ArticlePDF Available

Mindfulness and acceptance are associated with exercise maintenance in YMCA exercisers

Authors:

Abstract

Although most U.S. adults have initiated an exercise program at some time, only a fraction are able to maintain consistent exercise. Instead, research suggests that intermittent exercise is commonplace among U.S. adults, underscoring the importance of identifying factors associated with consistent exercise at a level that promotes health and long-term maintenance of this activity. We proposed a theoretical model in which mindfulness and acceptance may promote exercise initiation and maintenance. Mindfulness, acceptance, and suppression were examined as a function of exercise status in 266 YMCA exercisers. Those who were successful at maintaining exercise tended to score higher on measures of mindfulness and acceptance, and lower on measures of suppression. Findings are discussed in light of our proposed theoretical model in which exercisers having greater mindfulness and acceptance are less reactive; responding with more balanced appraisals to threats to their exercise regimen which in turn promotes increased exercise maintenance. Future studies should utilize longitudinal design to examine causal relationships between variables.
Shorter communication
Mindfulness and acceptance are associated with exercise maintenance
in YMCA exercisers
q
Christi S. Ulmer
*
, Barbara A. Stetson, Paul G. Salmon
Department of Psychological and Brain Science, 317 Life Sciences Building, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
article info
Article history:
Received 16 July 2009
Received in revised form
19 April 2010
Accepted 26 April 2010
Keywords:
Exercise
Adherence
Mindfulness
Acceptance
Suppression
Physical activity
abstract
Although most U.S. adults have initiated an exercise program at some time, only a fraction are able to
maintain consistent exercise. Instead, research suggests that intermittent exercise is commonplace
among U.S. adults, underscoring the importance of identifying factors associated with consistent exercise
at a level that promotes health and long-term maintenance of this activity. We proposed a theoretical
model in which mindfulness and acceptance may promote exercise initiation and maintenance. Mind-
fulness, acceptance, and suppression were examined as a function of exercise status in 266 YMCA
exercisers. Those who were successful at maintaining exercise tended to score higher on measures of
mindfulness and acceptance, and lower on measures of suppression. Findings are discussed in light of
our proposed theoretical model in which exercisers having greater mindfulness and acceptance are less
reactive; responding with more balanced appraisals to threats to their exercise regimen which in turn
promotes increased exercise maintenance. Future studies should utilize longitudinal design to examine
causal relationships between variables.
Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Introduction
With escalating rates of obesity and associated chronic disease,
it is critical that health care providers gain a better understanding
of the factors that support their patientsability to achieve and
sustain recommended levels of physical activity. Although most US
adults have initiated exercise programs at some point in their lives
(Sallis et al., 1990), research suggests that considerably fewer adults
consistently meet guidelines for leisure-time physical activity
(Adams & Schoenborn, 2006). About half of adults are likely to
drop-out of structured exercise programs within 6 months of
initiation or fail to maintain physical activity at the intended level
(Buckworth & Dishman, 2002; Marcus, Bock, & Pinto, 1997).
Interventions designed to increase physical activity are often
effective, but the mechanisms by which these interventions work
are only partially understood. In our efforts to better understand
factors that promote physical activity, it may be important to
consider the livedexperience of physical activity, which for many
is marked by pain, stiffness, soreness, low perceived self-efcacy,
and other negative qualities, especially among those who are
initiating a physical activity regimen. These unpleasant, avoidance-
promoting experiences may at least partially account for low
adherence and maintenance rates. The introduction of novel
constructs esuch as mindfulness and acceptance einto the
physical activity literature is warranted because they offer a means
of exploring the immediate or short-term experience of physical
activity, and the reasons for problematic adherence and mainte-
nance despite the long-term benets. Mindfulness and acceptance
have emerged in recent years as substantive constructs that seem
to exert their inuence across numerous psychological domains
(cognitive, affective and behavioral) relevant to varied mental
health issues. Mindfulnessehas been dened as non-judg-
mental, present-oriented focused attention (Kabat-Zinn, 2003),
and psychological acceptance has been dened as, the willingness
to remain in contact with and to actively experience particular
private experiences (e.g., bodily sensations, emotions, thoughts
memories, behavioral predispositions) that seem to accompany
functionally useful overt behaviors, pg. 2 (Hayes, Bissett, et al.,
1999). Experiential avoidance is the conceptual opposite of
acceptance and is described as the tendency to try to change or
avoid difcult thoughts and feelings, pg. 993, (Gifford & Lillis,
2009). In acceptance-based therapeutic approaches, suppression,
the conscious effort to avoid a particular thought (Wegner,
Schneider, Carter, & White, 1987), is considered to be one of the
primary emotion regulation strategies utilized to avoid emotionally
q
The views expressed in this presentation are those of the authors and do not
necessarily represent the views of the Department of Veterans Affairs.
*Correspondence to: Christi S. Ulmer, Durham VA Medical Center, Health
Services Research and Development, 508 Fulton Street, Durham, NC 27705, USA.
Tel.: þ1 919 286 0411x6593; fax: þ1 919 416 5832.
E-mail address: christi.ulmer@va.gov (C.S. Ulmer).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Behaviour Research and Therapy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/brat
0005-7967/$ esee front matter Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.04.009
Behaviour Research and Therapy 48 (2010) 805e809
distressing experience (Hoffmann & Asmundson, 2008). Thus,
suppression is congruent with experiential avoidance and counter
to acceptance.
These constructs are central aspects of newly developed clinical
interventions that have been effective in improving mental and
physical well-being (Baer, 2003; Hayes, Luoma, Bond, Masuda, &
Lillis, 2006). Among the best known of these interventions are
the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program of Kabat-
Zinn and colleagues (Kabat-Zinn, 1990), and Hayes et al.s Accep-
tance and Commitment Therapy (ACT; Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson,
1999). In spite of the success of these interventions in certain
domains, relationships between mindfulness, acceptance, and
health-promoting behaviors in healthy adults have received very
little attention in the literature, although preliminary results are
promising.
Mindfulness and acceptance have been central components of
several health behavior change interventions. Mindfulness-based
interventions have been found to reduce coronary heart disease
risk (Edelman et al., 2006), and lower BMI and increase physical
activity (Tapper et al., 2009). ACT-based behavioral interventions
have been used successfully for weight loss (Lillis, Hayes, Bunting, &
Masuda, 2009), smoking cessation (Gifford et al., 2004), and blood
glucose regulation in type 2 diabetes (Gregg, Callaghan, Hayes, &
Glenn-Lawson, 2007).
Mindfulness and acceptance-based (MAB) interventions have
also been successfully employed to reduce anxiety and depression
(Baer, 2003; Hayes, Follette, & Linehan, 2004), a benet that has
also been consistently demonstrated in exercise research. The
anxiolytic effects of exercise are comparable to those for CBT for
anxiety and better than those of other anxiety treatments (Wipi,
Rethorst, & Landers, 2008), and exercise confers benets for
depressed mood that are comparable to cognitive therapy (Mead
et al., 2009). Based upon the ndings of MAB health interventions
cited above, one could theorize that mindfulness and acceptance
promote improved psychological well-being which in turns
promotes an increased ability to initiate and maintain exercise.
However, relationships between mindfulness, acceptance and
exercise have yet to be investigated.
The conceptual basis of mindfulness described herein rests on
the transactional model of stress rst proposed by Lazarus and
Folkman (1984) and subsequently applied by Kabat-Zinn (1990)
to a mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) intervention
model. The model proposes that non-judgmental, present-moment
awareness fosters effective, responsive appraisal of ongoing events
in a manner that counteracts habitual cognitive and physiological
reactions. Applied to exercise, the model predicts that sensations
associated with exercise initiation and maintenance esome of
which are inevitably unpleasant or even painful ewould elicit
balanced appraisals of experiences that might otherwise lead to
avoidant or suppressive behaviors (e.g., exercise drop-out). In the
current study, we examined mindfulness, acceptance, and
suppression as a function of exercise status in YMCA exercisers to
empirically evaluate this model as applied to exercise.
Method
Participants
Participants were adult community exercisers (N¼226)
recruited from seven regional YMCA facilities located in either
Louisville, Kentucky or Southern Indiana. Participants were
primarily middle-aged (M age ¼49.96, SD ¼14.73) Caucasian
(N¼194, 85.8%) females (N¼143, 65%) with a Mean BMI of 26.62
(SD ¼5.73). Most participants were married (N¼162, 71.7%) with
no children in the home (N¼133, 61.6%) and had some college
education (N¼203, 89.8%). About half of participants were
employed full-time (N¼120, 53.1%), about 1/5 were retired
(N¼45, 19.9%).
Procedures
Participants were screened at recruitment to assure that they
were at the facility to exercise, and were at least 21 years of age.
There were no other criteria for participation. Participants were
approached upon entering or leaving the YMCA facilities and
invited to participate in a study on the topic of exercise and health
behaviors. Those who assented received a description of the study
and signed an informed consent document. They were then given
a packet of study materials and a postage-paid envelope with
instructions to return it within two weeks.
Measures
Exercise maintenance
Following from the premise that consistent exercise produces
greater health benets than intermittent exercise, we examined
self-reported exercise maintenance over the previous year to
facilitate a comparison of participants on exercise consistency.
Exercise maintenance status was determined using the following
questions from an exercise status questionnaire developed for this
study: 1) Have you exercised regularly for the past year?(Regular
Exerciser); 2) Over the previous year, have you missed 1 full week
of exercise?;3)Over the previous year, have you missed 2
continuous weeks of exercise?; and 4) Over the previous year,
have you missed 3 continuous weeks of exercise?Dichotomous
variables (yes/no) were created from participantsresponse to these
items, and responses were then collapsed to create an ordinal
variable reecting the number of missed weeks of exercise.
Achievement of activity guidelines
In addition to assessing the consistency of exercise (exercise
maintenance) among study participants, we also wanted to know if
participants were meeting federal guidelines for physical activity
since adhering to these guidelines should confer specic health
benets. Although more recent guidelines are available, the current
study was designed to assess adherence with the federal guidelines
for physical activity in effect when the study was conducted.
Namely, that all Americans engage in moderate intensity physical
activities for at least 30 min on 5 or more days of the week, or if
they engaged in vigorous-intensity physical activity for 3 or more
days per week for 20 or more minutes per occasion (Centers for
Disease Control and American Academy of Sports Medicine,
1995).The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ:
Craig et al., 2003) was used to quantify physical activity for
purposes of determining whether guidelines were achieved. The
IPAQ is a nine-itemquestionnaire in which the respondent provides
the number of days per week and minutes and hours per day spent
in various activities over the previous one-week period. Based upon
self-reported physical activity on the IPAQ for the last 7 days,
adherence to federal physical activity guidelines was determined
using total number of minutes in moderate to vigorous activity per
week.
Success in meeting exercise goals
Self-reported perceived success in meeting exercise goals was
determined using the Revised Causal Dimension Scale (CDS:
McAuley, Duncan, & Russell, 1992). The CDS is a measure of causal
attributions regarding the perceived cause for an event. The exer-
cise version of the measure includes the following statement at the
top of the page, Please list the main reason why you have been
C.S. Ulmer et al. / Behaviour Research and Therapy 48 (2010) 805e809806
successful or unsuccessful in meeting your exercise goal(s).
Participantsresponses were coded as either reecting perceived
success or perceived failure in meeting exercise goals. Thus, success
in meeting exercise goals was coded dichotomously (yes/no) based
upon their response to this CDS item.
Mindfulness
Mindfulness was assessed with both the Mindful Attention and
Awareness Scale (MAAS: Brown & Ryan, 2003) and the Frieberg
Mindfulness Inventory (FMI: Walach, Buchheld, Buttenmuller,
Kleinknecht, & Schmidt, 2006). In accordance with Baer, Smith,
Hopkins, Krietemeyer, and Toney (2006), the MAAS was chosen
to assess dispositionalmindfulness, and the FMI was chosen to
assess mindfulness as a skill. Accordingly, the MAAS and FMI are
labeled as trait mindfulness and state mindfulness, respectively, in
the table and on the gure. The MAAS is a 15-item self-report
measure of individual differences in the frequency of mindful
states over time (pg. 824)(Brown & Ryan, 2003). In a series of
validation studies conducted by the authors of the measure, the
MAAS demonstrated high internal validity (alpha ¼.87), high test-
retest reliability (r¼.81, p<.0001), and good convergent and
discriminant validity. The FMI is a 14-item self-report measure of
mindfulness with satisfactory internal consistency (alpha ¼.86),
and convergent validity with related constructs.
Acceptance versus experiential avoidance
The Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAQ-9: Hayes,
Strosahl, et al., 2004) was used to assess experiential avoidance.
In eight samples totaling more than 2400 participants, experiential
avoidance as assessed by the AAQ-9 was associated with greater
psychopathology, depression, and anxiety, as well as specic fears,
trauma, lower quality of life, and with suppression as measured
using the White Bear Suppression Inventory (WBSI).
Suppression
The WBSI (Wegner & Zanakos, 1994) is a 15-item self-report
measure of thought suppression. The WBSI is a reliable instrument
with internal consistency alphas ranging from .87 to .89, a 1-week
testeretest correlation of .92, and a 3 week to 3 month testeretest
correlation coefcient of .69. In the validation study, the WBSI
demonstrated adequate convergent validity with measures of
depression and anxiety.
Analyses
Mean scores on mindfulness, acceptance and suppression were
compared by exercise maintenance category. The assumptions for
comparing groups with parametric statistics were met for all
measures. One-way ANOVAs were used to compare mean scores by
exercise maintenance status for all analyses. Due to multiple
comparisons, the Bonferroni correction was used to adjust signi-
cance level. Assuming an average correlation of .40 across
measures, an alpha level of p¼.05, and a two-tailed comparison,
the Bonferroni corrected signicance level was p.02.
Results
In preliminary analyses, the data were examined to determine if
the exercise or mindfulness and acceptance variables were corre-
lated with demographic characteristics of the participants. Level of
education was found to be correlated with certain measures, as
follows: WBSI (r¼.19, p<.05) and the AAQ-9 (r¼.25, p<.01).
Participants who were successful at meeting their exercise goals
(F¼11.89, p¼.001) and those endorsing regular exercise over the
previous year (F¼19.47, p<.001) were older than their counter-
parts. A higher percentage of men than women were successful at
meeting their exercise goals (X
2
¼4.48, p¼.03). Regular exercisers
had a lower BMI than non-regular exercisers (F¼7.84, p¼.006).
Age, gender and BMI were otherwise unrelated to exercise main-
tenance. All analyses included the appropriate demographic cova-
riate/s (age, gender, BMI, or education) as discussed above, if they
were related to both the independent and dependent variables.
Table 1 summarizes mean mindfulness, acceptance and
suppression scores for study participants by exercise maintenance
category. Scores that differ signicantly (p.02) by category are
indicated in bold. Participants who perceived themselves to be
successful in meeting their exercise goals scored higher on
measures of acceptance [F(1,192) ¼7.52, p¼.007] and state
mindfulness [F(2,192) ¼5.27, p¼.02],and reported less suppression
[F(1,195) ¼6.51, p¼.01]. Participants missing 1 week of exercise
over the previous year scored higher in acceptance [F(1,199) ¼6.05,
p<.02] and lower in state mindfulness [F(1, 205) ¼5.42, p¼.02].
Participants missing 2 consecutive weeks of exercise over the
previous year scored lower in acceptance [F(1,198) ¼8.10, p¼.005]
and trait mindfulness [F(1,199) ¼5.41, p¼.02] and higher in
suppression [F(1,201) ¼6.73, p¼.01]. Participants missing 3
consecutive weeks of exercise scored signicantly lower in accep-
tance [F(1,199) ¼7.82, p¼.006] and suppression [F(1,202) ¼7.19,
p¼.008]. Fig. 1 depicts differences in mindfulness, acceptance and
suppression scores by exercise maintenance category. Acceptance
levels differed by the number of weeks of missed exercise over the
previous year, with those endorsing 0 weeks of missed exercise
having signicantly higher levels of acceptance than those missing
3 weeks of exercise [F(3,195) ¼3.91, p¼.01]. None of the measures
discriminated those who achieved physical activity guidelines from
those who did not, nor did they discriminate those endorsing
regular exercise for the past year from those who did not. Higher
levels of mindfulness and acceptance and lower suppression were
related to fewer missed exercise sessions, more regular exercise,
and greater perceived success in meeting exercise goals across all
measures.
Discussion
The ndings of our study suggest that YMCA exercisers who are
successful at maintaining exercise tended to have higher scores on
mindfulness and acceptance measures, and lower suppression
scores. Although our cross-sectional data do not permit causal
inferences, they raise two interesting questions: Are individuals
who are drawn to exercise more mindful and accepting? Does
exercise promote mindfulness and acceptance? Both of these are
possible explanations for our ndings. It may be also be that both
are true, with mediation by additional variables being possible as
well.
The consistent pattern across measures of higher mindfulness
and acceptance and lower suppression among those maintaining
exercise suggests a robust relationship, and prompts us to consider
how these factors may impact physical activity initiation and
maintenance? Consistent with the transactional model of stress, we
suggest that mindfulness and acceptance intervene between
activity-related cognitions/emotions and overt behavior in a way
that facilitates ones ability to respond to rather than react to
cognitive, behavioral or emotional threats to physical activity.
Despite acknowledged long-term health benets, initiating and
sustaining physical activity is often inherently stressful when seen
through the lens of sedentary adults. The experience of physical
activity, especially for new initiates is often stressfully unpleasant,
marked by pain, stiffness, soreness, low perceived self-efcacy, and
other negative qualities. I dontfeel like exercisingcaptures the
daunting, pre-activity emotional state of many who undertake the
process of becoming physically t. Those who persevere through
C.S. Ulmer et al. / Behaviour Research and Therapy 48 (2010) 805e809 807
this initial and inevitable period of adaptation must then contend
with the issue of maintenance: How does one sustain the interest,
or at least persistence, to stay physically active without giving up in
the face of boredom, variable progress, injury, justiable lapses,
competing priorities, and the like? Somehow, one must learn to
balance what may be stressful, even unpleasant, experiences on
a day-to-day basis against the longer-term potential benets of
becoming and staying active. Being mindfulprovides a potentially
effective means of navigating exercise-related challenges through
a combination of present-moment acuity and an accepting, non-
judgmental attitude.
The original conceptual model of mindfulness proposed by
Kabat-Zinn (1990) was based on the transactional stress model that
emphasized the importance of appraisal in determining whether or
not specic circumstances constitute stressors. According to this
model, mindfulness fosters present-moment awareness, accurate
appraisal and responsive coping with respect to circumstances that
may otherwise elicit habitual, non-conscious stress reactivity. In
more recent conceptualizations, mindfulness has been character-
ized as fostering effective self-regulation via decenteringor
reperceivingea cognitive shift toward accurate appraisals and
away from automated reactivity (Garland, Gaylord, & Park, 2009;
Shapiro, Carlson, Astin, & Freedman, 2006). Kabat-Zinns original
model is consistent with empirical evidence pointing to greater
cognitive and behavioral exibility in those with greater mindful-
ness and acceptance (Shapiro et al., 2006).
Early clinical applications of mindfulness helped medical
patients cope with chronic pain by emphasizing the importance of
careful discrimination of moment-by-moment experiential shifts
(pain-ful versus pain-free moments), separating pain related
thoughts from actual sensations, and working within ones existing
capabilities and limits (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Accomplished endur-
ance athletes report mindful-like states in the context of long-
distance running, focusing predominantly on present-moment
physical and physiological sensations while attending to, but not
being over-invested in, the inevitable ow of cognitive events
(thoughts, memories, etc.) that accompany such experiences
(Salmon, Hanneman, & Harwood, in press). It is plausible to suggest
that a similar pattern of non-judgmental, present-focused aware-
ness may operate in other potentially stressful circumstances, such
as exercise initiation and maintenance.
Finally, mindfulness and acceptance may facilitate relapse
prevention in those who have successfully initiated an exercise
regimen. From a mindful/accepting orientation, behavior lapses are
viewed in benign terms. They are experiences to be accepted and
viewed with openness and curiosity, an orientation that may lessen
the likelihood of further progression into relapse (Salmon,
Santorelli, Sephton, & Kabat-Zinn, 2009). Although few health
behaviors are maintained on an invariant schedule and episodic
variation is to be expected, mindfulness and acceptance may inter-
vene when occasional episodic lapses would otherwise increase in
frequency to the point of relapse, jeopardizing health benets.
Limitations of this study include the use of retrospective recall
data and subjective assessments of exercise adherence in the
context of a cross-sectional research design. Measures of exercise
maintenance and perceived goal achievement were dichotomous in
nature, which may limit the variability of data and detailed aspects
of the relapse process. Subsequent studies of the process of exercise
maintenance may benet from use of continuous measures. Use of
a convenience sample comprised of relatively high socioeconomic
status (SES), physically active, and predominantly Caucasian
participants limits generalization of ndings. Finally, since we did
not record information on the percentage of YMCA members
approached who declined to participate, we cannot rule out the
possibility that those who assented were systematically different in
terms of mindfulness, acceptance or exercise than those who
declined participation, resulting in sample selection bias.
In spite of the limitations of our study, we introduced several
novel constructs into the exercise maintenance literature and
provided a theoretical and empirical basis for their inclusion in
Table 1
Mean scores by exercise status (controlling for related demographic factors).
Acceptance Trait mindfulness State mindfulness Suppression
NMean NMean NMean NMean
Have you exercised regularly for the past year? No 28 37.75 28 62.25 27 39.25 26 31.97
Yes 164 40.52 164 63.26 172 40.61 170 28.78
Participant perceives success in meeting their exercise goals? No 33 36.97 33 59.51 33 37.42 33 33.98
Yes 153 40.95 152 63.63 159 41.08 156 28.19
Were physical activity guidelines met over the previous 7 days? No 43 38.95 44 61.41 42 39.94 42 31.00
Yes 144 40.88 143 63.41 151 40.53 147 28.32
Over the previous year, have you missed 1 full week of exercise? No 44 42.39 47 65.72 46 42.46 47 26.90
Yes 156 39.51 154 62.05 160 39.84 154 29.71
Over the previous year, have you missed 2 continuous weeks of exercise? No 116 41.37 116 64.44 121 41.33 118 27.25
Yes 83 38.57 84 60.77 84 39.19 84 31.65
Over the previous year, have you missed 3 continuous weeks of exercise? No 148 41.01 148 63.50 155 40.91 151 27.80
Yes 52 37.92 52 61.19 51 39.15 52 32.91
Number of Missed weeks of exercise over the previous year 0 43 42.65
a
46 65.87 45 42.71 45 26.69
17240.49 69 63.41 75 40.42 72 27.59
23239.69 32 60.09 34 39.40 33 29.77
35237.92
a
52 61.19 51 39.15 52 32.91
Note. Means in a column having the same subscript are signicantly different.
Fig. 1. Mindfulness, acceptance, and suppression by the number of missed weeks of
exercises.
C.S. Ulmer et al. / Behaviour Research and Therapy 48 (2010) 805e809808
future research. Future studies should focus on lower SES and less
active adult populations. Use of a longitudinal design would permit
assessment of possible causal relationships among exercise main-
tenance, mindfulness, and acceptance constructs, and ultimately
contribute to the development and testing of intervention models.
Research has shown that both exercise and MAB interventions
reduce anxiety and depression, suggesting a directional effect. It
may also be that these factors, in combination, directly impact
exercise initiation and maintenance as well. Additional research is
needed investigating all factors concurrently.
Acknowledgements
The rst author was funded by a Department of Veterans Affairs
HSR&D Career Development Award CDA 09-218. The authors would
like to thank Chelsea Rothschild, M.A, Jeff Meyer, Ph.D., and Jason
Bonner M.A. for their assistance on this project.
References
Adams, P. F., & Schoenborn, C. A. (2006). Health behaviors of adults: United States,
2002e04. Vital Health Statistics, 10.
Baer, R. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: a conceptual and
empirical review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10,125e143.
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T.,Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report
assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13,27e45.
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benets of being present: mindfulness and
its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
84, 822e848.
Buckworth, J. D., & Dishman, R. K. (2002). Exercise psychology. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics Publishers.
Centers for Disease Control and American Academy of Sports Medicine. (1995).
Physical activity and public health. A recommendation from the Centers for
disease control and prevention and the American college of Sports medicine.
JAMA, 273, 402e407.
Craig, C., Marshall, A. L., Sjostrom, M., Bauman, A., Booth, M. L., Ainsworth, B. E.,
et al. (2003). International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability
and validity. Medicine & Science in Sports and Exercise, 35, 1381e1395.
Edelman, D., Oddone, E. Z., Liebowifz, R. S., Yancy, W. S., Olsen, M. K., Jeffreys, A. S.,
et al. (2006). A multidimensional integrative medicine intervention to improve
cardiovascular risk. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 21,728e734.
Garland, E., Gaylord, S., & Park, J. (2009). The role of mindfulness in positive
reappraisal. Explore, 5(1), 37e44.
Gifford, E. V., Kohlenberg, B. S., Hayes, S. C., Antonuccio, D. O., Piasecki, M. M.,
Rasmussen-Hall, M. L., et al. (2004). Applying a functional acceptance based
model to smoking cessation: an initial trial of acceptance and commitment
therapy. Behavior Therapy, 35, 689e705.
Gifford,E. V., & Lillis, J.(2009). Avoidanceand inexibilityas a common clinical pathway
in obesity and smoking treatment. Journal of Hea lth Psychology, 14,992e996.
Gregg, J. A., Callaghan, G. M., Hayes, S. C., & Glenn-Lawson, J. L. (20 07). Improving
diabetes self-management through acceptance, mindfulness, and values:
a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75,
336e343.
Hayes, S. C., Bissett, R. T., Korn, Z., Zettle, R. D., Rosenfarb, I. S., Cooper, L. D., et al.
(1999). The impact of acceptance versus control rationales on pain tolerance.
Psychological Record, 49,33e47.
Hayes, S. C., Follette, V. M., & Linehan, M. M. (2004). Mindfulness and acceptance:
Expanding the cognitive-behavioral tradition. New York: Guilford Press.
Hayes, S. C., Luoma, J. B., Bond, F. W., Masuda, A., & Lillis, J. (2006). Acceptance and
commitment therapy: model, processes and outcomes. Behaviour Research and
Therapy, 44,1e25.
Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (1999). Acceptance and commitment
therapy. New York: Guilford Press.
Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., Wilson, K. G., Bissett, R. T., Pistorello, J., Toarmino, D.,
et al. (2004). Measuring experiential avoidance: a preliminary test of a working
model. The Psychological Record, 54, 553e578.
Hoffmann, S. G., & Asmundson, G. J. (2008). Acceptance and mindfulness-based
therapy: new wave or old hat? Clinical Psychology Review, 28,1e16.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind
to face stress, pain, and illness. New York: Delta.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: past, present,
and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10,144e156.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
Lillis, J., Hayes, S. C., Bunting, K., & Masuda, A. (2009). Teaching acceptance and
mindfulness to improve the lives of the obese: a preliminary test of a theoret-
ical model. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 37,58e69.
McAuley, E., Duncan, T. E., & Russell, D. W. (1992). Measuring causal attributions:
the revised Causal Dimension Scale (CDSII). Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 18(5), 566e573.
Marcus, B. H., Bock, B. B., & Pinto, B. M. (1997). Initiation and maintenance of
exercise behavior. In D. S. Gochman (Ed.), Handbook of health behavior research
II: Provider determinants. New York: Plenum Press.
Mead, G. E., Morley, W., Campbell, P., Greig, C. A., McMurdo, M., & Lawlor, D. A.
(2009). Exercise for depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.
Sallis, J. F., Hovell, M. F., Hofstetter, R., Elder, J. P., Faucher, P., Spry, V. M., et al. (1990).
Lifetime history of relapse from exercise. Addictive Behaviors, 15,573e579.
Salmon, P., Hanneman, S., & Harwood, B. Associative/Dissociative cognitive strate-
gies in sustained physical activity: literature review and proposal for a mind-
fulness-based conceptual model. The Sport Psychologist, in press.
Salmon, P., Santorelli, S. F., Sephton, S. E., & Kabat-Zinn, J. (2009). Intervention
elements promoting adherence to mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)
programs in a clinical behavioral medicine setting. In S. A. Shumaker, J. K. Ock-
ene, & K. A. Rekert (Eds.), The handbook of health behavior change (3rd ed.). (pp.
271e286).
Shapiro, S. L., Carlson, L. E., Astin, J. A., & Freedman, B. (2006). Mechanisms of
mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 373e386.
Tapper, K., Shaw, C., Ilsley, J., Hill, A. J., Bond, F. W., & Moore, L. (2009). Exploratory
randomised controlled trial of a mindfulness-based weight loss intervention for
women. Appetite, 52, 396e404.
Walach, H., Buchheld, N., Buttenmuller, V., Kleinknecht, N., & Schmidt, S. (2006).
Measuring mindfulnessethe Freiburg mindfulness Inventory (FMI). Personality
and Individual Differences, 40, 1543e1555.
Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. L. (1987). Paradoxical effects
of thought suppression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53,5e13.
Wegner, D. M., & Zanakos, S. (1994). Chronic thought suppression. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 62,615
e640.
Wipi, Rethorst, C. D., & Landers, D. M. (2008). The anxiolytic effects of exercise:
a meta-analysis of randomized trials and doseeresponse analysis. Journal of
Sport & Exercise Psychology, 30, 392e410.
C.S. Ulmer et al. / Behaviour Research and Therapy 48 (2010) 805e809 809
... Mindfulness-based interventions are ubiquitous in healthcare and have demonstrated effectiveness in improving emotion regulation and decreasing symptoms of depression, anxiety, and a host of physical symptoms and side effects associated with chronic disease and its treatment (Victorson et al., 2015). Emerging data indicate mindfulness training that occurs independently from physical activity may increase adoption and maintenance of MVPA participation (Ulmer et al., 2010;Loucks et al., 2015;Ruffault et al., 2017;Meyer et al., 2018). A recent meta-analysis found moderate effects for increasing physical activity following mindfulness training in adults with overweight/obesity (Ruffault et al., 2017). ...
... A recent meta-analysis found moderate effects for increasing physical activity following mindfulness training in adults with overweight/obesity (Ruffault et al., 2017). Further, increased mindfulness is associated with higher likelihood to follow through on MVPA intentions (Chatzisarantis and Hagger, 2007) and maintain an exercise program (Ulmer et al., 2010). Thus, engagement in mindfulness training may be an effective, scalable strategy for increasing MVPA. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Most adults are insufficiently active. Mindfulness training may increase moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) adoption and adherence. However, physiological and psychological factors underlying these effects are not well understood. This study examined the effects of an acute bout of MVPA, mindfulness training, and combined MVPA and mindfulness training on physiological and psychological outcomes. Methods Healthy adults (N = 29, Mage = 28.6) completed 20-min counterbalanced conditions: (a) mindfulness training (MIND); (b) moderate intensity walking (PA), and (c) moderate intensity walking while listening to MVPA-specific guided mindfulness training (PAMIND). Heart rate (HR), Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE), Feeling Scale (FS) and Blood Pressure (BP) were measured at rest, at regular intervals during each condition, and post-condition. Mindfulness, state anxiety, and self-efficacy were assessed pre- and post-condition. Results Average and peak HR, systolic BP (SBP), and RPE were significantly higher, and average and peak FS were significantly lower during the PA and PAMIND conditions compared to MIND (p < 0.001). Average RPE was significantly higher for PA compared to PAMIND (p < 0.001). Heart rate, feeling scale, body and mental events mindfulness, and self-efficacy for walking increased from pre to post (all p’s < 0.001) for all conditions. Time by condition interactions were significant for change in heart rate, mental events mindfulness, and state anxiety from pre- to post-condition. Conclusion The physiological response to MVPA and PAMIND were similar. However, RPE was rated lower in the PAMIND condition, which could have implications for MVPA adoption and maintenance. Future work should further explore RPE combining MVPA and mindfulness training.
... The findings of this study further confirm the mediating effect of mindfulness between leisure-time physical activity and academic burnout among college students. This result is consistent with previously reported findings that leisure-time physical activity is positively related to mindfulness 17,54 and that mindfulness negatively predicts college student academic burnout 18,19,55 . From an exercise psychology perspective, mindfulness is a categorical trait variable that is susceptible to acquired environmental influences 56 . ...
Article
Full-text available
This study aimed to investigate the relationship between leisure-time physical activity and academic burnout among college students, and the mediating roles of mindfulness and self-esteem in the relationship, so as to provide a reference for alleviating academic burnout among college students. The study used the Physical Activity Rating Scale, the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, the Self-Esteem Scale, and the Academic Burnout Scale to conduct a questionnaire survey to 629 college students (M = 19.6) through a convenience sampling method. The constructed chained mediation model was tested for path analysis, and mediation effects using SPSS 29.0. The results showed that leisure-time physical activity, mindfulness, self-esteem and academic burnout were significantly correlated with each other. The direct effect of leisure-time physical activity on college students’ academic burnout was not significant, but the indirect effect was significant. Mindfulness and self-esteem had significant mediating effects between leisure-time physical activity and academic burnout among college students, and the mediating effects consisted of the independent mediation of mindfulness and self-esteem and the chain mediating effect between them. Thus, enhancing leisure-time physical activity as an intervention to alleviate academic burnout among college students should focus on the effects on mindfulness perception and self-esteem. By enhancing the levels of mindfulness perception and self-esteem, leisure-time physical activity may play an important role in alleviating the growing academic burnout among college students.
... Increased mindfulness is associated with a higher likelihood to follow through on MVPA intentions and maintain an exercise program. 50,51 It is hypothesized mindfulness may enhance MVPA via improved emotion regulation and cognitive flexibility, 52-54 resulting in better recognition and regulation of negative experiences during MVPA (e.g., uncomfortable bodily sensations, emotions) and enhanced intensity of positive aspects of MVPA. 55 General mindfulness training is hypothesized to increase facilitators/reduce barriers to MVPA by increasing mindfulness and self-compassion. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Opt2Move is a theory-guided moderate and vigorous physical activity (MVPA) promotion trial that uses multiphase optimization strategy (MOST) methodology to evaluate the individual and combined effects of four intervention components in a full factorial experiment among young adult cancer survivors (YACS; N = 304). All participants will receive the core mHealth MVPA intervention, which includes a Fitbit and standard self-monitoring Opt2Move smartphone application. YACS will be randomized to one of 16 conditions to receive between zero and four additional components each with two levels (yes v. no): E-Coach, buddy, general mindfulness, and MVPA-specific mindfulness. Objective The primary aim is to determine the individual and combined effects of the components on MVPA post-intervention (12-weeks) and at 24-week follow-up. The secondary aim is to examine how changes in MVPA are associated with patient-reported outcomes, light-intensity activity, sedentary time, and sleep duration and quality. Potential mediators and moderators of component effects will also be examined. Results Results will support the selection of a package of intervention components optimized to maximize MVPA to be tested in a randomized controlled trial. Conclusion Opt2Move represents the first systematic effort to use MOST to design an optimized, scalable mHealth MVPA intervention for YACS and will lead to an improved understanding of how to effectively change YACS’ MVPA and ultimately, improve health and disease outcomes.
... Athletes need precise control over this system to prevent it from inadvertently affecting their bodily functions. Studies by Kabat-Zinn (1994), Schmidt and Kupper (2012), and Ulmer, Stetson, and Salmon (2010) suggest that mindfulness allows athletes to be introspective without judging experiences as positive or negative. This management of the autonomic nervous system aids in stress management, anxiety reduction, and the minimization of panic, leading to the filtering out of distracting information (Good et al., 2016). ...
Article
Full-text available
This research aimed to study and establish the mental preparedness model of Thai athletes during the COVID-19 pandemic in preparation for the 19th Asian Games. This study employed a mixed methods approach, involving 409 participants (217 males and 192 females) selected through a lottery system, ensuring equitable representation across the 19 types of sports. Additionally, six participants were included for qualitative data gathering. The research designed a comprehensive questionnaire to collect data, which included the Sports Stress Management Skills in Thai Questionnaire, Questionnaire on Mental Readiness for Competition, 'Motivation to Participate in Sports Activities in Thai' Questionnaire, Self-Confidence Questionnaire, Mental Toughness Questionnaire in Thai, and the Mindfulness in Sports Questionnaire in Thai Version. Data was collected using a traditional questionnaire and an online questionnaire accessed via QR codes. Structural Equation Modeling was employed for data analysis. Qualitative data were gathered through interviews. The study's results revealed the development of a mental preparation model for Thai national team athletes during the COVID-19 outbreak. This model emphasizes the significance of mindfulness as a crucial factor directly influencing psychological readiness. Furthermore, mindfulness exerts an indirect influence through four intermediary variables: motivation, stress management skills, confidence, and mental toughness. Significantly, qualitative data highlighted adaptive mental resilience and mindfulness as key factors in fostering mental readiness among athletes, especially during challenging periods like the COVID-19 outbreak. These factors encompass effective stress management, balanced motivation, self-confidence, professional guidance, adaptive mindset, support systems, and long-term planning. This model integrates various elements of mental preparation, with mindfulness positioned as the central pillar.
... Research addressing the effect of mindfulness on fitness routines [20,21] and the integration of multiple methods of stress reduction [20][21][22] are present in the literature, however few have taken an experimental approach to examining the integration of mindfulness and physical activity. Many of the studies discuss the barriers to each type of activity and hypothesize that the integration of multiple techniques would decrease the barriers to enhance the effectiveness of an integrated program. ...
Article
Full-text available
Current research shows that mindfulness and physical training programs have been shown to help reduce stress independently, however, limited research is available exploring the possible additive effects of implementing both training programs together [1, 2]. To test the feasibility and effectiveness of the Mind-Body Fitness program through a case-series pilot program, seven elementary school teachers completed a nine-week mindfulness and fitness program. The Perceived Stress Scale [3] was administered at three time points to measure changes in stress levels, and then a focus group was conducted at the conclusion of the program. Focus groups were analyzed using thematic analysis. Mean scores on the Perceived Stress Scale decreased over time. Three themes were identified 1) Perception of stress levels, 2) Integration of stress reduction, and 3) Program evaluation. A novel approach to the integration of mindfulness and fitness created a program with the benefits and strengths of both. Teachers believed the program helped reduce stress levels. The fitness component highlighted the role of support systems in stress reduction, and the mindfulness component has a carry-over effect in managing stress in and out of the classroom.
... When the literature is examined, it is seen that there are other studies supporting the conclusion of this study (Ulmer et al., 2010;Mothes et al., 2014;Brisbon and Lowery, 2011;Shelov et al., 2009;Gaiswinkler and Unterrainer, 2016;Chen et al., 2021). Exercises that include mind-body practices such as yoga, pilates, and tai chi chuan are among the exercises performed at low or medium exercise level, focusing on breathing with deep attention and being carried out with awareness of movements (La Forge, 2005). ...
Article
Full-text available
The aim of this study was to examine the effects of online exercises on mindfulness, mental well-being and body image of adult females. A total of 33 people, 15 in the experimental group and 18 in the control group, participated in the study, which was conducted as a pre-test-post-test control group design. The data was collected by the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), developed by Brown and Ryan (2003) and adapted into Turkish by Özyeşil, Arslan, Kesici, and Deniz (2011); the Mental Well-Being Scale (WEMWBS) developed by Warwick and Edinburgh Universities and adapted into Turkish by Keldal (2015); Body Appreciation Scale (BAS) developed by Tylka and WoodBarcalow (2015) and adapted into Turkish by Anlı, Akın, Eker and Özçelik (2015) and Personal Information Form created by the researcher. In the analysis of the data, descriptive statistics, independent sample t-test and paired sample t-test were used. When the findings are examined, a statistically significant difference was found in the mindfulness, mental well-being and body image pre-test-post-test scores of the experimental group. It was determined that this difference was due to the high mean scores of the experimental group. There was no statistically significant difference in the mindfulness, mental well-being and body image pre-test-post-test scores of the control group. As a result; It has been determined that online exercises are effective on adult female's mindfulness, mental well-being and body image.
... Several investigators have theorized that aerobic exercise fosters mindfulness through promotion of a mind-body connection and increased capacity to self-regulate attention (see Salmon et al., 2010). Indeed, cross-sectional studies have reported a significant positive relation between engaging in physical activity and levels of mindfulness (e.g., Kangasniemi et al., 2014;Ulmer et al., 2010), and RCTs have shown that aerobic exercise results in significant improvements in mindfulness (de Bruin et al., 2016;Mothes et al., 2014). Several trials have also reported significant increases in mindfulness following yoga practice (e.g., Hewett et al., 2011), including in individuals with elevated depression symptoms (e.g., Falsafi, 2016;Uebelacker et al., 2010). ...
Article
Full-text available
The current study presents a randomized controlled 8-week trial of Bikram yoga, aerobic exercise, and wait-list in a sample of women with major depression.
... Mothes et al. [44] used a 12-week aerobic exercise intervention and found that regular aerobic exercise increased mindfulness in 149 healthy middle-aged men, while showing a positive impact on mental health. Similarly, a correlational study discovered that individuals who worked out more consistently demonstrated higher mindfulness and acceptance in 266 members of the YMCA [45]. In contrast, another correlational study found no significant association between aerobic exercise and mindfulness [46]. ...
Article
Full-text available
College students faced unique challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic. Implementing a physical activity intervention can help support the physical and mental health of college students. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of an aerobic–strength training exercise intervention (WeActive) and a mindful exercise intervention (WeMindful) in improving resilience and mindfulness among college students. Seventy-two students from a major public university in the Midwest participated in a two-arm experimental study over the course of ten weeks. One week before and after the 8-week interventions, participants completed the Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ-15), Connor Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC-10), and demographic and background questionnaire via Qualtrics. Both groups also participated in bi-weekly Peer Coaching sessions, which utilized reflective journaling and goal-setting exercises. ANCOVA showed a significant main effect of time for total mindfulness score (F = 5.177, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.070), mindfulness Acting with Awareness (F = 7.321, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.096), and mindfulness Non-Judging of Inner Experience (F = 5.467, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.073). No significant main effect of group and interaction effects of time with group were observed for the total mindfulness and the five facets of mindfulness as well as resilience. In addition, no significant main effect of time for resilience was found. We conclude that aerobic–strength exercises and mindful yoga exercises, together with reflective journaling, may be effective in increasing mindfulness in the college population.
Article
Full-text available
The purpose of this study was to obtain information on negative experiences, levels of inhibition, and participation in sports based on the demographics of Indonesian junior high schools and the functional relationship between the three. The research method used is descriptive quantitative and correlational design with the design of the test using the discrepancy model. The sample consists of 1690 junior high schools in Indonesia. Data were analyzed using three techniques: one route re-route, two-reroute check and correlation analysis. Research shows that: 1) bad experiences exceed the established low tolerance threshold; 2) the drag level does not exceed the specified low tolerance limit; 3) training participation does not meet well defined criteria; and 4) correlation analysis concluded that there is a fairly strong positive correlation between experience and barriers to exercising. When bad experiences are high, sports problems are high. While the relationship between bad experiences with physical activity and the relationship between sports barriers and physical activity also correlates, the relationship is negative. These results indicate that the three variables influence each other. When the level of bad experience is low, the training barriers will also be low, so that it will affect the level of training participation.
Article
Full-text available
In a first experiment, subjects verbalizing the stream of consciousness for a 5-min period were asked to try not to think of a white bear, but to ring a bell in case they did. As indicated both by mentions and by bell rings, they were unable to suppress the thought as instructed. On being asked after this suppression task to think about the white bear for a 5-min period, these subjects showed significantly more tokens of thought about the bear than did subjects who were asked to think about a white bear from the outset. These observations suggest that attempted thought suppression has paradoxical effects as a self-control strategy, perhaps even producing the very obsession or preoccupation that it is directed against. A second experiment replicated these findings and showed that subjects given a specific thought to use as a distracter during suppression were less likely to exhibit later preoccupation with the thought to be suppressed.
Article
Full-text available
Acceptance approaches, which have been receiving increased attention within behavior therapy, seek to undermine the linkage between private events and overt behavior, rather than attempting to control the form or frequency of private events per se. Research comparing control versus acceptance strategies is limited. The present study examined the behavioral and subjective impact of a control-based versus acceptance rationale, using a cold pressor task. Subjects in the acceptance group demonstrated greater tolerance of pain compared to the control-based and placebo groups. Only the control-based rationale targeted the subjective experience of pain but it did not differ across rationales. Results confirmed that acceptance was effective in manipulating the believability of reason giving, a key process measure. By encouraging individuals to distance themselves from their private events, acceptance methods may help reduce the use of emotional reasons to explain behavior and hence shift concern from moderating thoughts and feelings to experiencing the consequences of one's action. Acceptance is a promising new technique. Its effect is all the more surprising given that it teaches principles (e.g., "thoughts do not cause behavior") that run counter both to the popular culture and to the dominant approaches within empirical clinical intervention.
Article
Full-text available
Acceptance approaches , which have been receiving increased attention within behavior therapy, seek to undermine the linkage between private events and overt behavior, rather than attempting to control the form or frequency of private events per se. Research comparing control versus acceptance strategies is limited. The present study examined the behavioral and subjective impact of a control-based versus acceptance rationale, using a cold pressor task. Subjects in the acceptance group demonstrated greater tolerance of pain compared to the control-based and placebo groups. Only the control-based rationale targeted the subjective experience of pain but it did not differ across rationales. Results confirmed that acceptance was effective in manipulating the believability of reason giving, a key process measure. By encouraging individuals to distance themselves from their private events, acceptance methods may help reduce the use of emotional reasons to explain behavior and hence shift concern from moderating thoughts and fee lings to experiencing the consequences of one's action. Acceptance is a promising new technique. Its effect is all the more surprising given that it teaches principles (e.g., "thoughts do not cause behavior") that run counter both to the popular culture and to the dominant approaches within empirical clinical intervention.
Article
Full-text available
The present study describes the development of a short, general measure of experiential avoidance, based on a specific theoretical approach to this process. A theoretically driven iterative exploratory analysis using structural equation modeling on data from a clinical sample yielded a single factor comprising 9 items, A fully confirmatory factor analysis upheld this same 9-item factor in an independent clinical sample. The operational characteristics of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAO) were then examined in 8 additional samples. All totaled, over 2,400
Article
We reviewed and summarize the extant literature on associative/dissociative cognitive strategies used by athletes and others in circumstances necessitating periods of sustained attention. This review covers studies published since a prior publication by Masters and Ogles (1998), and, in keeping with their approach, offers a methodological critique of the literature. We conclude that the distinction between associative and dissociative strategies has outlived its usefulness since initially proposed in an earlier era of ground-breaking research by Morgan and Pollock (1977) that was influenced to some extent by psychodynamic thinking. In recent years there has been an evolutionary shift in concepts of sustained attention toward mindfulness-moment-by-moment attention-that has had a significant impact on conceptual models and clinical practice in diverse areas including stress management, psychotherapy, and athletic performance. We propose that future research on cognitive activity in sustained performance settings be embedded in a mindfulness-based conceptual model.
Book
Human beings use language to shape their world: to structure it and give it meaning. Language builds our skyscrapers, imparts the strength to our steel, creates the elegance of our mathematics, and forms our art’s depiction of beauty. Language has been the source of so much human achievement that it is only natural that we look to it first to identify a problem and craft a solution. But it is precisely because language can be so useful that it can also be problematic. Language not only enables human achievements, but also our ability to project fearsome futures, to compare ourselves to unrealistic ideals and find ourselves wanting, or to torment our souls with the finitude of life itself. Language is at the core of the remarkable human tendency to suffer in the midst of plenty.