambling severity. Results revealed that 78.8% of the treatment-seeking participants were disordered gamblers. 224 participants completed the treatment and after 8 weeks of treatment a significant decline was seen in gambling-related problems and gambling urge, and an improvement in control of gambling. The mood of participants improved and alcohol use decreased during the treatment period, and participants reported improvements in their social situations after the treatment. In conclusion, the prevalence of disordered gambling has been more or less unchanged during the past years in Finland. A specific socio-demographic group of individuals seems to be at higher risk of having and developing disordered gambling, especially with the abundant gambling opportunities in Finland. The results of the Peli Poikki program encourages implementing more evidence-based treatment options for disordered gambling in Finland.
... Griffiths [46] classified slot machine gambling as having a high addictive potential due to its fast tempo and other properties. Besides the easy access and availability, slot machines are likely to increase involvement in gambling and the development of DG474849. Casino, internet and slot machine gambling are all classified as addictive gambling types [50,51]. Both subgroups of DG gambled lotto rather frequently. ...
The purpose of this study was to compare the socio-demographic characteristics of non-problem gamblers, problem gamblers and pathological gamblers, to investigate the association between gambling related factors as well as perceived health and well-being among the three subgroups of gamblers, and to analyse simultaneously socio-demographic characteristics, gambling related factors and perceived health and well-being and the severity of disordered gambling (problem gamblers and pathological gamblers).
The data were collected through a nationwide telephone survey on gambling related issues in 2011. Participants were selected through a random population sample of 15-74-year-old Finns. From that sample, persons with any past-year gambling involvement (N = 3451) were selected for a subsample for the descriptive and inferential analysis in the present paper. Gambling was assessed using the South Oaks Gambling Screen. Statistical significance was determined by chi-squared tests. The odds ratio and effect size were computed by using multivariate-adjusted multinomial logistic regression analysis.
The most significant socio-demographic characteristics (male gender, young age, education <=12 years), gambling related factors (slot machine gambling, internet gambling) and perceived health and well-being (feeling lonely, smoking daily, risky alcohol consumption, mental health problems) explained 22.9 per cent of the variation in the severity of disordered gambling.
Male gender and loneliness were found to be associated with problem gambling in particular, along with smoking and risky alcohol consumption. Mental health problems and risky alcohol consumption were associated with pathological gambling. These identified associations between disordered gambling, mental health problems and risky alcohol consumption should be taken into consideration when implementing screenings of disordered gambling.
... One of the reasons for the insufficient enforcement of the law is, at least in kiosks, shopping centres and fuel stations, that the locations of slot machines are often out of reach of the shop keepers' desks, gambling time can be rather short and the gambler does not need to confront the shop keeper directly. Availability, proximity and convenience of gambling venues have been found as being clear risk factors for gambling problems [30][31][32]. As a whole, males seem to choose riskier and faster game types, such as games like internet poker, which could partially explain why males tend to have more severe levels of gambling problems. ...
Background
Gambling problems currently affect approximately 100 000 Finns. In order to prevent and reduce gambling-related harms it is crucial for the Finnish public health authorities to gain a stronger understanding of the association between gambling problems and related socio-demographic factors, other commonly co-occurring dependencies (e.g. alcohol and nicotine) and the type of games gambled. In this article the prevalence of problem gambling in Finland and the socio-demographic profiles of problem gamblers are studied.
Method
An annual postal survey entitled Health Behaviour and Health among the Finnish Adult Population AVTK was sent to a random sample of Finnish adults (N=5000) aged between 15 and 64. The sample was derived from the Finnish Population Register. The survey was mailed to the participants in April 2010. Gender differences in socio-demographic variables and Problem Gambling Severity Index PGSI were assessed. A multinomial regression model was created in order to explore the association between socio-demographic factors and the severity of gambling.
Results
A total of 2826 individuals (1243 males and 1583 females) replied to the survey. Of the respondents, 1.1% (2.1% of males, 0.3% of females) were identified as problem gamblers. Those who were of younger age, gender, had less than twelve years of education, consumed alcohol at risk level and smoked had higher odds of having low or moderate levels of gambling problems. Whereas, unemployment and smoking predicted significantly for problem gambling. Females gambled Lotto and slot machines less frequently than males and had more low level gambling problems. Males gambled more with a higher frequency and had a more severe level of gambling problems. Females were more attracted to scratch card gambling and daily Keno lotteries compared to males. In comparison, males gambled more on internet poker sites than females. Overall, a high frequency of gambling in Lotto, daily lotteries, slot machines, horse race betting and internet gambling was significantly associated with a more severe level of problem gambling.
Conclusion
Gambling problems affect tens of thousands of individuals annually, therefore certain vulnerabilities should be noted. Comorbid dependencies, smoking in particular, ought to be screened for and recognised in the public health sector. Regulating the availability of slot machine gambling and enforcement of the age limit should be acknowledged. In establishing new gambling venues, prevalence rates in those particular areas should be actively monitored.
... Access to gambling opportunities in these countries is far more restricted than in Australia, where gambling has high public exposure and opportunities to gamble are numerous. Exposure, high geographic accessibility to gambling and long opening hours of gambling venues have been linked to increased uptake, frequency and problems (Moore et al. 2011;Storer et al. 2009;Thomas et al. 2011). ...
Young people are a high risk group for gambling problems and university (college) students fall into that category. Given the high accessibility of gambling in Australia and its association with entertainment, students from overseas countries, particularly those where gambling is restricted or illegal, may be particularly vulnerable. This study examines problem gambling and its correlates among international and domestic university students using a sample of 836 domestic students (286 males; 546 females); and 764 international students (369 males; 396 females) at three Australian universities. Our findings indicate that although most students gamble infrequently, around 5 % of students are problem gamblers, a proportion higher than that in the general adult population. Popular gambling choices include games known to be associated with risk (cards, horse races, sports betting, casino games, and gaming machines) as well as lotto/scratch tickets. Males are more likely to be problem gamblers than females, and almost 10 % of male international students could be classified as problem gamblers. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that male gender, international student status, financial stress, negative affect and frequency of gambling on sports, horses/dogs, table games, casino gaming machines, internet casino games and bingo all significantly predicted problem gambling. Results from this study could inform gambling-education programs in universities as they indicate which groups are more vulnerable and specify which games pose more risk of problem gambling.
This chapter focuses on problematic gambling, aiming to clarify when and how marketing actions intervene in the consumption continuum that culminates in this dysfunctional behaviour. Unlike compulsive buying, however, problematic gambling has garnered less interest from marketing and consumer behaviour scholars. As a result, this review extends beyond these fields, drawing heavily from psychological studies to address the “when” and “how” questions related to gambling behaviours.
Similar to Chap. 2, this chapter identifies key research streams within the literature on problematic gambling and offers suggestions for future research. Notably, this review encompasses a broader scope than those typically found in psychological literature, which often identifies marketing with advertising and primarily focuses on that aspect. By highlighting gaps in existing studies, I aim to encourage further exploration into the intersection between various marketing actions and gambling behaviours.
The interaction between casino proximity over a five-year duration in New York City urban communities examines poverty levels under the theoretical dimensions of exposure and adaption. Links between casino proximity and problem gambling or other gambling-related problems that could adversely impact individuals in disadvantaged communities were reported before the influx of urban casinos in major metro areas. This analysis uses Public Use Microdata Samples (PUMS) from the American Community Survey (ACS) estimates. A two-way factorial ANOVA measured poverty level outcomes at high and low casino proximity in year one and year five after an urban casino had been opened. No significant interaction was found between casino proximity and year for poverty level outcomes. However, findings suggest closer distances to the casino despite the year reported association with higher poverty level outcome scores. This research expands the literature on urban casino proximity in the context of exposure and adaptation theory. Results give the broader community of legislators, community workers, scholars, and industry a better understanding of the phenomenon and any potential adverse consequences to host and neighboring communities so that policy, intervention, and treatment can be considered.
The social practice of games of chance and gambling can be read in an interesting variety of ways in the area of the Social Sciences. One is the geographical perspective, which highlights the spatial repercussions of this form of recreation. However, in Spain, very little scientific literature exists on the topic, which justifies the appropriateness of this contribution with the purpose of establishing an initiatory conceptual and methodological framework. A variety of statistical and legal sources are treated to establish three levels of analysis: first, the position of games of chance and gambling in Spain in the international context; second, location patterns in Spain at the regional level, and third, the spatial aspects of the different legal norms at the autonomous community level. To conclude, games of chance and gambling are a deep-rooted form of recreation in Spain and offer interesting lines of geographical research, although it would be desirable for the quality, variety, and accessibility of data to be improved.
Background and aims
Problem gambling can lead to a myriad of harmful consequences, including unmanageable amounts of debt and serious financial problems. The aim of this study was to examine whether changes in the number of electronic gaming machine (EGM) venues within a local area (due to venue openings and closings) are associated with changes in the rates of serious financial problems.
Design
Area‐level longitudinal multivariate regressions controlling for possible confounders (fixed and time‐varying local area characteristics).
Setting
Australia's three largest states (NSW, Victoria, Queensland), over the period 2011‐2018.
Participants
A total of 225 local areas (Statistical Area 3 level) within the three states.
Measurements
Serious financial problems were measured by administrative data on total number of personal insolvencies (bankruptcies, debt agreements and insolvency agreements) in each local area per annum. Number of EGM venues in each local area was the regressor of primary interest. Area‐level covariates included the number of non‐gaming pubs and clubs, unemployment rate, population count, local area dummies, local area linear time trends, and state dummies for each year.
Findings
A one‐venue decrease over time within a local area decreased the number of personal insolvencies by 1.8 per year (95% CI =0.4–3.2). The result is robust to alternative specifications, including allowing for geographical spillovers (β =2.2, 95% CI =0.7–3.7), temporal lagged effects (β =1.6, 95% CI =0.6–2.8), and the spatial variability of venues within areas (β =2.7, 95% CI =0.86–4.5).
Conclusions
There appears to be a positive association between the number of gaming venues in a local geographic area and the number of personal insolvencies in that area. Reducing the number or accessibility of gaming venues could help reduce financial harms associated with problem gambling.
Gambling disorder (GD) has been associated with significantly impaired functioning. However, the empirical evidence available on gambling phenomenology based on the preferred forms of gambling, including the factors that are responsible for the choice of games and the clinical correlates of the preferred subtypes, is very limited. The few studies comparing clusters of GD patients defined by their preferred gambling activities usually classify games into two broad categories, thus distinguishing between strategic and non-strategic gamblers. The data available suggest that sociodemographic variables (sex, age, level of education and socioeconomic status) and personality traits (mainly sensation/novelty-seeking and impulsivity) may influence gambling activity, and that this preference may be clinically significant. This cumulate evidence may pave the way for a better characterization of the GD subtypes, and may help to design solid, well-founded prevention and treatment programs that take into account the individual variability in patients’ clinical profiles.
This study compares 3 groups consisting of individuals with no gambling problem, those with some problem, and pathological gamblers, according to the following 4 levels of analysis: social context (i.e., accessibility and social acceptance), family context (i.e., family of origin issues, family functioning, and family quality of life), marital issues (i.e., marital satisfaction and adjustment), and individual issues (i.e., congruence, differentiation of self, and psychopathological symptoms). The study protocol of 8 standardized scales, a sociodemographic questionnaire, and 6 independent questions was administered to 331 adults. The main results indicate that although the 2 groups of nonpathological gamblers exhibited differing levels of gambling severity, they did not differ statistically, suggesting that gambling-related problems were only evident when a pathological level was attained. The pathological gamblers exhibited a greater number of family, marital, and individual difficulties compared to the other 2 groups.
Recent decades have seen a dramatic shift away from social forms of gambling played around roulette wheels and card tables to solitary gambling at electronic terminals. Addiction by Design takes readers into the intriguing world of machine gambling, an increasingly popular and absorbing form of play that blurs the line between human and machine, compulsion and control, risk and reward. Drawing on fifteen years of field research in Las Vegas, anthropologist Natasha Dow Schüll shows how the mechanical rhythm of electronic gambling pulls players into a trancelike state they call the "machine zone," in which daily worries, social demands, and even bodily awareness fade away. Once in the zone, gambling addicts play not to win but simply to keep playing, for as long as possible--even at the cost of physical and economic exhaustion. In continuous machine play, gamblers seek to lose themselves while the gambling industry seeks profit. Schüll describes the strategic calculations behind game algorithms and machine ergonomics, casino architecture and "ambience management," player tracking and cash access systems--all designed to meet the market's desire for maximum "time on device." Her account moves from casino floors into gamblers' everyday lives, from gambling industry conventions and Gamblers Anonymous meetings to regulatory debates over whether addiction to gambling machines stems from the consumer, the product, or the interplay between the two.
International students are an important element of the Australian university population. Many of these students are living away from family networks which can lead to emotional and financial vulnerability. Young people and those from culturally and linguistically diverse background are known to be vulnerable to gambling harm. This summary report provides key findings from an examination of gambling behaviors and their correlates in a large sample of international and domestic university students in Australia.
The removal of Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) from venues with Electronic Gaming Machines (EGMs or ‘pokies’) has been an effective harm minimisation measure in the state of Victoria. Higher risk gamblers spend less time and money on EGMs. Higher risk gamblers report increased self-control over spending. Higher risk gamblers report reductions in overspending and severity of problem gambling symptoms. ATM removal has similarly been an effective consumer protection measure. Gamblers spend less time playing EGMs. Low risk gamblers spend less time at clubs. Low risk gamblers report increased control over gambling spending. Low risk gamblers report reductions in impulsive overspends on gambling. Venue revenue and patronage has declined as a result of ATM removal. Victorian venue EGM revenue has decreased by 7%. Non-EGM gaming and non-gaming revenue may have decreased by a similar amount. Venue patronage has decreased somewhat since venue-based ATMs were removed. Minor one-off costs were incurred for refurbishments following ATM removal. ATM removal is likely to be less effective for some problem gamblers and has caused minor inconvenience to EGM venue patrons. Entrenched problem gamblers are likely to access additional funds from external cash facilities or venue-based EFTPOS. Absence of ATMs a minor inconvenience for patrons of EGM venues.
Many gamblers would prefer to reduce gambling on their own rather than to adopt an abstinence approach within the context of a gambling treatment program. Yet responsible gambling guidelines lack quantifiable markers to guide gamblers in wagering safely. To address these issues, the current investigation implemented receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis to identify behavioral indicators of harmful and problem gambling. Gambling involvement was assessed in 503 participants (275 psychiatric outpatients and 228 community gamblers) with the Canadian Problem Gambling Index. Overall gambling frequency, duration, and expenditure were able to distinguish harmful and problematic gambling at a moderate level. Indicators of harmful gambling were generated for engagement in specific gambling activities: frequency of tickets and casino; duration of bingo, casino, and investments; and expenditures on bingo, casino, sports betting, games of skill, and investments. Indicators of problem gambling were similarly produced for frequency of tickets and casino, and expenditures on bingo, casino, games of skill, and investments. Logistic regression analyses revealed that overall gambling frequency uniquely predicted the presence of harmful and problem gambling. Furthermore, frequency indicators for tickets and casino uniquely predicted the presence of both harmful and problem gambling. Together, these findings contribute to the development of an empirically based method enabling the minimization of harmful or problem gambling through self-control rather than abstinence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
It is widely believed that increased gambling exposure, particularly to electronic gaming machines (EGMs) and other 'continuous' forms, leads to a rise in gambling-related harms including problem gambling. Relevant literature, including studies conducted by the author, is critically reviewed to assess the validity of this belief. While jurisdictions with high exposure often have elevated problem gambling prevalence relative to those with low exposure, in others this relationship is attenuating or reversing. In New Zealand and Australia, despite substantial increases in EGM availability and expenditure, current national prevalence estimates are between a third to a half what they were 15 years ago. In Australia there are indications that the relationship between availability and prevalence breaks down somewhere between six to 10 EGMs per 1,000 adults. EGM reductions and the introduction of caps generally appear to have little impact. While regular EGM participation is strongly linked to problem gambling, problems associated with this gambling form appear to be typically of short duration. It is concluded that exposure to the agent gambling is multidimensional and that the effects of exposure are complex. Understanding the drivers of problem gambling requires recognition of this complexity including consideration of the role of individual and environmental risk and protective factors.
This paper examines the debate about possible relationships between problem gambling and accessibility to electronic gaming machines (EGMs), in the context of the Victorian Government's policy that imposed a ‘cap’ on EGMs in disadvantaged communities. Using GIS (Geographical Information Systems), the spatial distribution of social disadvantage in three ‘capped’ localities was compared with the spatial distribution of gaming venues and patterns of concentrated EGM expenditure during 2001–2005, including seasonal trends. Research revealed different relationships between spatial and social categories in the study localities, indicating the need for more systematic local area analysis. This research raises questions about the limitations of conventional methodologies and regulatory strategies based on simple measures such as gaming machine density. We propose improvements to the methodology to better measure the changing level of local supply and demand for machine gaming.
Although electronic gaming machine (EGM) gambling is established as a particularly risky form of gambling (Dowling, Smith and Thomas, Addiction 100:33–45, 2005), models of problem gambling continue to be generalist so factors and processes specific to EGM gambling can be overlooked. This study conducted semi-structured interviews with 13 EGM problem gamblers and six gambling counsellors and used grounded theory methods to develop a theoretical model of EGM problem gambling. The final model demonstrates the importance of both situational and structural characteristics in maintaining excessive EGM gambling. Originally a harmless pastime, EGM gambling became a means by which gamblers cognitively and physically avoided problems. EGM venues were highly accessible, had an inviting atmosphere, and were private yet companionable. Games were entertaining and distracting. Maladaptive coping habits, low social support and few alternative social spaces contributed to the reliance on gambling.
Accessibility to gambling has been linked to gambling behaviour but remains poorly understood. This study used data from semi-structured
focus groups and interviews with 38 participants (Median age 42years) to explore wider aspects of accessibility. People preferred
venues which were open long hours and located close to home, work or regular routes, i.e., geo-temporal accessibility. This
was particularly influential for problem gamblers. Social and personal accessibility related to venues as safe, social, easy
entertainment experiences, and as an accessible retreat from life issues. The attraction of an accessible retreat was restricted
to problem gamblers. Finally, low outlay games and easy access to money increased financial accessibility. Accessibility should
therefore be considered multidimensional. Further, results suggested that while gambling as safe, social entertainment may
be relatively harmless, the attraction of geo-temporal accessibility and a retreat from problems may encourage excessive gambling
in some individuals.
KeywordsGambling–Accessibility–Social–Escape–Environment
At the International Gambling Conference: Policy, Practice and Research in 2004 (Clarke, eCommunity-International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 3:29–40, 2005), a paper was presented which proposed key indicators of the transition from social to problem gambling and to recovery, based on a review of literature on factors leading to substance abuse. They included availability of gambling activities, lack of social and cultural empowerment, low socioeconomic status, and personal loss of control. Subsequently, a multidisciplinary team collected data on why people gamble. Four New Zealand ethnic groups (Päkehä/New Zealand European, Mäori, Pacific peoples and Asians) in South Auckland were targeted for both phases of the study. Phase 1 involved qualitative analysis of data from individual interviews and focus groups. Phase 2 surveyed 345 adults using a questionnaire developed from the first phase. From both phases, key indicators for problem gambling were similar to the indicators for substance abuse. Public health interventions such as reducing access to electronic gaming machines and empowerment of cultural groups, and a longitudinal study of the development of gambling in the community are suggested.
The aim of the current study was to develop a scale of gambling accessibility that would have theoretical significance to exposure theory and also serve to highlight the accessibility risk factors for problem gambling. Scale items were generated from the Productivity Commission's (Australia's Gambling Industries: Report No. 10. AusInfo, Canberra, 1999) recommendations and tested on a group with high exposure to the gambling environment. In total, 533 gaming venue employees (aged 18-70 years; 67% women) completed a questionnaire that included six 13-item scales measuring accessibility across a range of gambling forms (gaming machines, keno, casino table games, lotteries, horse and dog racing, sports betting). Also included in the questionnaire was the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) along with measures of gambling frequency and expenditure. Principal components analysis indicated that a common three factor structure existed across all forms of gambling and these were labelled social accessibility, physical accessibility and cognitive accessibility. However, convergent validity was not demonstrated with inconsistent correlations between each subscale and measures of gambling behaviour. These results are discussed in light of exposure theory and the further development of a multi-dimensional measure of gambling accessibility.
Electronic gambling machines (EGMs) are known to be a particularly risky form of gambling (Petry. Addiction 98(5):645-655, 2003). It is vital that researchers and clinicians are aware of factors which could lead to people having problems with this form. Gambling motivation is one such factor. This study developed a measure of EGM gambling motivations based on the results of qualitative research conducted with EGM problem gamblers and experienced counsellors (Thomas et al. Int J Mental Health Addiction 7:97-107, 2009). A community based sample of 232 females (M = 29.60 years of age, SD = 15.41 years) and 123 males (M = 29.64 years of age, SD = 12.29 years) participated. Exploratory factor analysis extracted three motivational factors indicating people gambled on EGMs to escape, for its accessibility and for the social environment. Gambling to escape and for its accessibility had substantial positive correlations with frequency of EGM gambling and gambling problems. Social environment correlated less well with these indicators of excessive gambling. Correlations between factors suggested the accessible, social experience offered by EGM venues increases their appeal as a means of escape. The new subscales were internally consistent and demonstrated good evidence of validity. This new measure will facilitate future investigations into the relationships between gambling motivations, other aetiological factors and EGM problem gambling.
To investigate the relationship between availability of gambling activities and participation in gambling, maximum amount of money lost in 1 day to gambling, and number of pathological gamblers.
Two random samples (1002 and 1257 adults) were surveyed 7 years apart using the South Oaks Gambling Screen to identify pathological gamblers.
Seven years later, significantly more people reported having gambled, and the number of pathological gamblers had increased by 75%.
These findings support the hypothesis that increases in the availability of gambling are related to increases in the number of problem gamblers.
At the moment, there is no single conceptual theoretical model of gambling that adequately accounts for the multiple biological, psychological and ecological variables contributing to the development of pathological gambling. Advances in this area are hampered by imprecise definitions of pathological gambling, failure to distinguish between gambling problems and problem gamblers and a tendency to assume that pathological gamblers form one, homogeneous population with similar psychological principles applying equally to all members of the class. The purpose of this paper is to advance a pathways model that integrates the complex array of biological, personality, developmental, cognitive, learning theory and ecological determinants of problem and pathological gambling. It is proposed that three distinct subgroups of gamblers manifesting impaired control over their behaviour can be identified. These groups include (a) behaviourally conditioned problem gamblers, (b) emotionally vulnerable problem gamblers and (c) antisocial, impulsivist problem gamblers. The implications for clinical management are discussed.
A particularly rapid onset of pathological gambling (PG-onset) through the use of gambling machines has been widely alluded to, but this is the first study to empirically examine the phenomenon. This study compared the latency of PG-onset in those who gambled primarily on machines, compared to those who gambled primarily on more "traditional" forms of gambling at PG-onset. Subjects were 44 adult pathological gamblers (PGs) seeking outpatient treatment in Rhode Island (17 females; mean age = 46.9). Subjects completed questionnaires and a diagnostic interview including a complete history of gambling activities and the course of PG. The "latency" of PG-onset was defined as the time (in years) elapsed between the age of regular involvement in the primary form of gambling and the age at which DSM-IV criteria were first met. "Machine" PGs (n = 25) had a significantly shorter latency of onset than did "traditional" PGs (1.08 years vs. 3.58 years). Females and machine PGs had a significantly older age of onset, but gender was not associated with latency of PG-onset. Lifetime comorbidity of either substance use disorders (SUDS) or depressive disorders (DDS) was also not associated with the latency of PG-onset. The results of the current study suggest that intrapersonal variables such as gender and comorbid disorders do not generally affect the speed with which people develop PG. Rather, the social, environmental, and stimulus features of mechanized gambling are implicated. Prospective longitudinal studies on the onset and course of PG are needed, as well as more basic research on the features of machine gambling that may contribute to rapid onset.
The urge to gamble is a physiological, psychological, or emotional motivational state, often associated with continued gambling. The authors developed and validated the 6-item Gambling Urge Questionnaire (GUS), which was based on the 8-item Alcohol Urge Questionnaire (M. J. Bohn, D. D. Krahn, & B. A. Staehler, 1995), using 968 community-based participants. Exploratory factor analysis using half of the sample indicated a 1-factor solution that accounted for 55.18% of the total variance. This was confirmed using confirmatory factor analysis with the other half of the sample. The GUS had a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of.81. Concurrent, predictive, and criterion-related validity of the GUS were good, suggesting that the GUS is a valid and reliable instrument for assessing gambling urges among nonclinical gamblers.
This article reviews the current status of gambling epidemiology studies and suggests that it is time to move from general population-prevalence research toward the investigation of risk and protective factors that influence the onset of gambling disorders. The study of incidence among vulnerable and resilient populations is a road yet to be taken. In this review, we briefly introduce the history of the field and thoroughly review the epidemiologic research on disordered gambling before providing a critical assessment of the current diagnostic tools. Overall, the extant research shows that disordered gambling is a relatively stable phenomenon throughout the world. Given that certain segments of the population (for example, adolescents and substance users) have elevated prevalence rates, we suggest focusing future prevalence studies on groups with apparently increased vulnerability. Moreover, we suggest that, for the field of gambling studies to progress, researchers need to take the road less travelled and examine more carefully the onset and determinants of disordered gambling. That said, given the problems with the current diagnostic screens, investigators need to refine their theoretical concepts and the epidemiologic tools used to examine them before the field can travel down this new road.
The current study examined the effect of neighborhood disadvantage and gambling availability on gambling participation and pathology. A national telephone survey included 2631 US adults. Census data was used to characterize the respondent's neighborhood, and the distance from the respondent's home to gambling facilities was calculated. Logistic and linear regressions were performed to predict gambling participation and pathology. Results showed that the neighborhood disadvantage was positively related to frequency of gambling and problem/pathological gambling. The presence of a casino within 10 miles of the respondent's home was positively related to problem/pathological gambling. The permissiveness of gambling laws was positively related to any gambling in the past year, as well as frequent gambling. These results were interpreted to mean that the ecology of disadvantaged neighborhoods promotes gambling pathology, and that availability of gambling opportunities promotes gambling participation and pathology.
The 1990s saw widespread expansion of new forms of legalized gambling involving video lottery terminals (VLTs) in community settings (that is, in bars and restaurant lounges) and permanent casinos in several Canadian provinces. To date, there has never been a national survey of gambling problems with representative interprovincial data. Using a new survey, we sought to compare prevalence figures across the 10 Canadian provinces.
Using the Canadian Problem Gambling Index, we investigated the current 12-month prevalence of gambling problems in the Canadian Community Health Survey: Cycle 1.2--Mental Health and Well-Being, in which a random sample of 34,770 community-dwelling respondents aged 15 years and over were interviewed. The response rate was 77%. The data are representative at the provincial level and were compared with the availability of VLTs per 1000 population and with the presence of permanent casinos for each province.
Manitoba (2.9%) and Saskatchewan (also 2.9%) had the highest prevalence of gambling problems (specifically, moderate and severe problem levels combined). These 2 provinces had significantly higher levels than the 2 provinces with the lowest prevalence of gambling problems: Quebec (1.7%) and New Brunswick (1.5%).
The 12-month prevalence of gambling problems in Canada was 2.0%, with interprovincial variability. The highest prevalence emerged in areas with high concentrations of VLTs in the community combined with permanent casinos. These findings support earlier predictions that the rapid and prolific expansion of new forms of legalized gambling in many regions of the country would be associated with a considerable public health cost.
A telephone survey of 2631 US adults was analysed to determine how particular types of gambling and gambling availability were related to problem gambling by age and gender. Casinos produced the most problems per daily participation. Casinos and lottery gambling produced the most society-wide problems. Lotteries, casinos, gambling machines and bingo produced the most overall problems in women; for men it was casinos and cards. Casinos, lotteries and gambling machines produced the most overall problems for people over age 29; for people under 30 it was cards and casinos. Residential proximity to casinos predicted gambling problems in males 30 years or older; for those under 30 friends' approval of gambling predicted gambling problems.
Gambling behaviours and health promotion strategies to address problem gambling are becoming increasingly important in Aotearoa-New Zealand, as in other parts of the world. Successful health promotion strategies are underpinned by contextual knowledge around the issue in question. This paper discusses some of the contextual factors that health promoters will need to consider when addressing strategies aimed at Maori women affected by problem gambling. The paper is a work in progress contributing to a doctoral thesis to explore Maori women's perceptions of new forms of gambling and the health implications on whanau (extended family) in Rotorua and Auckland.
This study examined geographic variation in the prevalence of problem gambling in Ontario and the association with various demographic factors and proximity to treatment for problem gambling and gambling venues. Drawing upon multiple sources, secondary data analysis was undertaken based on multivariate statistical methods and techniques of geographic information systems (GIS). Regional variation in prevalence of problem gambling was found in the province. Prevalence of problem gambling was associated with many demographic characteristics, as well as mental disorders, co-occurring substance abuse problems, and physical health status. Geographic access to treatment was not associated with the risk of being a problem gambler. However, proximity to gambling venues was marginally important in predicting risk of problem gambling. Results are interpreted in the context of needs-based planning of treatment and prevention programs for problem gambling.
In Australia, there is evidence to suggest that there is a positive association between the geographical accessibility of electronic gaming machines (EGMs) and the frequency and intensity of gambling in local areas. Evidence such as this has been used to introduce regulatory policies to reduce the geographical accessibility of EGMs through the reduction of gaming machine numbers in venues. The aim of this paper was to describe the process involved in the 15 per cent reduction in gaming machine numbers in the state of South Australia and the apparent effects on gaming revenue and gambling behaviours. Detailed analysis of objective EGM data as well as survey-based interviews with 400 regular EGM players provided only limited evidence of behavioural changes or significant reductions in gaming revenue. The paper describes the nature of industry responses to circumvent the effects of the reduction in machine numbers and the implications of these findings for future regulatory policies relating to EGM gambling.
As opportunities to gamble proliferated rapidly during the 1990s, accessibility to gambling facilities has been cited as a factor driving increased gambling consumption. However, research examining this relationship is limited. Most assessments have tended to be at a broad regional rather than a local level. Furthermore, explanations for why greater access encourages increased gambling activity have been inadequate. Using the framework of time-geography, this paper outlines new empirical evidence to assist in clarifying relationships between the accessibility to and consumption of gambling. Data on gambling behaviour were obtained from 1,018 persons in seven residential centres of the Richmond-Tweed region of NSW, Australia and compared to local provision of gambling facilities. In this study, availability of gambling opportunities—measured here by electronic gaming machines (EGMs) per capita—is often reflected in differences in gambling activity by the local population. It is concluded that accessibility to EGM facilities at a particularly local level is an important factor driving their use.
On 25 August 1998 the Treasurer referred Australia’s gambling industries for inquiry and the provision of an information report within 12 months of receiving the reference.The Commission was requested to provide an information report on the economic and social impacts of Australia’s gambling industries to enhance public understanding of the issues and assist government decision making. While there were no policy recommendations in the report requiring a formal response by the Commonwealth Government, the report provided a range of policy relevant findings to assist all governments in Australia.
This study developed prevalence estimates of gambling-related disorders in the United States and Canada, identified differences in prevalence among population segments, and identified changes in prevalence over the past 20 years.
A meta-analytic strategy was employed to synthesize estimates from 119 prevalence studies. This method produced more reliable prevalence rates than were available from any single study.
Prevalence estimates among samples of adolescents were significantly higher than estimates among samples of adults for both clinical (level 3) and subclinical (level 2) measures of disordered gambling within both lifetime and past-year time frames (e.g., 3.9% vs 1.6% for lifetime estimates of level 3 gambling). Among adults, prevalence estimates of disordered gambling have increased significantly during the past 20 years.
Membership in youth, treatment, or prison population segments is significantly associated with experiencing gambling-related disorders. Understanding subclinical gamblers provides a meaningful opportunity to lower the public health burden associated with gambling disorders. Further research is necessary to determine whether the prevalence of disordered gambling will continue to increase among the general adult population and how prevalence among adolescents will change as this cohort ages.
Due to recent changes of gambling laws, accessibility to gambling has become more widespread and thus, there has also been an increase in the prevalence of pathological gambling (PG). The wide range of social, economic, and psychological problems associated with PG are well known. There is a need for better understanding of PG and this review attempts to do so. Literature searches using the Medline and PsycINFO databases were used. Critical examining of the literature showed that familial/genetic, sociological, and individual factors (e.g., an individual's personality, biochemistry, psychological states, and cognitions) are implicated in the development and maintenance of PG, yet at present, the evidences are not solid. Similarly, there have been a lot of theories for PG but again, none of them are solid enough to provide a clear understanding of PG. Recent psychological-based theories seem to provide some solid ground for further research. We highlight four areas for future consideration for research. (1) Most studies have generalized findings from one form of gambling to another. It is suggested that it is now not tenable to consider gambling as a single phenomenon that can explain all forms of gambling. (2) Almost all of the studies in the gambling literature are Western-based and the results are often generalized to other ethnic and cultural groups. There is now an urgent need to close this gap. (3) Future studies need to address methodological problems in the current gambling/PG literature. (4) Almost all of the gambling literature has focused on the issue of why people start gambling. It is suggested that looking at variables as to why people stop gambling in a single episode may be a more fruitful area of research then why people start gambling. This is because what motivates one to continue gambling, despite losses in a session and across sessions, is a characteristic that distinguishes nonproblem gamblers from problem gamblers and pathological gamblers (PGs).
To compare and contrast gamblers with different forms of problematic gambling activities. DESIGN, SETTING AND MEASUREMENTS: Pathological gamblers completed the Addiction Severity Index (ASI) and gambling questionnaires when initiating out-patient treatment.
Participants (n = 347) were categorized by their most problematic form of gambling activity: sports, horse/dog-races, cards, slots and scratch/lottery tickets. Differences in demographics, gambling variables, and ASI composite scores were compared across groups.
After controlling for demographic variables, the types of gamblers differed in severity of gambling, alcohol and psychiatric problems. Horse/dog-race gamblers were generally older, male and less educated; they began gambling regularly at a young age and spent relatively high amounts of money gambling. Sports gamblers were young males and had intermediary gambling problems; they had relatively high rates of current substance use but few psychiatric problems. Card players spent low to moderate amounts of time and money gambling, and they generally reported few alcohol problems and little psychiatric distress. Slot machine players were older and more likely to be female. Slot gamblers began gambling later in life, had high rates of bankruptcy and reported psychiatric difficulties. Scratch/lottery gamblers spent the least amount of money gambling, but they gambled the most frequently and had relatively severe alcohol and psychiatric symptoms.
Gambling patterns and severity of psychosocial problems vary by form of problematic gambling, and these differences may influence treatment recommendations and outcomes.
It has been noted that adolescents may be more susceptible to pathological gambling. Not only is it usually illegal, but it appears to be related to high levels of problem gambling and other delinquent activities such as illicit drug taking and alcohol abuse. This paper examines risk factors not only in adolescent gambling but also in videogame playing (which shares many similarities with gambling). There appear to be three main forms of adolescent gambling that have been widely researched. Adolescent gambling activities and general risk factors in adolescent gambling are provided. As well, the influence of technology on adolescents in the form of both videogames and the Internet are examined. It is argued that technologically advanced forms of gambling may be highly appealing to adolescents.
This study evaluated the perceptions of individuals while gambling on a Video Lottery Terminal. The primary goal was to compare the frequency of erroneous perceptions and of gambling-related perceptions among pathological and nonproblem gamblers. The degree of conviction in these perceptions was also evaluated. Each participant was assessed by a clinical psychologist using the DSM-IV criteria. Results showed that, contrary to the first hypothesis, no significant differences emerged between problem and nonproblem gamblers on the percentage of erroneous perceptions. But, pathological gamblers verbalized significantly more gambling related perceptions and were more convinced in the truth of their perceptions than the nonproblem gamblers. The theoretical and clinical implications of these results are discussed in order to improve the effectiveness of treatment interventions for pathological gamblers.
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