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Joseph lister: First use of a bacterium as a 'model organism' to illustrate the cause of infectious disease of humans
Notes and Records
Abstract
Joseph Lister's goal was to show that a pure culture of Bacterium lactis, normally present in milk, uniquely caused the lactic acid fermentation of milk. To demonstrate this fact he devised a procedure to obtain a pure clonal population of B. lactis, a result that had not previously been achieved for any microorganism. Lister equated the process of fermentation with infectious disease and used this bacterium as a model organism, demonstrating its role in fermentation; from this result he made the inductive inference that infectious diseases of humans are the result of the growth of specific, microscopic, living organisms in the human host.
... Here, we consider the familiar relations of microbes that exist within our own microbiome but also in all corners of Earth. Table 4 [123][124][125][126][127][128][129][130][131][132][133][134][135][136][137][138][139][140][141][142] illustrates two fundamental principles about our connection to microbes: 1) We are intimately connected to Earth's microbes, 2) Even if much of our microbiome has some stability, we are constantly exchanging microbes, microbial genes, physiologically-modifying chemicals, and gathering information from and sharing information with the microbes beyond our body. The human body is open to the environment. ...
... They are also extremely important in fermented foods as well as in the human mouth, gut and female genital tract microbiomes and in initial colonization of the newborn's colon. [136][137][138][139][140] Beyond humans these bacteria are widespread in fermented foods, sileage, and plant and animal species. The first isolate of what eventually became known as Lactococcus lactis was first used by Joseph Lister [140] Lactic acid bacteria producing acidic niches (lactic acid) as a result of carbohydrate fermentation and also produce bacteriocins. ...
... [136][137][138][139][140] Beyond humans these bacteria are widespread in fermented foods, sileage, and plant and animal species. The first isolate of what eventually became known as Lactococcus lactis was first used by Joseph Lister [140] Lactic acid bacteria producing acidic niches (lactic acid) as a result of carbohydrate fermentation and also produce bacteriocins. These functions play a protective role in humans particularly in the vaginal microbiome. ...
... Louis Pasteur revoked the "spontaneous generation theory" around 1859 AD by elegantly designed experimentation (Farley and Geison 1974). The role of a sole bacterium "bacterium" lactis (Lactococuus lactis), in fermented milk was shown around 1877 by Sir John Lister (Santer 2010). Fermentation, from the Latin word Fevere' was defi ned by Louis Pasteur as "la vie sans l'air" (life without air). ...
... They acidify the food, resulting in a tangy lactic acid taste, frequently exert proteolytic and lipolytic activities, and produce aromatic compounds from, for instance, amino acids upon further bioconversion (van Kranenburg et al. 2002). Control over the activities of peptidases from LAB is a key target of cheese ripening technology (Law 2001, Grattepanche et al. 2008, 2010. As an example, over-expression of certain peptidases of Lb. lactis subsp. ...
... Louis Pasteur revoked the "spontaneous generation theory" around 1859 AD by elegantly designed experimentation (Farley and Geison 1974). The role of a sole bacterium "bacterium" lactis (Lactococuus lactis), in fermented milk was shown around 1877 by Sir John Lister (Santer 2010). Fermentation, from the Latin word Fevere' was defi ned by Louis Pasteur as "la vie sans l'air" (life without air). ...
... They acidify the food, resulting in a tangy lactic acid taste, frequently exert proteolytic and lipolytic activities, and produce aromatic compounds from, for instance, amino acids upon further bioconversion (van Kranenburg et al. 2002). Control over the activities of peptidases from LAB is a key target of cheese ripening technology (Law 2001, Grattepanche et al. 2008, 2010. As an example, over-expression of certain peptidases of Lb. lactis subsp. ...
... In 1857, Louis Pasteur started to study lactic acid fermentation, and about 15 years later, Joseph Lister obtained the first pure culture of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) (Bacterium lactis). 20 LABs are gram-positive, nonsporing, catalase-negative, aero and acid-tolerant bacteria, and produce several antimicrobial substances such as lactic acid, which is a major metabolic endproduct of carbohydrate fermentation. 20 LABs include genera including Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Pediococcus, Lactococcus, and Leuconostoc. ...
... 20 LABs are gram-positive, nonsporing, catalase-negative, aero and acid-tolerant bacteria, and produce several antimicrobial substances such as lactic acid, which is a major metabolic endproduct of carbohydrate fermentation. 20 LABs include genera including Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Pediococcus, Lactococcus, and Leuconostoc. 21 ...
An increasing number of studies has shown that dietary probiotics exert beneficial health effects in both humans and animals. It is well established that gut microbiota play a pivotal role in regulating host metabolism, and a growing number of studies has elucidated that probiotics positively interfere with gut microbiota. Accumulating evidence shows that probiotics, through their metabolic activity, produce metabolites that in turn contribute to positively affect host physiology. For these reasons, probiotics have shown significant potential as a therapeutic tool for a diversity of diseases, but the mechanisms through which probiotics act has not been fully elucidated yet. The goal of this review was to provide evidence on the effects of probiotics on gut microbiota changes associated with host metabolic variations, specifically focusing on feed intake and lipid and glucose metabolism. In addition, we review probiotic interaction with the gut microbiota. The information collected here will give further insight into the effects of probiotics on the gut microbiota and their action on metabolite release, energy metabolism, and appetite. This information will help to improve knowledge to find better probiotic therapeutic strategies for obesity and eating disorders.
... Louis Pasteur revoked the "spontaneous generation theory" around 1859 AD by elegantly designed experimentation (Farley and Geison 1974). The role of a sole bacterium "bacterium" lactis (Lactococuus lactis), in fermented milk was shown around 1877 by Sir John Lister (Santer 2010). Fermentation, from the Latin word Fevere' was defi ned by Louis Pasteur as "la vie sans l'air" (life without air). ...
... They acidify the food, resulting in a tangy lactic acid taste, frequently exert proteolytic and lipolytic activities, and produce aromatic compounds from, for instance, amino acids upon further bioconversion (van Kranenburg et al. 2002). Control over the activities of peptidases from LAB is a key target of cheese ripening technology (Law 2001, Grattepanche et al. 2008, 2010. As an example, over-expression of certain peptidases of Lb. lactis subsp. ...
... Traces of their spoiling activity could be traced even in beer bottles found in a shipwreck from the 1840s [12]. However, after being isolated in 1873 by Lister, it appeared that LAB can be used in many industry branches and improve the quality of products [19]. LAB are mostly applied in the dairy industry in the production of yoghurt, buttermilk, etc., while pharmaceutical and food industries make use of LAB's probiotic properties. ...
Mixed fermentation is one of the methods used in sour beer production. The process requires initialization of the fermentation step by well-planned addition of brewing yeast and lactic acid bacteria to slightly hopped wort. The final product’s properties strictly depend on how the microorganisms are pitched and the initial wort composition. The experiment was performed to evaluate the impact of different initial conditions and pitching methods on the mixed fermentation process and the final product’s characteristics. With the aim of limitation of the number of experiments, the Box–Behnken design was applied. Three independent factors were considered while obtaining the response surface: initial extract, bitterness and order of pitching. The final product’s properties: ethanol and lactic acid concentration, appeared to depend strictly on initial conditions and pitching order. Several important observations have been made; for example, it appeared that the presence of LAB does not significantly impact the final ethanol concentration. Optimal conditions for obtaining the maximum or minimum of each quality were calculated using Matlab. Obtained results might improve the sour beer production process while shortening the duration and reducing the usage of ingredients.
... Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were reported to be used for the first time in 1873 by Joseph Lister as a model organism to simulate the cause of infectious disease in humans (Santer, 2010). However, the reason for LAB being widely used is due to their ability to promote a remarkable diversification in flavor and texture in fermented food products. ...
Aflatoxins (AFs) are secondary metabolites that can be produced by filamentous fungi from the genus Aspergillus, mainly A. flavus, A. parasiticus and A. nomius. AFs are considered a risk to human health due to exposure both to the consumption of food of plant origin and the consumption of residues in food of animal origin, such as meat, milk, and eggs. Because of the high thermal stability of AFs, decontamination methods have been proposed to degrade or reduce these toxins without changing the characteristics of the food. Biological methods based on the use of several selected microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, yeasts, and algae have attracted great scientific attention. AFs detoxification occurs through binding (adsorption) by components of the microorganism’s cell wall or by biodegradation from enzymes, with several hypotheses being formed about specific mechanisms of action and there are several factors that influence the success of this process for each one major mycotoxins. In this chapter, the available literature on the use of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts in the AFs decontamination is discussed along with their proposed mechanisms of action.
... Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were unknowingly used as starters in fermented dairy products for thousands of years [1]. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, Pasteur identified lactic acid fermentation of yogurt, after which Lister obtained the first pure LAB culture [2]. Since then, LAB have been studied in depth, and their physiology and genetic characteristics were gradually revealed. ...
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are a phylogenetically diverse group with the ability to convert soluble carbohydrates into lactic acid. Many LAB have a long history of safe use in fermented foods and are recognized as food-grade microorganisms. LAB are also natural inhabitants of the human intestinal tract and have beneficial effects on health. Considering these properties, LAB have potential applications as biotherapeutic vehicles to delivery cytokines, antigens and other medicinal molecules. In this review, we summarize the development of, and advances in, genome manipulation techniques for engineering LAB and the expected future development of such genetic tools. These methods are crucial for us to maximize the value of LAB. We also discuss applications of the genome-editing tools in enhancing probiotic characteristics and therapeutic functionalities of LAB.
... Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were reported to be used for the first time in 1873 by Joseph Lister as a model organism to simulate the cause of infectious disease in humans (Santer, 2010). However, the reason for LAB being widely used is due to their ability to promote a remarkable diversification in flavor and texture in fermented food products. ...
Mycotoxins have been a relevant issue worldwide for decades, becoming an emerging health concern and present a substantial economic loss in several countries. Mycotoxins produced by fungi may influence human health negatively due to their carcinogenic, mutagenic, estrogenic, nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, neurotoxic, and immunosuppressive effects. Mycotoxins are heat-stable compounds that are resistant to conventional food process technologies, although detoxification by microorganisms has been proposed for their control for maintaining the quality and safety of foods. The potential of probiotics to reduce the availability of mycotoxins in foods has been extensively studied, with a special focus on lactic acid bacteria (LAB) species. In this chapter, a comprehensive description of the most important LAB is presented, along with a discussion of the various approaches used for the microbiological detoxification of the main mycotoxins. The proposed mechanistic mode of action of LAB for the decontamination of mycotoxins is also presented.
... Indeed, this scientific path led to many of the key discoveries in microbiological science from Pasteur's work demonstrating that yeast ferment grape juice to make wine [1], to Lister's demonstration that an isolated 'Bacterium lactis' strain was capable of souring (i.e. fermentation of) milk -an early illustration of a single microbial cause for infectious disease [2]. Thus the relationship of microbes to the foods we eat has had a long and notable scientific history, enabling the development of control measures to constrain and/or encourage specific microbial activity within food production to make safer, healthier and more flavorful products. ...
High-throughput, ‘next-generation’ sequencing tools offer many exciting new possibilities for food research. From investigating microbial dynamics within food fermentations to the ecosystem of the food-processing built environment, amplicon sequencing, metagenomics, and transcriptomics present novel applications for exploring microbial communities in, on, and around our foods. This review discusses the many uses of these tools for food-related and food facility-related research and highlights where they may yield nuanced insight into the microbial world of food production systems.
... The role of Lactococcus lactis as the key organism in the initiation of milk fermentation has been known since the work of Joseph Lister in the 1870s when Bacterium lactis was the first bacterium to be isolated in pure culture (Santer, 2010). Today this species is the main constituent of cultures used for the manufacture of a vast range of fermented dairy products, including fermented milks, sour cream, soft and hard cheeses, and lactic casein. ...
Phages of the P335 species infect Lactococcus lactis and have been particularly studied because of their association with strains of L. lactis subsp. cremoris used as dairy starter cultures. Unlike other lactococcal phages, those of the P335 species may have a temperate or lytic lifestyle, and are believed to originate from the starter cultures themselves. We have sequenced the genome of L. lactis subsp. cremoris KW2 isolated from fermented corn and found that it contains an integrated P335 species prophage. This 41 kb prophage (Φ KW2) has a mosaic structure with functional modules that are highly similar to several other phages of the P335 species associated with dairy starter cultures. Comparison of the genomes of 26 phages of the P335 species, with either a lytic or temperate lifestyle, shows that they can be divided into three groups and that the morphogenesis gene region is the most conserved. Analysis of these phage genomes in conjunction with the genomes of several L. lactis strains shows that prophage insertion is site specific and occurs at seven different chromosomal locations. Exactly how induced or lytic phages of the P335 species interact with carbohydrate cell surface receptors in the host cell envelope remains to be determined. Genes for the biosynthesis of a variable cell surface polysaccharide and for lipoteichoic acids (LTAs) are found in L. lactis and are the main candidates for phage receptors, as the genes for other cell surface carbohydrates have been lost from dairy starter strains. Overall, phages of the P335 species appear to have had only a minor role in the adaptation of L. lactis subsp. cremoris strains to the dairy environment, and instead they appear to be an integral part of the L. lactis chromosome. There remains a great deal to be discovered about their role, and their contribution to the evolution of the bacterial genome.
... Pasteur revoked the " spontaneous generation theory " around 1859 by elegantly designed experimentation (Wyman, 1862; Farley and Geison, 1974 ). The role of a sole bacterium, " Bacterium " lactis (Lactococcus lactis), in fermented milk was shown around 1877 by Sir John Lister (Santer, 2010). Fermentation, from the Latin word fervere, was defined by Louis Pasteur as " La vie sans l'air " (life without air). ...
Microbial food cultures have directly or indirectly come under various regulatory frameworks in the course of the last decades. Several of those regulatory frameworks put emphasis on "the history of use", "traditional food", or "general recognition of safety". Authoritative lists of microorganisms with a documented use in food have therefore come into high demand. One such list was published in 2002 as a result of a joint project between the International Dairy Federation (IDF) and the European Food and Feed Cultures Association (EFFCA). The "2002 IDF inventory" has become a de facto reference for food cultures in practical use. However, as the focus mainly was on commercially available dairy cultures, there was an unmet need for a list with a wider scope. We present an updated inventory of microorganisms used in food fermentations covering a wide range of food matrices (dairy, meat, fish, vegetables, legumes, cereals, beverages, and vinegar). We have also reviewed and updated the taxonomy of the microorganisms used in food fermentations in order to bring the taxonomy in agreement with the current standing in nomenclature.
This comprehensive review explores the evolving role of probiotic-based foods and beverages, highlighting their potential as functional and “future foods” that could significantly enhance nutrition, health, and overall well-being. These products are gaining prominence for their benefits in gut health, immune support, and holistic wellness. However, their future success depends on addressing critical safety concerns and navigating administrative complexities. Ensuring that these products “do more good than harm” involves rigorous evaluations of probiotic strains, particularly those sourced from the human gastrointestinal tract. Lactic acid bacteria (LABs) serve as versatile and effective functional starter cultures for the development of probiotic foods and beverages. The review emphasizes the role of LABs as functional starter cultures and the development of precision probiotics in advancing these products. Establishing standardized guidelines and transparent practices is essential, requiring collaboration among regulatory bodies, industry stakeholders, and the scientific community. The review underscores the importance of innovation in developing “friendly bacteria,” “super probiotics,” precision fermentation, and effective safety assessments. The prospects of functional probiotic-based foods and beverages rely on refining these elements and adapting to emerging scientific advancements. Ultimately, empowering consumers with accurate information, fostering innovation, and maintaining stringent safety standards will shape the future of these products as trusted and beneficial components of a health-conscious society. Probiotic-based foods and beverages, often infused with LABs, a “friendly bacteria,” are emerging as “super probiotics” and “future foods” designed to “do more good than harm” for overall health.
During the past one hundred years, microbiologists have developed methods to isolate, investigate, and propagate different microorganisms for different purposes in food fermentation. Nowadays, selected strains of bacteria, yeasts, and molds are widely applied in the food industry. Consumers seek fermented foods with sensorial and functional qualities that are shaped by these microorganisms, as they are responsible for producing metabolic end-products and structural/textural modifications in the raw material matrix. Industrial large-scale fermentations usually rely on single strains or defined cultures, leading to better control of product quality and consistency. The technological advantages from using specific starter cultures generally are associated with various benefits, such as enhancing the flavor, texture, aroma, color, and shelf-life of the fermented products, as well as improving their nutritional value and safety by producing organic acids, enzymes, vitamins, antioxidants, and antimicrobial compounds. Therefore, the industry of microbial cultures is in a constant quest for novel strains with specific technological/functional characteristics suitable to create new starters. This chapter highlights advanced novel methods for microbial culture selection and discusses regulatory considerations for new usages. A part of the chapter consists of sections highlighting significant research findings on the application of microbial systems in cross-over fermentation, synthetic microbial communities, and microbiome engineering. Exotic cultures and new generation probiotics as starter cultures and new technological properties for microbial cultures will also be discussed. Furthermore, this chapter encompasses updated information on the industrial production of starter cultures and provides future directions. There is a need for ongoing research exploring novel strains, synthetic communities, and regulatory considerations to shape the future of these important cultures in the food industry.
The benefits of fermented milk have been known to mankind since the ancient days of civilization. The important role of fermented milk in human nutrition has been well documented through the ages, from the original unpredictable souring of milk caused by the microorganisms inherent in milk to modern microbiological processes, leading to fermented milk with the greater nutritional value produced under controlled conditions. The bioactive peptides synthesized by the microbial degradation of proteins in fermented milk and the addition of supplements, such as probiotics and prebiotics endow them with various physiological functions, including the regulation of the gut microbiota, cholesterol lowering, and immunomodulation, making them potential functional foods that are notable in healthy diets. Here, we summarized the development of fermented milk into four stages and also summarized their impact on health and diseases during different developmental stages. In addition, we described the characteristics and limitations of fermented milk in different eras. Accordingly, we integrated the future trends in the development of fermented milk as functional foods. It is hoped that the efforts to develop the potential of fermented milk as functional foods will help manage the health risks faced by many countries.
Microorganisms [bacteria, fungi (yeasts and mold)] have been adopted successfully in a wide range of industries, from food and beverage processing industries to pharmaceutical operations. Additionally, microorganisms offer tremendous unexploited potential for value- added products such as amino acids, nucleotides and nucleosides, vitamins, organic acids, alcohols, exopolysaccharides, antibiotics, antitumor agents, etc., through various fermentation processes and parameters. This chapter reviews the involvement of various groups of microorganisms in fermentation. The measurement of microbial biomass, growth and kinetics, and factors affecting fermentation processes are also explained. The roles of microorganisms (bacteria and yeasts) involved in fermentation processes [solid-state fermentation (SSF) and submerged fermentation (SmF)] mostly related in processing industries are discussed.
Biopreservation, defined as the extension of shelf life and enhanced safety of foods by the use of natural or controlled microbiota and/or antimicrobial compounds, is an innocuous and ecological approach to the problem of food preservation and has gained increasing attention in recent years. Fermentation of food by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is one of the oldest forms of biopreservation practiced by mankind, not only to enhance the hygienic quality but also to minimize the impact of the nutritional and organoleptic properties of perishable food products. Lactobacillus spp. are Gram-positive rod bacteria belonging to the LAB group. Their phenotypic traits, such as homo-/heterofermentation abilities, play a crucial role in souring raw milk and in the production of fermented dairy products such as cheese, yogurt, and fermented milk (including probiotics). Either as starter, as adjunct cultures, or as probiotics, Lactobacillus strains are used as food preservatives not only to prevent the development of food spoilage but also to give consumers a health benefit. Some lactobacilli produce bacteriocins, proteins active against other bacteria. In recent years, the interest in these compounds has grown substantially due to their potential usefulness as natural substitute for chemical food preservatives in the production of foods with enhanced shelf life and/or safety. Bacteriocins can be incorporated directly into fermented foods, or indirectly by using a bacteriocin-producing strain, as a starter or adjunct culture. As the consumers’ interest in natural and healthy foods increases, LAB are currently playing a key role in the development of new products that may respond to this demand.
Microbes have a long history in the oil and gas industry. New molecular analysis methods, coupled with increased knowledge of microbe identity and chemistry, have led to advances in combating microbiologically influenced corrosion and reservoir damage. Scientists are also using these advances to develop new methods for microbiologically enhanced oil recovery and bioremediation.
This paper focuses on Lister's inaugural lecture at King's College, London, in October 1877. As the new Professor of Clinical Surgery, Lister had much to report, including impressively high survival rates from complex operations previously regarded as foolhardy. Instead, he chose to address the processes of fermentation in wine, blood and milk. His reasons are not obvious to a modern audience, just as they probably were not to those who heard him in the Great Hall at King's. Having brought microbiological apparatus from his laboratory to the lecture theatre and presented proof of bacterial variety and specificity, Lister publicly demonstrated the creation of the first pure bacterial culture in the history of microbiology. It was an ingenious and well-thought-out strategy designed to generate a frame of mind among his new colleagues and future students, receptive to the causative role of bacteria in septic diseases. His timing was impeccable.
Sir William Watson Cheyne is largely known to medical history as Lord Lister's 'trusted assistant'.(1) He spent a lifetime defending Joseph Lister's (1827-1912) antiseptic principle in the wake of scepticism and misunderstanding. However, his main contribution to Lister's work was in the embryonic field of bacteriology in the 1870s-1890s, which brought him into contact with continental researchers, particularly Robert Koch (1843-1910). In this field, Cheyne built an independent reputation as an assessor, chronicler and promoter of continental laboratory methodology. He pioneered bacteriological training in British teaching hospitals and incorporated laboratory testing into case notes as standard procedure. This paper reconsiders Cheyne's contribution to the development of bacteriology in British medicine at the end of the 19th century. It examines his motives in promoting new laboratory techniques and the methods he used to embed them in hospital procedure. It also considers how he continued to use bacteriological arguments to keep the Listerian antiseptic principle on the medical agenda well after Lister withdrew from active involvement in the field.
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Last year saw the 100th anniversary of the death of Joseph Lister FRCS PRS (1827–1912), and two Lister commemorative events, in London and Edinburgh.[1][1] This issue of Notes and Records is devoted to new scholarship on Lister's surgical science and discovery of antisepsis, and brings together a
Genome analysis using next generation sequencing technologies has revolutionized the characterization of lactic acid bacteria and complete genomes of all major groups are now available. Comparative genomics has provided new insights into the natural and laboratory evolution of lactic acid bacteria and their environmental interactions. Moreover, functional genomics approaches have been used to understand the response of lactic acid bacteria to their environment. The results have been instrumental in understanding the adaptation of lactic acid bacteria in artisanal and industrial food fermentations as well as their interactions with the human host. Collectively, this has led to a detailed analysis of genes involved in colonization, persistence, interaction and signaling towards to the human host and its health. Finally, massive parallel genome re-sequencing has provided new opportunities in applied genomics, specifically in the characterization of novel non-GMO strains that have potential to be used in the food industry. Here, we provide an overview of the state of the art of these functional genomics approaches and their impact in understanding, applying and designing lactic acid bacteria for food and health.
An important aspect of Joseph Lister's work that has received relatively little attention is his relationship with patients. However, a manuscript written by one of his patients, Margaret Mathewson's 'A Sketch of Eight Months a patient, in the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, A.D. 1877', provides detail about the surgeon as seen 'from below'-that is, by a charity patient. Although excerpts from Mathewson's 'Sketch' have previously been published, an earlier version of the 'Sketch' has only recently been identified as such. That earlier version represents Lister not only as actively concerned with patient education, but also as strongly supportive of patients' rights, encouraging ward patients to report maltreatment at the hands of the staff.
As Barry Marshall and Robin Warren are set to collect the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine next month for “their discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease,” it is apposite to recall that exactly 100 years earlier Robert Koch traveled from Berlin to Stockholm to receive his Nobel Prize for “investigations and discoveries in relation to tuberculosis.” Koch’s achievements in identifying other pathogens, such as anthrax and cholera, were equally remarkable. Yet his most original contribution to basic biology is the method he devised in 1881 for propagating single colonies of bacteria on plates, a technique that we would now call cloning. This method led to the second of his famous postulates for identifying the cause of an infectious disease: that the microbe must be isolated in pure form. Since then, many scientists have made major discoveries by adapting the cloning technology developed by Koch. From DNA cloning to monoclonal antibodies and even cloning whole organisms, such advances have helped to spawn at least six more Nobel Prizes.
Liebig suggested that the fermentation associated with the 'yeast plant' by its growth produces a material capable of acting on sugar in the same manner as emulsin acts on amygdalin, or diastase on starch, a catalytic phenomenon described in detail on
- Ibid
Ibid. Liebig suggested that the fermentation associated with the 'yeast plant' by its growth
produces a material capable of acting on sugar in the same manner as emulsin acts on
amygdalin, or diastase on starch, a catalytic phenomenon described in detail on pages 131–137.
14
J. R. Partington, A history of chemistry (4 volumes, 1961–70), vol. 4 (Macmillan, London,
1964), pp. 261 –264 and 302.
15
J. Henle, 'On miasmata and contagia' (transl. G. Rosen), Bull. Inst. Hist. Med. 6, 907–983
(1938).
Practising on principle: Joseph Lister and the germ theories of disease', in Medical theory, surgical practice: studies in the history of surgery Lister, 'A further contribution to the natural history of bacteria and the germ theory of fermentative changes
- Op Lister
- C Cit
- R Lawrence
- Dixey
Lister, op. cit. (note 1), p. 442.
32
C. Lawrence and R. Dixey, 'Practising on principle: Joseph Lister and the germ theories
of disease', in Medical theory, surgical practice: studies in the history of surgery
(ed. C. Lawrence), pp. 153 –215 (Routledge, London, 1992), at p. 179.
33
J. Lister, 'A further contribution to the natural history of bacteria and the germ theory of
fermentative changes', Q. J. Microsc. Sci. 13, 380–408 (1873), at p. 381.
34